1SSN: 0128-7680

PertanikaJ. Sci. & Techno!. 3(1):12:\-139(1995) Universiti Pertanian Malaysia Press

Stability of Embankments on Soft Ground -

Lessons from Failures

Bujang B.K. Huat

Faculty ojEng;i.neering
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak, Malaysia

Received 4 February 1994

ABSTRAK
Beberapa benteng yang dibina di atas tanah liat lembut runtuh sewaktu pembi-
naan sebuah projek lebuh raya utama di Malaysia. Tiga daripada benteng tersebut
dianalisis semula berdasarkan geometri benteng sebelum keruntuhan berlaku.
Kekuatan ram ricih di situ tanah diguna dalam analisis sewaktu keruntuhan.
Prestasi tanah dalam bentuk anjakan tegak dan mengufuk, dan respons
piezometer sewaktu keruntuhan diperihalkan.

ABSTRACT
A number of embankments founded on soft clays have become unstable during
construction of a major highway project in Malaysia. Three of the embankments
were back analysed based on their geometries before the failure. Measured in
situ vane shear strengths were used in total stress analyses to determine the fac-
tor of safety at failure. Performances of the soft clay foundation with regards to
vertical and horizontal displacements, and piezometric response, when the failure
was imminent were also described.

Keywords: embankment, failure, soft clay

INTRODUCTION
Extensive deposits of low strength, compressible soils are found worldwide,
and the difficulties of supporting loads on such foundations have been widely
reported. In Malaysia, Quaternary erosion accentuated by climatic and sea
level changes has produced widespread, thick deposits of soft clays in the
coastal areas and major river valleys, varying from 5 m to 30 m in thickness.
Reviews of the basic and engineering properties of some of these deposits
have been published by Ting et al. (1987) and Abdullah & Chandra (1987).
Roads founded on the soft deposits often have to be raised on high embank-
ments, giving rise to problems of instability during construction, and long-
term, persistent settlement subsequently.
This paper presents the findings of back analysis of three embankment
failures on soft ground. The aim is to establish whether:
a] conventional total stress stability analysis is sufficient for routine calcula-
tions, and
 Bujang B.K. Buat

b] field instrumentation such as settlement gauges, inclinometer and

piezometer may be used for control of field construction

SITE AND HISTORY OF THE FAILED EMBANKMENTS

All three embankments (designated Embankment 1,2 and 3) were part ofa
recently constructed highway in northern Peninsular Malaysia
Fig. lea), l(b) and l(e) show plan, profile and instrumentation of the
failed embankment sections and their vicinity. All these embankments were
instrumented with settlement markers. Additional instrumentation in the
form of piezometers and inclinometers was also incorporated in one of the
embankments (embankment 3).
Fig. 1(a) shows location of Embankment 1. It lies north of an expressway
bridge, located in the area of an oil palm plantation. The embankment was
to be built on untreated soft clay foundation to a height of about 5 m with a
side slope of 2 horizontal to 1 vertical. Tension crack was discovered at the
left-hand side of the embankment by mid:July 1992, i.e. on Day 155 from
start of filling. This was discovered as the final fill layer was being placed.
The height of fill above original ground level was then about 4.6 m. On the
following day the crack opened wider with more new cracks developing. On
Day 158 about 1 m fill was removed and counterberm was constructed on the
left-hand side to prevent complete collapse of the embankment.

_ . _ _ .~il_pa~_.

Settlement markers

Embankment I
r---!

Bridge TE 6

om~ ---,,' -~------- -,I

-5m~
i o 20 40 horizontal
O~ vertical

Fig. l(a). Plan nnd flrofilr oJl'lnbrmkmPIII I

124 Pertanika.J. Sci. & Techno!. Vol. 3 No.1, 1995

 Stability of Embankments on Soft Ground - Lessons h'om Failures

Fig. 1 (b) shows location of Embankment 2 and its vicinity. The failed
embankment lies just north of an existing water canal. Beneath the embank-
ment vertical drains were installed to the full depth of the clay foundation
(13 m) at a triangular grid spacing of 1.2 m centre to centre. Construction
of the embankment commenced with placement of geotextile separator
layer and 400 mm thick sand blanket in February 1992, followed by installa-
tion of the drain in May 1992. The earth filling was commenced by mid~June
1992 and was almost to the final level when the failure occurred at the end
of October 1992, i.e. on Day 220 (Day 0 being placement of sand blanket).
The fill thickness was then about 3.6 m above original ground level.

Settlement markers

I' Errbonkment 2 'I

I I
[omt ====~
5m - - -----
Om --~_ -' - --- -;, .--t'\/'-\,_- ---- -- - --,---- ---

Scale'
o20 40 horizontal
O~ vertical

Fig. 1(b). Plan anrltnojile ojembankment 2

The location of Embankment 3 is shown in Fig. 1 (c). This embankment

transversed an area of rubber and oil palm estate. It was to be built to about
3.2 m height above original ground level, inclusive of a 1.5 m surcharge. Site
clearing was commenced in early January 1992 followed by placement of
geotextile separator layer with 400 mm thick sand blanket. Earth filling was
commenced in early March 1992 and was completed to final level by mid~uly
1992 (i.e. on Day 140). Five days later (Day 145) the embankment collapsed
without prior sighting of any tension crack. It was reported that during con-
struction the embankment was used as part of a haulage road for trans-
portation of earth, piles and other construction materials from an existing

PertanikaJ. Sci. & Techno!. Va!. :I No.1, 1995 125

 Bujang B. K. Hllal

Oil palm
_Foiled area /

-=bank~rn 3 ''-/ . __

Settlement markers
Pleza~ter
I Inclina~ter

r---Embarl<~nt 3

S<xlle:
~ horizontal
O~ vertical

Fig. J (t). Plan and fnoJile a/embankment 3

main road to nearby sections. It is also of interest to note that in all the cases
cited, no period of exceptional weather conditions, such as heavy rainfall, was
reported prior to the embankment failure.

SOIL PROFILES AND PROPERTIES

Fig. 2(a), 2(b) & 2(c) show subsoil profiles of each of the embankments as
obtained from the site investigation carried out during the design stage. In
general they comprise soft silty clays of 7 m - 13 m thickness, underlain by a
layer of loose to medium dense sand. The liquid limits of the soft clays vary
from 50% - 120% with natural water content clsoe to the liquid limit, and
plasticity indices in the range of 30% - 80%. Undrained strengths obtained
from the vane test show a general trend of strength (Sll) increase below a
weathered upper crust which varies from 1 m - 1.5 m in thickness (Fig. 3),
with SU/0 c ratio in the range of 0.3 - 0.4. The clays are shown to be moderately
sensitive, with sensitivity ratios in the range of 3 - 12. Results obtained from
the oedometer tests indicated that the clays are slightly over-consolidated but
highly compressible. This apparent over-consolidation of the clay is believed
to be due to that of the weathered crust. The values of Cv are typically low,
ranging from 1 - 10m2/yr.

126 PertanikaJ. Sci. & Techno!. Vol. 3 No.1, 1995

Stability of Embankments on Soft Ground - Lessons from Failures

,_Foiled_aeo
Emb I

------- ,
o

10m
7/~
Loose silly sond - ,~;y~
Dense clayey sand / //

>~ "/./
F//" -/
SO~~y/ /cloy' //~~
/ lif(
/ , ' '.
- -
/ '// ---~-
Meel. dense 5 / C!2::> . . _-=_
.7/

Fig, 2(a), Subsoil profile o/embrmlullent J

Foiled area
~,
;

tiff clay

20m

Fig 2 (b) , SII!J"'iljlrojile of elllbankrneni 2

!'C Foiled orea

Emb.3
I

Loose 10 med. dense sand

Fig, 2(r), Subsoil Profile of fln!Jauklllent 3

PertanikaJ Sci. & Techno!' Va!. 3 No, I, 1995 127

 Fig. 3. AVf)"agp vane sll"mgths

INVESTIGATION OF FAILURE
Soon after the failure, attempts were made to obtain sufficient geotechnical
data at each of the distressed embankments to enable analyses of the failure
to be carried out.
For this purpose, the following were done:
a) Survey was carried out to map the collapsed section of the embankment
to determine the probable mode of failure.
b) Additional soil strength measurements were made. These were in the
form of consolidated isotropic undrained triaxial tests on undisturbed
samples recovered, using Mazier sampler, from the embankment fill. For
the clay foundation, additional soil strengths were measured in situ by
means of field vanes at locations beneath the embankment centre, at toe
and at some distance forward of the toe. According to Brand and
Krasaesin (1971), the field vane is the most reliable method for deter-
mining undrained shear strength of a soft, reasonably sensitive clay.

ANALYSES OF THE FAILURE

Mode offailure
Cross-sections of the embankment surveyed after the failure are shown in

12R PertanikaJ. Sci. & Techno!. Vol. 3 No.1, 1995

 Stability of Embankments on Soft Cronnd - Lessons from Failures

30m

Fig. 4((1). Cross-sP,/iO!1 o!I'III!)({!1!wlI'n/1

6
LHS RHS
5 PVS 2 I
PVS I 4 I
~--~~--~-~-----------+
~--------O+"---"2~1---------,;J1(\-------~------,5~---------
PVS - Post failure vane test

Fig. 4(1J). Cross-sP('tiO!1 o! PIJI!HlnkIJlP!1/ 2

PVS 6

PVS I
IpvS 3 PVS 4
2~

5m
4m ~

3m
2m
", ,
1m
Om
20m 10m Om 10m 20m 30m 40m
PVS - Post-failure vane test

Fig. 4(a). Cross-sec/ion of embllnkml'l1/ 3

Fig. 4 (a), 4(b) and 4(c). For comparison purposes, designed cross-sections of
the embankment are superimposed. In all cases, failure of the embankment
was characterized by wide open cracks through embankment fill with a sig-
nificant heave at the embankment toe. This indicated that the mode of the
embankment failure has been that of a rotational slip.
In the case of embankment 1, the cracks extend over a longitudinal dis-
tance of 80 m. A 0.25 m differential settlement was measured between the

PertanikaJ. Sci. & Techno!. Vo!. ~ No. I, 1995 129

 Bujang B.K Huat

failed and intact portions of the embankment. The toe heave extends over
a distance of 7 m from the embankment toe.
In the case of embankment 2, the cracks extend over a longitudinal dis-
tance of 110 m. Movement of the ground beyond the embankment toe was
in evidence over a distance of about 5 m.
In embankment 3, the failure stretched over a distance of 140 m. A crack
about 400 mm wide (at surface) appeared about 4.0 m away from the cen-
treline, with about 1 m differential settlement across the crack. A 1.26 m
high heave was observed at the embankment toe, and the width of this
upheaval was about 20.5 m.

SOIL STRENGTH PARAMETERS

Additional soil strength measurements were made after the failures. These
were in the form of isotropic undrained trial (CIU) test on undisturbed sam-
ples of the fill material of each of the three embankment sections. The
results of the CIU tests, general descriptions and index properties of the
embankment fill are summarized in Table 1. The fills are of sandy, silty clay
with greater than 60% of the material in the silt-clay range. The plasticity
indices are low, in the range of 17% to 23%. Shear strength parameters are
C'= 17 - 42 KPa, and 0' = 23 - 27.

TABLE 1
Description and properties of embankment fill

Embankment 1
Soil Description
Atterberg's Limit
Sieve Analysis
Max. Dry Density
Strength Parameters (CIU):
Dark grey sandy silty clay
WI. = 35% Wp = 17% PI = 18%
Gravel 25% Sand 7% Silt and Clay 68%
1.95 Mg/m 3 OMC = 12%
C' = 17 kPa 0' = 27

Embankment 2
Soil Description
Atterberg's Limit
Max. Dry Density
Strength Parameters (CIU):
Brownish yellow silty clay
WI. = 41% Wp = 18% PI 23%
2.13 Mg/m:~ OMC = 13.5%
C' = 42 kPa 0' = 26

Embankment 3
Soil Description
Atterberg's Limit
Sieve Analysis
Max. Dry Density
Strength Parameters (CIU):
Reddish sandy clay
WI. = 42% Wp = 25% PI = 17%
Gravel 8% Sand 23% Silt and Clay 69%
2.07 Mg/m 3 OMC = 10.2%
C' = 25 kPa 0' = 23

1::10 PenanikaJ. Sci. & Technol. Vol.::I '0. 1, 1995

 Stability of Embankments on Soft Ground - Lessons from Failures

Vane strength ( kPa)

o5 ~ 15 2() ~_3~ 3p 40 4,5 50

-PVS 1-15 m from

2 tae
XPVS2-toe

"PVS 3- centre
4
_ . - prefailure strenqlh (average)
- - - prefailure strength (corrected)
\
6 \
\
\
-E 8 \
\
.c
Ci.
Q)
\
0 \
10
\
\
\
12
\

14

Fig. 5. Postfailure vane strengths of emban!onenl 2

Post failure in situ vane shear tests were also carried out for embank-
ments 2 and 3. Positions of the vane tests are shown in Fig. 4(b) and 4(c). For
embankment 2, the vane measurements were carried out at a location close
to the embankment centre, at toe and at a location about 15 m beyond the
toe, about 1 month after the failure. The data obtained are presented in Fig.
5. Superimposed also on the figure are the average vane strengths of the ini-
tial (pre-failure) investigation (see also Fig. 3).
It is of interest to note that there appears to be no significant gain in
shear strengths at locations beneath the embankment centre after construc-
tion. Note that at this particular embankment section prefabricated vertical
drains were installed. There also appears to be no significant difference in
undrained strength beneath the embankment centre compared with that at
locations at the embankment toe, and away from the toe.
Fig. 6 shows the post-failure vane strengths of embankment 3. These
measurements were carried out in November 1992, three months after the
failure. As in the case of embankment 2, there appears to be minimal
strength gain when the post and prefailure vane strengths are compared. It
may therefore be concluded that the failure of both embankments 2 and 3
(and embankments 1) occurred essentially under undrained conditions. A

PertanikaJ. Sci. & Techno!. Vo!. ~ No.1, 1995 1~1

 BlIjang B.K. HlI<ll

Vane strength (kPa)

20~ _ _30~ 40-,,--_ _5~O_ _

..
O;-_ _I-i.0

E
.s:: 8
a.
c3
10 ~ PVS 1- toe
PVS 2 - centre
~ PVS 3 - toe
12 ,'> PVS 4 -20m from toe
.. PVS 5 - centre
o PVS 6 - toe
14 - -
prefailure vane strength
(average )
___ prefailure vane strength
{ corrected)

Fig. 6. Postjailufr lIanr shenK/I! oj embankment 3

total stress (0 n = 0) analysis can therefore be applied. Wolski el al. (1989)

have suggested that for a single-stage embankment construction on soft clay,
the formation can be considered as practically undrained. All these embank-
ments were essentially constructed in a single stage.

Rotalional Slij)
In the total stress analysis the proportion of undrained shear strength, SIP
mobilized at a point on a given surface of rotation, where the safety factor is
F, is:

1m
F

and, for the whole surface:

F
L1:I1lL

Pertanika.J. Sci. & Technol. Vol. 3 No.1, J995

 Stability of Embankments on Soft Ground - Lessons ii'om Failures

V\Then Bishop simplified method of slices is used for the integration around
the circuluar arc, this becomes:

F
L, W Sin ~
where L is the length of the arc of the slice, W is the weight of the slice and
~ is the angle the normal surface makes to the vertical of rotation,
The above analysis is used for calculating factor of safety of the embank-
ment at failure. The properties of the fill are accounted for with values
obtained from the CIU tests summarized in Table I. Neglect of the embank-
ment strength as suggested by Bjerrum (1973) would be too conservative. It
can also be argued that tension crack is a consequence, not the cause of failure.
There is evidence from good case histories of embankment failures on soft
clays that compacted cohesive fill tends to playa part in resisting failure
(Balasubramaniam et al. 1989; Brand & Premchitt, 1989).
For the clay foundation, the average vane strengths shown in Fig. 3 are
used as input parameters. These were corrected with Bjerrum's (1973) cor-
rection factors for the effect of anisotropy and shear rate. As shown in Fig. 7,

20
~
~
L>

1,5
(;,

L>(;,~
0

-----: (;,

.
~6
(;,
00
'6 \0
,.., 66

(;, I

~( ~
lJ..
o
.
05

"'" ~
10 ,- --

~
1'--
~ 08
~
~ I'--
c: t--
f-
.2 06 f---
o
...eo
l>
20 40 60 80 100 120
Plasticity Index (%)
Fig. 7. Relationship between [(llmlated factor of safety and ji/astirily
index for embankment Ftilures, and deduced comxtion factors
for measured vane strengths (Bjenum 1973)

PertanikaJ. Sci. & Techno1. Vol. 3 No.1, 1995 L~3

 Bujang B.K. Huat

for plasticity index of 30 - 80%, the correction factor applied is between 0.7
- 0.9. It is of interest to note that the corrected average vane strength of the
clay lies close to the lower bound of the field data (See Fig. 5, 6). ote also
that for embankment 3 surcharge loading of the traffic is accounted for, esti-
mated in the order of 10 kN/m 2 . The results of the calculation are summa-
rized in Table 2.

TABLE 2
Factor of safety of embankment at failure

Fill height Fill strength

Embankment above OGL (m) C' (kPa) Factor of safety
0' (deg)

1 4.6 17,27 0.91

2. 3.6 42,26 1.04

3 3.2 25,23 1.03

The factors of safety of the embankment at failure are essentially equal

to unity. This indicated that given representative strength parameters have
been obtained for both fill and foundation, the total stress analysis is suffi-
cient for short-term failures of embankment on soft clays, i. e. till end of con-
struction time. It has been suggested that the total stress analysis offers an
unambiguous way of estimating stability (Pilot 1972; Brand, 1983; Wolski et
al. 1989).

OBSERVED BEHAVIOUR OF EMBANKMENT AT THE

ONSET OF FAILURE

Rate of Settlement
Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 show construction histories and settlements of embankment
2 and embankment 3 respectively. In both cases there was a dramatic
increase in settlement rate just prior to the failure.

Lateral Deformation
Only embankment 3 was installed with an inclinometer and three piezo-
meters in addition to the settlement markers. Fig. 10 shows plot of maximum
lateral displacement (t.. y) versus centreline settlement (t.. S) of the embank-
ment. It is of interest to note that when the fill was low, i.e. for fill thickness
of less than I m, the t.. y/ t.. S relation is small with t.. y == 0.29 t.. S. But at the
onset of the failure, t.. y increases significantly; from approximately equal to
t.. S to almost 3 times t.. S.

134 Pertanikaj. Sci. & Techno!. Vo!. 3 No.1, 1995

 Stahilil'- of Embankmenls on Soft GroUllrl- Lessons from Failures

5 I
lFailur
--
~-~~
y '>.
4

E
I
JI I

1: 3 i I
01
.~
1 I
r
.r::.
,
i:L 2
~
I r
~ IT
o o I 100 200 300 400 500
Time (days)

o
~f'-. ,

-02 ~
~
I
i - - f--- - . . . - - 1-.-

-0-4 ----- t - - - - ~
I--- -------- 1---

E -0-6 f - - - - f - - - - - - . - - - - - _...
i ,
'\1
i
4J
~
1---

-"
I

i
i
-1
.. _-+ \
\

t'
I

+-
Q)
(J)
i
I +- \....-
--
I
\
\.
I

o 100 200 I 300 400 500

Failure
Time (days)

Fig. 8_ Construction histmy and settlement of embankment 2

l'ertanikaJ. Sci. & Techno!. Vo!. 3 No. I, 1995 135

 Bujang B.K. Huat

32
28
2nd pause
E 24
+- 20
L:.
01
'iii
L:.
16
1st
G: poose
12

08 o SI
+ S2
04
oS3
0
0 180

-0-4 ~ ~
..........
~
~~
rxf'oo-D

E-0'8
+-
c
E -12
Q)
l .....

+-
+-
~ -\6
oS I
-20 +S2
oS3
-2,4

o I 20 I 40 I 60 I 80 1 100 1 120 1 140 f160 I 180

Time (days )

Fig. 9. Cons/Hu:/ion his/OJ)" ({nd settlement ofem/;rl11kmen/ 3

1'\6 PertanikaJ. Sci. & Techno!. Vol. '\ No. 1,199:)

 Stability of Embankments on Soft Ground - Lessons from Failures

1000,--,-----------------

~ 800
U)
c
o
~ 600
L-

~
"U

o
400 t::.y = 275 t::.S
L-

....ev
Q
x 200
o
~

o 400 600 800 1000 1200

t::.y =0,29 t::.s Settlements (mm)

Fig. 10. Max lateml de/ormations - centreline settlements oj' emullnkllumt 3

Piezomelric Response
The variation of excess pore water pressure (~ u) with time of embankment
3 is shown in Ji'ig. 11, while Fig. 12 shows plot of ~ u with applied vertical
stress , ~ (jv.
For low fill (less than 1 m), the piezometric response of the clay founda-
tion is low; ~ u = 0.44 ~ (jv' The increase in the pore water pressure then
becomes approximately equal to the applied vertical stress. However, on the
onset of failure, the piezometric response is large; ~ u ~ (jv' This is probably
due to the following scenario. Prior to collapse of the embankment, local
failures may have been initiated in the subsoil beneath the embankment.
This results in strain softening, hence an increase in total horizontal stresses
and pore water pressures. Therefore, prior to the failure one should expect
~ u > ~ (jv' and this is shown in the pore pressure plot in Fig. 12. A similar
observation of ~ u > ~ (jv' at failure has also been made by D'Appolonia et
al. (1971), and Davies and Parry (1985).

CONCLUSION
Provided adequate information has been obtained on the strengths of both
fill and soft clays, the total stress approach can be used for design of embank-
ment on soft ground. Failure of the embankment occurred essentially at fac-
tor of safety equals unity, based on stability analysis with vane readings cor-
rected with Bjerrum's factor.

Pertanika J. Sci. & Techno!' Vo!. 3 No.1, 1995 137

 Blljang B.K. Huat

~IOO Failure

2nd pause ~'t--~

~ 20
Ql
U
)(
W
Ol--.J.fu==--F'''-------j------------------j
op II +P12 0 PI3

o 20 I 40 I 60 I sO 1100 1120 I 140 I 160 Is;)

Time (days)

Fig. II.Exress flore water fm'ssurp oj emhanlnnent 3

- ~u=1
B=-
MJv

8=222
VI
VI
~ 20
)(

w
Of--=.J~~""""''I-------+---------iI

+P12 +P13

o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Applied vertical stress ( kPo)

Fig. 12. Pom pressure ratio (B = L::,.u/dITv) oj emhanlmwnt 3

138 PertanikaJ. Sci. & Techno!' Vo!. 3 No.1, 1995

 Stability of Embankments on Soft Ground - Lessons from Failures

For cases of compacted cohesive fill, the strength properties of the fill
should be accounted for in the stability analysis. The corrected average vane
strengths of the soft clay generally lie close to the lower bound any of the
field data.
Failure of the embankment is preceded by soft response of the founda-
tion with regards to generation of excess pore water pressures, settlement
and lateral deformations.

REFERENCES
ABI)LlUAH, A.M.L.B. and S. CJ IANDRA. 1987. Engineering properties of coastal subsoils in
peninsular Malaysia. In Proceedings 9th South East Asian Geotechnical Conference,
Bangkok. p. 5.127-5.138.
Br\L\SUBRAMA:-.!IAM, A.S., N. PIIJEN-WEj, B. INDRARATNA and D.T. BERGADO. 1989. Predicted
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~JERRU~I,L. 1973. Problems of soil mechanics and consu'uetions for soft clays. In
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BR.,\:-.!D. E.W. 1983, Discussion of effective su'ess analysis of the stability of em bankment on
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BRAND, E.W. and P, KR,\SAESIN. 1971. Investigation of an embankment failure in soft clay.
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TINe. W.H., T.F. WO':'-lG and C.T. TOl'1. 1987. Design parameters for soft ground in
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PertanikaJ. Sci. & Techno!. Vo!. 3 No.1, 1995 139