1.

0 Process equipment

a). Boiler

A boiler is water containing vessel which transfers heat from a fuel source (oil, gas,
coal) into steam which is piped to a point where it can be used to run production equipment,
to sterilize, provide heat, to steam-clean, etc. The energy given up by the steam is sufficient to
convert it back into the form of water. When 100% of the steam produced is returned to be
reused, the system is called a closed system. Examples of closed systems are closed steam
heating, hot water heating, and "one-pipe" systems. Since some processes can contaminate
the steam, so it is not always desirable to feed the condensate back into the boiler. A system
that does not return the condensate is called an open system.

The two main types of boilers are:

Fire tube - the fire or hot gases are directed through the inside of tubes within the
boiler shell, which are surrounded by water. The tubes are arranged in banks so that
the gases can be passed through the boiler up to 4 times before passing out the stack.
This system exposes the maximum heat transfer surface to the water. Fire tube boilers
are also known as shell boilers and can produce up to approximately 750 hp or 25,000
lbs of steam per hour. 80% of boilers in use are of this configuration.

A subtype of this boiler is the packaged boiler, shipped complete with fuel burning
equipment, mechanical draft equipment, automatic controls and accessories and is
designed to function automatically with a very minimum of attention. It is particularly
important to prevent scale formation in this type of boiler.

Water tube - the fire or hot gases are directed to and around the outside of tubes
containing water, arranged in a vertical position. Water tube boilers are usually
rectangular in shape and have two or more drums. The separation of steam and water
takes place in the top drum, while the bottom drum serves as a collection point for
sludge. This system is usually used when more than 750 hp or several hundred
thousand lbs of steam per hour, are needed.

There are other designs with special configurations, adapting them to particular
applications.
 Figure 1 Boiler

b). Continuous Reactor

Continuous reactors carry material as a flowing stream. Reactants are continuously

fed into the reactor and emerge as continuous stream of product. Continuous reactor has the
rate of many chemical reactions is dependent on reactant concentration. Continuous reactors
are generally able to cope with much higher reactant concentrations due to superior heat
transfer capacities. Plug flow reactors have the additional advantage of greater separation
between reactants and products giving a better concentration. The small size of contains
reactors makes higher mixing rates possible. However, the output from a continuous reactor
can be altered by varying the run time. This increases operating flexibility for manufactures.

Continuous reactors are open system, where material is free to enter or exit the system
that operates on a steady state basis, where the conditions in the reactor do not change with
time. Reactants are continuously introduced into the reactor, while products are continuously
removed. Continuous reactors are well mixed, the contents have relatively uniform properties
such as temperature, density, pressure, etc. However, conditions in the reactors exit stream
are the same as inside the tank.
 Hence, continuous reactor functions as a loop reactor when a heated, pressurized fluid
is injected into the system to facilitate the stirring. This allows for higher heat and mass
transfer rates while simplifying maintenance because there is no agitator.

Figure 2 Continuous reactor

c). Continuous condenser

Condensation is the process of reduction of matter into a denser form, as in the

liquefaction of vapor or steam. Condensation is the result of the reduction of temperature by
the removal of the latent heat of evaporation. The removal of heat shrinks the volume of the
vapor and decreases the velocity of, and the distance between, molecules. The process can
also be thought of as reaction involving the union of atoms in molecules. The process often
leads to the elimination of a simple molecule to form a new compound.

Condensation heat transfer is a vital process in the process and power generation
industries. The existing modes of condensation are filmwise and dropwise. Filmwise is
currently used in industry, while dropwise is an alternative which is under development
because it offers attractive higher rates of heat transfer by preventing the build up of the
insulating liquid layer found in filmwise condensation. All but a few precious metals will in
an untreated state tend to condense filmwise: this is why industrial condensers operate
filmwise. The type of condensation behavior which a metal displays is related to its surface
energy. Materials with a high surface energy condense filmwise while those with a low
surface energy condense dropwise. With suitable promoters or surface treatments, most
metals, including those with high surface energies, can promote dropwise condensation.
 In surface and contact condensers, the vapors can be condensed either by increasing
pressure or extracting heat. In practice, condensers operate through removal of heat from the
vapor. Condensers differ principally in the means of cooling. In surface condensers, the
coolant does not contact the vapors or condensate. In contact condensers, coolant, vapors, and
condensate are intimately mixed. Most surface condensers are of the tube and shell type.
Water flows inside the tubes, and vapors condense on the shell side. Cooling water is
normally chilled, as in a cooling tower, and reused. Air-cooled surface condensers are usually
constructed with extended surface fins. Most vapors condense inside tubes cooled by a falling
curtain of water. The water is cooled by attire circulated through the tube bundle. The bundles
can be mounted directly in a cooling tower or submerged in water. Contact condensers
employ liquid coolants, usually water, which come in direct contact with condensing vapors,
these devices are relatively uncomplicated. Some contact condensers are simple spray
chambers, usually with baffles to ensure adequate contact. Others, incorporate high-velocity
jets designed to produce a vacuum. In comparison to surface condensers, contact condensers
are more flexible, are simple, and considerably less expensive to install. On the other hand,
surface condensers require far less water and produce 10 to 20 times less condensate than
contact type condensers.

Some general facts about condenser operation should be noted:

Any saturated vapor can be condensed by a direct spray of cold water under correct
temperature and pressure. If sufficient contact is provided, coolant and vapor will
reach an equilibrium temperature. The condensate created by the water should not be
objectionable in its liquid form.
Pure vapor or substantially pure vapor can be considered condensed isothermally, and
during the condensate range the latent heat of condensation is uniform.

Figure 4 Common condenser

Figure 3 Shell and tube condenser
configurations
d). Settling tank

Settling tank is a process by which particulates settle to the bottom of a liquid and
form sediment. Particles experience a force, either due to gravity or due to centrifugal
motion, which tend to move in a uniform manner in the direction exerted by that force.
Gravity settling is the particles will tend to fall to the bottom of the vessel, forming a slurry at
the vessel base. For dilute particle solutions, two main forces enacting upon part. Primary
force is an applied force, such as gravity and a drag force that is due to the motion of the
particle through the fluid. The applied force is a function of the particle velocity.

The optimum settling tanks, plain settling tanks can accomplish sludge removal either
continuously or intermittently. As influent enters the tank, it is slowed and distributed evenly
across the width and depth of the unit. After a detention time of from 1 to 3 (2 hours average),
wastewater passes through the unit, and leaves over the effluent weir. The settled sludge is
removed for further processing. In continuous operation, which may produce sludge with
solids percentages of less than 2 to 3%, the sludge may require further dewatering processes
to remove excess water. In intermittent sludge removal, the sludge should settle long enough
to obtain 4 to 8% solids, but should be removed frequently enough that clumps of solids do
not rise to the surface.

Figure 5 Settling tanks

e). Evaporator

Evaporation is to remove much water as possible in product. It can be done using

electricity or steam that depends on the most readily available source. However, evaporation
is to ensure product flows in the tube of the evaporator efficiently, which to prevent any
blocked product that will cause fouling. Hence, evaporation plants are used as a thermal
separation technology, for the concentration or separation of liquid solutions, suspensions ans
emulsions. A liquid concentration that can still be pumped is generally the desired final
product. Evaporation may however aim at separating the volatile constituents, or distillate, as
would be the case in a solvent separation system. During these processes, it is usual that
product qualities are maintained and preserved.

Vertical shell and tube heat exchanger, with laterally or concentrically arranged
centrifugal separator. Operation for evaporator is the liquid to be concentrated is supplied to
the top of the heating tubes and distributed in such a way as to flow down the inside of the
tube walls as a thin film. The liquid film starts to boil due to the external heating of the tubes
and is partially evaporated. The downward flow, caused initially by gravity, is enhanced by
the parallel, downward flow of the vapour formed. Residual film liquid and vapour is
separated in the lower part of the calandria and in the downstream centrifugal droplet
separator. It is essential that the entire film heating surface, especially in the lower regions, be
evenly and sufficiently wetted with liquid. Where this is not the case, dry spots will result that
will lead to incrustation and the build-up of deposits. For complete wetting it is important that
a suitable distribution system is selected for the head of the evaporator. Wetting rates are
increased by using longer heating tubes, dividing the evaporator into several compartments or
by recirculating the product.

Figure 6 Falling film Evaporator

d). Distillation tower

The design of a distillation column can be divided into the following steps:

1. Specify the degree of separation required: set product specifications.

2. Select the operating conditions: batch or continuous; operating pressure.
3. Select the type of contacting device: plates or packing.
4. Determine the stage and reflux requirements: the number of equilibrium stages
5. Size the column: diameter, number of real stages.
6. Design the column internals: plates, distributors, packing supports
7. Mechanical design: Vessel and internal fittings.

The principle step will be to determine the stage and reflux requirements. This is a
relatively simple procedure when the feed is a binary mixture, but a complex and
difficult task when the feed contains more than two components (multicomponent
system).

CONTINUOUS DISTILLATION: PROCESS DESCRIPTION

The separation of liquid mixtures by distillation depends on differences in volatility between

the components. The greater the relative volatilities, the easier the separation. The basic
equipment required for continuous distillation is shown in Figure 1.1. Vapour flows up the
column and liquid counter-currently down the column. The vapour and liquid are brought
into contact on plates, or packing. Part of the condensate from the condenser is returned to the
top of the column to provide liquid flow above the feed point (reflux), and part of the liquid
from the base of the column is vaporized in the reboiler and returned to provide a vapour
flow.

Figure 6 Distillation column (a) Basic column (b) Multiple feeds and side stream
In the section below the feed, the more volatile components are stripped from the liquid and
this is known as the stripping section. Above the feed, the concentration of the more volatile
components is increased and this is called the enrichment, or more commonly, the rectifying
section. Figure 11.1a shows a column producing two product stream, referred to as tops and
bottoms, from a single feed. Columns are occasionally used with more than one feed, and
with side streams withdrawn at points up the column. Figure 11.1b. This does not alter the
basic operation, but complicates the analysis of the process, to some extent.

If the process is to strip a volatile component from a relatively non-volatile solvent, the
rectifying section may be omitted, and the column would then be called a stripping column.

In some operations, where the top product is required as a vapour, only sufficient liquid is
condensed to provide the reflux flow to the column, and the condenser is referred to as a
partial condenser. When the liquid is totally condensed, the liquid returned to the column will
have the same composition as the top product. In a partial condenser the reflux will be in
equilibrium with the vapour leaving the condenser. Virtually pure top and bottom products
can be obtained in a single column from a binary feed, but where the feed contains more than
two components, only a single pure product can be produced, either from the top or bottom
of the column. Several columns will be needed to separate a multicomponent feed into its
constituent parts.