Revision Notes on Heat Transfer:-

Conduction:- Conduction is that mode of transmission of heat by

which heat travels, through an unequally heated body, from the hot
end to the cold end, from particle to particle, the particles themselves
remaining at their mean positions.

Convection:- It is defined as that mode

of transmission of heat by which heat travels from one part of a body
to another by the actual motion of the heated particles of the body.
Radiation:- It is defined as that mode of transmission of heat in
which heat travels from hot body to cold body in straight lines without
heating the intervening medium.
Power,
Here, is the Stefans constant.

Temperature Gradient:- It is defined as the rate of change of

temperature of different cross-section with distance.
Coefficient of thermal conductivity:-
Rate of flow of heat = dQ/dt
Heat current, through a conducting rod, is defined as the amount of
heat conducted across any cross-section of the rod in one second.
H= dQ/dt
H depends upon following factors:
(a) Area of cross-section of rod: H A
(b) Temperature Gradient: H -d/dx
(c) Nature of the material
So, H = -KA (d/dx)
Here K is called the coefficient of thermal conductivity of the
material of rod. It depends upon the nature of material of rod.
(d) The total heat Q crossing from one cross section to the other in
time t:-
Q = KA(1-2)t/l

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 Or K = Ql/A(1-2)t
Coefficient of thermal conductivity of the material of a rod is defined
as the heat current (amount of heat flowing per second) flowing per
unit area between two cross-section of the rod each of area 1 m2and
separated 1 m apart.
Dimension of K:- [K] = [M1L1T-3K-1]
Unit:- C.G.S- cal cm-1s-1 C-1
S.I Wm-1K-1
Thermal Conductance (h):- It is defined as heat current per unit
temperature difference.
= KA/l
= H/d
Unit- S.I- WK-1
Thermal Resistance (Rh):- Thermal resistance, of a conductor is
defined as the temperature difference between its two cross-sections
when a unit heat current flows through it.
Reciprocal of thermal conductance is known as thermal resistance
of the substance.
Rh= 1/H = l/KA = d/H
Units of Rh:- S.I W-1K
Analogy between electricity and heat:-
H= (1- 2)/(l/KA) = (1- 2)/Rh
Searles Method for K:-
K= m(4- 3)d/A(1- )t
The ratio of thermal and electrical conductivities is the same for
the metals at a particular temperature and is proportional to the
absolute temperature of the metal. If T is the absolute temperature,
then
K/ T or K/ T = constant
Ingen Hausz Experiment:- K1/K2 = l12/ l22
Thermal resistance of a conductor of length d:- RTH = d/KA
Flow of a heat through a composite slab:-
(a)Thermal resistance in series:- Thermal resistance of the
composite slab is equal to the sum of their individual thermal
resistances.
(l1 +l2)/KA = (l1/K1A) + (l2/K2A)
Rcomb = Rh+Rh'
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 If l1=l2=l, then, K = 2K1K2/K1+K2
Temperature of the interface:-
0= [1Rh' + 2Rh]/ [Rh+ Rh'] or 0 = [1K1l2+ 2 K2l1]/ [K1l2+ K2l1]
(b) Thermal resistance in parallel:- Reciprocal of the
combination thermal resistance is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of individual thermal resistances.
1/Rcomb = 1/Rh + 1/Rh
Convection:- It is the mode of transmission of heat, through
fluids, in which the particle of fluids acquire heat from one region and
deliver the same to the other regions by leaving their mean positions
and moving from one point to another.
Radiation:- Radiation is that process of transmission of heat in
which heat travels from one point to another in straight lines, with
velocity of light, without heating the intervening medium.
Bolometer:- If Rt and R0 are the resistances of the conductor at
0C and tC, then, Rt = R0(1+t), Here is the temperature coefficient
of change of resistance with temperature.
Absorptive power (a):- Absorptive power (a) of the substance is
defined as the ratio between amounts of heat absorbed by it to the
total amount of heat incident upon it.
a = Q1/Q
Reflecting Power (r):- Reflecting power (r) of a substance is
defined as the ratio between amount of heat reflected by the
substance to the total amount of heat incident upon it.
r= Q2/Q
Transmitting power (t):- Transmitting power (t) of a substance is
defined as the ratio between amount of heat transmitted by the body
to the total amount of heat incident upon it.
t = Q3/Q
a + r + t = Q1/Q + Q2/Q + Q3/Q = [Q1+ Q2+ Q3]/Q = Q/Q = 1
Radiant emittance (E):- Radiant emittance of a body at a
temperature T is defined as the total amount of energy (for all
wavelengths) radiated per unit time, per unit area by the body.

Unit:- S.I-Jm-2s-1
C.G.S- erg cm-2s-1
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 Energy Density:- Total energy density (U) at any point is defined
as the radiant energy per unit volume, around that point, for wave-
lengths taken together.

Kirchhoffs law of heat radiation:-

It states that at any temperature, the ratio of emissive power e of a

body to its absorptive power a , for a particular wave-length, is
always constant and is equal to the emissive power of perfect black
body for that wavelength.
e/a = Constant = E
This implies the ratio between e and a for any body is a constant
quantity (=E).
Weins Displacement Law:-

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 It states that wavelength of
radiation which is emitted with maximum intensity varies inversely
as the absolute temperature of the body.
mT = Constant
Stefans Law:-
Radiant emittance or the energy radiated per second per unit area
by a perfect black body varies directly as the fourth power of its
absolute temperature.
E = T4
Here is the Stefans constant and its value is 5.73510 -8 Wm-2K-4
Spectral emissive power:-
e= Q/At(d)
Emissivity:- = e/E, 0 1
Rate of loss of heat:- -dQ/dT = A(4- 04)
For spherical objects:- (dQ/dT)1/(dQ/dT)2 = r12/r22
The emissivity of a body is numerically equal to its
absorptive power.
e = a
(a) Emissivity of body determines the radiant emittance of a body.
(b) Emissivity of a perfect body is always one.
(c) Emissivity of any body other than a perfect black body is less
than one.
(d) Emissivity of any body is numerically equal to its absorbing
power.
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 Newtons Law of Colling:- It states that the rate of loss of heat
of a body is directly proportional to the temperature difference
between the body and surroundings.
dQ/dt = -K(T-T0) or (T-T0) e-KT
Weins Radiation Law:- Ed = (A/5) f(T) d = (A/5) e-a/T d
Solar Constant:- S = (RS/RES)2 T4

Solved Examples on Heat Transfer:-

Question 1:-
An idealized representation of the air temperature as a function of
distance from a single-pane window on a calm, winter day is shown in
below figure. The window dimensions are 60 cm 60 cm 0.50
cm. (a) At what rate does heat flow out through the window? (Hint: The
temperature drop across the glass is very small.) (b)Estimate the
difference in temperature between the inner and outer glass surfaces.

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Concept:-
The rate H at which heat is transferred through the slab is,
directly proportional to the area (A) available.
(b) inversely proportional to the thickness of the slab x.
(c) directly proportional to the temperature difference T.
So, H = kA T/ x
Here, k is the proportionality constant and is called thermal conductivity
of the material.
From the equation H = kA T/ x, the temperature difference T will be,
T = H x/kA
The temperature gradient is defined as,
Temperature gradient = T/ x
Solution:-
(a)To find out the rate of heat flows out through the window, first we
have to find out the temperature gradient both inside and outside the
window.
Inside, the temperature gradient T/ x will be,
T/ x = (20 C- 5 C)/8 cm (Since, x = 8 cm)
= ((20 +273)K- (5+273) K)/(8 cm10-2 m/ 1 cm)
= 293 K-278 K/0.08 m
= 187.5 K/m
Rounding off to two significant figures the temperature gradient will be
190 K/m.
Similar result will be occur for also outside.
Area A from which heat will flow from the window will be,
A = (60 cm 60 cm)2
= [(60 cm10-2 m/ 1 cm) (60 cm10-2 m/ 1 cm)]2
= (0.6 m)2
To find out the heat flow H through the air, substitute 0.026 W/m. K for
thermal conductivity k, (0.6 m)2 for Aand 190 C/m for T/ x in the
equation H = kA T/ x,
H = kA T/ x
= (0.026 W/m. K) (0.6 m)2 (190 K/m)
= 1.8 W

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The value that we arrived at is the rate that heat flows through the air
across an area the size of the window on either side of the window.
Therefore the rate of heat flows out through the window would be 1.8 W.
(b) To find out the difference in temperature T between the inner and
outer glass surfaces, substitute 1.8 W for H, 0.50 cm for x, 1.0 W/m. K
for k and (0.6 m) for A in the equation T = H x/kA,
2

T = H x / kA
= (1.8 W) (0.50 cm)/( 1.0 W/m. K)( (0.6 m)2)
= (1.8 W) (0.50 cm10-2 m/1 cm )/( 1.0 W/m. K)( (0.6 m)2)
= 0.025 K
From the above observation we conclude that, the difference in
temperature T between the inner and outer glass surfaces would be
0.025 K.
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_______________

Question 2:-
Two identical rectangular rods of metal are welded end to end as shown
in below figure (a), and 10 J of heat flows through the rods in 2.0 min.
How long would it take for 30 J to flow through the rods if they are
welded as shown in below figure (b).

Concept:-
The rate H at which heat is transferred through the slab is ,
directly proportional to the area (A) available.
(b) inversely proportional to the thickness of the slab x.
(c) directly proportional to the temperature difference T.
So, H = kA T/ x
Here k is the proportionality constant and is called thermal conductivity
of the material.

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Solution:-
As the temperature difference in this case T = Tho Tcol is same for both t d

the case, thus the thermal conductivity will be same for both the cases .
To obtain the rate of heat transfer H for the rectangular rod which are o

connected in series (configuration (a)), substitute 2L for x in the

equation H = kA T/ x, o

H = kA T/ x
o

= kA T/2L
To obtain the rate of heat transfer (H ) for the rectangular rod which areo
'

connected in parallel (configuration (b)), substitute 2A for A in the

equation H = kA T/ x, o

(H ) = kA T/ x
o
'

= k (2A) T/L
So, (H ) o
'
/ Ho = (k (2A) T/L)/ (kA T/2L)
=4
So, (Ho)
'
= 4 Ho

Again also rate of heat transfe r H is defined as,

H = W/t
Here W is the energy and t is the time.
So, time t will be,
t = W/H
To find the rate of heat transfer H for the rectangular rod which are o

connected in series (configuration (a)), substitute 10 J for W and 2 min

for t in the equation t = W/H,
H = W/t
o

= 10 J/ 2 min
= 5 J/min
To find out (H ) , substitute 5 J/min for H in the equation
o
'
o (Ho)' = 4 Ho,
(H ) = 4 Ho
o
'

= 4(5 J/min)
= 20 J/min
Using equation t = W/H, the time t for 30 J to flow through the rods if they
were welded in the figure parallel configuration will be ,
t = W/(Ho)'
To obtain the time t for 30 J to flow through the rods if they were welded
in the figure parallel configuration, substitute 30 J for W and 20 J/min for
(H ) in the equation t = W/(H ) ,
o
'
o
'

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t =W/(Ho)'
=(30 J)/(20 J/min)
= 1.5 min
From the above observation we conclude that, the time t for 30 J to flow
through the rods if they were welded in the figure parallel configuration
would be 1.5 min.
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______________________

Question 3:-
Ice has formed on a shallow pond and a steady state has been reached with the air above the ice at -5.2C
and the bottom of the pond at 3.98C. If the total depth of ice + water is 1.42 m, how thick is the ice? (Assume
that the thermal conductivities of ice and water are 1.67 and 0.502 W/m.K, respectively.)
Concept:-
The temperature Tx at the interface of a compound slab is equal to (T1R2 + T2 R1) /(R1 + R2).
So, Tx = (T1R2 + T2 R1) /(R1 + R2)
Here, T1, T2 are the temperature of two surfaces (with T 2 > T1) and R1, R2 are thermal resistance of the two
materials.
Solution:-
At the interface between ice and water Tx = 0 C
Substitute 0 C for Tx in the equation Tx = (T1R2 + T2 R1) /(R1 + R2),
(T1R2 + T2 R1) /(R1 + R2) = Tx
(T1R2 + T2 R1) /(R1 + R2) = 0
So, T1R2 + T2 R1 = 0
Or, k1T1/L1 + k2T2/L2 = 0
(k1T1L2 + k2T2 L1) / L1 L2 = 0

k1T1L2 + k2T2 L1 = 0

k1T1L2 + k2T2 (L-L2) = 0

k1T1L2+ k2T2 L- k2T2 L2 = 0

k2T2 L = k2T2 L2 - k1T1L2

= (k2T2- k1T1) L2

Or, L2 = k2T2 L/(k2T2- k1T1)

Here L is the depth of ice + water and L2 is the depth of ice.

To find out the thickness L2 of ice (depth of ice), substitute 1.67 W/m. K for thermal conductivity of ice k2,
-5.20C for T2, 1.4 m for L, 0.502 W/m . K for thermal conductivity of water k1 and 3.98 C for T1 in the
equation L2 =k2T2 L/(k2T2- k1T1),
L2 = k2T2 L/(k2T2- k1T1)
=(1.67 W/m. K) (-5.20 C) (1.4 m) / ((1.67 W/m. K) (-5.20 C) (0.502 W/m . K) (3.98 C))
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=(1.67 W/m. K) (-5.20 +273) K (1.4 m) / ((1.67 W/m. K) (-5.20 + 273) K(0.502 W/m . K) (3.98 +273) K)

= 635.06 W/(447.23 -139.04) W/m

= 2.06 m

Rounding off to one significant figure, the thickness of the ice will be 2 m.

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