ise of the Educational Security Star

round-breaking book, [oel Spring examines globalization and its worldwide effects on
011 A central thesis is that industrial consumerism is the dominant paradgrn in the
~!011of educaton and econ~mic planning in modern economic security states.

!1SI century national school systems have similar grades and promotion plans.
onal methods. curriculum organzanon, and linkages between secondary and higher
on Although there are local variations, the most striking feature is the sameness of
onal systerns. How did this happen? How was education globalzed? Spring explains
nlyzes this phenomenon and its consequences for human life and the future
ment of social and economic organizations. Central themes include:

The Rise of the

lements af the educational security state and the industrial-consumer paradgm
ln relatlonshlp to classical forms of education such as Confucianism, Islam, and
Chrlstial1lty, and their concerns with creating a just and ethical society.
I'h(' role of the "other" in the globalzaton of educational structures as international
muuary and economic rivalries spark competition between educational systems.
rhe transuon from the Confucian village school to Western forms of education as
Educational
.. ~
mpllfled In the lives of Ho Chi Minh and Mao Zedong.
rhe 'ff('cI of lhe cultural and economic rivalry between the Soviet Union and the
1111 11r<1 States and its irnpact on schooling in both countries.
'l'he ri!ll' olrhe educational security state in China, the Soviet Union, and the United
Security State
,.UI'!! as II\('s(' rountries focus their educational efforts on military and economic
(lC'vcIOpl1l(~l1t
I'ht' C'VOlllIIOI101 progressve education as it appeared in revolutionary movements in
olllh AI1\('flCiI. Cuba, Nicargua. and EI Salvador.
I'hc IrlII1sll1011ITOIIl Iraditional to Westernized forms of lslamic education aganst the
b"ckgrolll1d 01 I'.lIropean imperialism. Arab nationalism, and wars of liberation, and
I li!' 1II1I'i!SY1('I1SI0I1between Western educational ideais and Islamic relgous values.
OCljlllSI (~dllCilljol1 111lhe Dernocratic People's Republic of Korea.
(11111'111 I!eV('I!'llllH:lltS in educational security states such as China, [apan, the United
1.lleS,III!' IH:W l~lISSliI,and the European Union.
I'he COIISI'qIU:IIU'S 01 I'.nglish as the global anguage and the global spread of the
imlust rI.II l'OllSlIIIlN paradlgrn.

ISBN 0-8058-5557-2

9"780805"8
90000

t
ISBN O 80bB !l')I)

J(, '.lIde:! !)II',I

206 CHi\PTER 7 THE EDUCATIONALSECURITY STATE 207

this systern is often referred to as neo-liberal or neo-conseroaiioe. It combines
centralized control of what is taught in schools through a system of
;tte-mandated tesis and curriculum with decentralization and a combina-
_tion of private and public schools. In general, the neo-liberal or neo-conser-
vative vision is of states turning over their tradirional services, such as
~chooling, to a market economy but retaining control through regulation.
Under China's Education Law lhe "State encourages enterprises, institu-
tions, public organizations and other social organizations, as well as indi-
vidual cit izens to establish and run schools or other institutions of ec\ucation
in accordance with the law."?" The basic conc\itions for establishing a school
includc organizational structure, qualified teachers, an approved building,
and a source of funding. These privately established schools are given the
power to organize their own adrninistrative system. Article 29 ensures that
these privately operated schools conform to state policies and educational
goals.
Article 29-Schools anc\ other institutions of
educarion shall fulfil the following obligations:
1. to observe laws and regulations;
2. to implement the Statc's educational policies,
apply the standards set by the State for
education and teaching and guarantee the
quality of education and teaching;
3. to safeguard thc lawful rights and interests of
the educatees, teachers and other staff and
workers;
4. to provide convenience in appropriate ways
for educatees and their guardians to have
access to the educatecs' academic
performance and other relevant information;
5. to collect Iecs according to the regulations of
the State and publicize the individual items
of such fees;
6. to be subjected to supervision according to
law."
Of course, the national examination system, which determines en-
trance into secondary and higher educatih, indirectly cOntrols th;;-con-
J:ent of education. In reality, the contem of instructiojjjn public and
private schools is governed by t hc requirernent of passing national exams.
Thus, cxarns determine instruction anel the knowlcdge thal sturlcnts will
be iaughr. Art ic1e 20 of lhe Education Law gives lhe powcr 01' (0111101 ovcr
national examinations to the education departrnent of the State Council.
rticle 20 states: "The State applies a national education examination sys-
tem. The administrative departrnent of education under the State Council
shall determine the types of national education examination which shall
be undertaken by the institutions that conduct such education examina-
tion as approved by the State.,,72
~usion, Deng's reforms set aside Mao's political objectives and ef-
forl~ovid~reater equality of educational opportunity and to ensure
11ileducation did not reinforce social classes. The introduction ofa market
economy and the goal ofsocialism with a Chinese essence are incorporated
into the Staie's educaiional plans. ~chools are now key to selecting the tal-
ent thatwill help China march down the socialist road of modrnization. By
delaring aneiiCri:class .stluggk, Deng was able to c1aim that increased
m-.?terial rewards resulting from educational advantages did not reinforce
social c1ass difTerences because they confiifiuted to the economic prosperity
of a~peQL?!.e. Privatizal~n and decentralization of lhe management of
state schools is for the purpose of making schools more efficient in carrying
out the State's agenda. ~xaminations and curricular regulation ensure di-
rect contrQI over what is tau!ilil.t students, Therefore, after Mao's experi-
ments with different forms of progressive education, the People's Republic
of China's educational policies are closely tied to the economic needs of
socialist modernization.
JAPAN AND THE UNITED STATES:
EDUCATIONAL SECURITY STATES
In the last half of the 20th century, Iapanese and V nited States' educational
policies were intertwined in the construction of educational security states.
But in the 21st century,japan's school system was backing away frorn exam-
driven instruction as lhe United States was embracing an exam-driven sys-
tem to educate workers for the global labor market. This story is filled with
ironic twists anel turns in policies. The st2!}"s plot line contains the V.S. con-
quest ofjapan during World War II and the imposition of a V.S. educational
structure; the conflict between progressives and educational conservatives in
lhe United States and japan during the 1950s, including similar charges of
communism;.t.te ensuing development of japan's school system as a model
of test-driven instiuction tied to economic development; American fear in
the 1980s that they were losing ground in the global economy because of an
inferior school system; American admiration of japan's schools and exam
system and the adoption of a similar rnodel to improve Arnerica's competi-
tive cdgc in global markcts; and japan's concerns that its tcst-driven schools
 208 CHAPTER 7 THE EDUCATIONAL SECURITY STATE 209

were stiOing creativiiy, cultivating uniormity, and, consequently, slowing its taught and their treatment"; "Matters concerning selection of textbooks";
economic deve!opmenl. pa-crMatters concerning social eallcation."so- - -
It will be recalled frorn previous chapters that in the 19th-century j a- S-imilar to some..public officials in the Vnited States in the 1950s, Vnited
pan was lhe first nation in the region to adopt a Western moele! of educa- ~~ occupiers were concerned with communist influences in japanese
tion in oreler to develop the science and military lechnology necessary to se ools. ConsequentIy, despite c1aims that they were trying to make J apa-
stop the spread ofWestern imperialism. Its early Westernized schools at- n-eseschools more democratic, V.S. occupiers tried to purge the schools of
lracted scholars from throughout the area.Tn keeping with the ielea that supposed communist influences. In lhe end, this meant that the democraLic
Westernizing the japanese educational system was protection against reform of schools was not accompanied by progressive educational prac-
Western colonialism,japan's official surreneler to the United States at the ts. Lke U:S: conservaLives, japanese conservatives balked at the idea of
end of World War JJ on August 15, 1945 was accompanied by an an- progressive reformo Exemplifying these conservative concerns was a 1953
nouncernent by Emperor Hirohito, thai "we declared war on America and magazine articlewritten by a college professor, Kitaokajuisha, resurrecting
Britain out of our sincere elesire to ensure japan's self-preservation anel Confucian arguments for the necessity of state control of morality. "The
lhe stabilization of East Asia. "7:1 japanese people ... are apt to misuse the freedom that they have been
V.S. occupiers quickly engaged in purging the j apanese school system granted ... when lhe control of moraIs is relaxed, the harlots shame!essly
ofrn'ITmlism anel reorganizing for more democratic conrrol.?" The Civil parade the streets, when censorship is abolished, the book-shops bury their
Inforrnation and Education Section of lhe Suprerne Commanel Allieel counters with erotic magazines. It is doubtful whether such a people should
Powers ordered the removal Irorn tcxibooks any mention ofjapanese co- in fact be granted toa much freedom.Y'"
lonialism, japanese superiority, anel "Concepts anel attitudes which are Western-styled japanese progressive-liberals, socialists, and commu-
contrary to the principIes set Iorth in the Charter of lhe Vnited Na- nists struggled with conservatives over the democratic control of schools.
rions."?" Schools wcre given a list of elesignated pages to be removed from Progressive-liberals objected to state domination of education and the use
lextbooks. 7GThe 1946 j apanese Const itution, written under the influence of education to control national morality. Progressive-liberals worried
of V.S. occupafion, stats in Article 26: "AlI people shall have the right to about lhe possible resurrection of lhe Imperial Rescript on Education and
receive an equal education correspondent to their ahility, as provicled by the growing recentralization of control over the educational systern.
law. AlI people shall be obligated to have ali boys and girls uneler their Central control of educalion returned when the V nited States withdrew
protection receive orelinary educat ion as provideel for by law. Such its "opposition to nationalistic education and centralization. As Teruhisa
compulsory education shall be free."77 And, similar to American schools, Horio argued, "Of course this gave rise to toe contradiction, still visible in
schooling was to be separaied from established religions: "The.Staieand, japanese life today, of a form of patriotism that is subordinated to Ameri-
its organs shall refrain Irorn religious educat ion 01' any other re!igious ac- can global interests. "82 Released from the bonds of pro-democratic educa-
livity."78 The separation of religion Irorn eelucation became irnportant in tion rhetoric, Minister of Education Amano Teiyu re!eased the 1951 "An
lhe 21st century as japanese oficials tried to introducc more moral in- utlme If'Nfional Moral Practice," which reiterated traditional j apanese
struction in lhe public schools. Under lhe guidance of V.S. educators, the ci1cepts of ihe individual to toe state. "The State is the womb of our exis-
japanese eelucational system was organizeel around the V.S. model of lence~ lhe ethical and cultural core of our collective existence ... the nation
schooling. Compulsory educa! ion was mandated for 6 years of primary depends on those activities which the individual willingly performs so as to
schooling for ages ranging Irorn 5 to J 2, and for 3 years of middle school contribute to the well-being of the State."S3
for ages ranging from 12 to 15. Gracluates of mieldle schools could enter In 1955, the Law Concerning the Management and Operation of Local
technical schools or high schools for ages 15 to 18. Those graduating Irorn School Administration undermined liberal-progressive hopes of a demo-
high school could enter a university or junior college.?" craticaJly controlIed and empowering education, The legislation caused an
Decentralization of educational control occurred with the 1948 Board of uproar in the japanese legislative body, the Diet, and police were called in
Education Law. Modeled on the V.S. school system, thc law created local to maintain order. In its final form, the legislation replaced elected school
school boarels with elected members anel an appointed superintendent of ~~ with appointed ones. I..n 1958, the Education Ministry's course of
education. Of particular importance were powers grantcd to local school study was made legaJly binding on local schools and rigorous textbook in-
boards regarding: "Matters concerning lhe curriculum conrcm s to bc SIH'( I iou was instit uted. Drawing on traditional bclicfs regarding lhe subor-
212 CHAIYrER 7
American conservatives would consider multiculturalism a threat to aca-
demic standards.
Therefore by the 1980s, American supporrers of Iormal education were
eekll1g some excusefor moving V.S. schools away from a progressive
agenda al!~ support of minority cultural rights. Global economics provided
n
that excuse with !!!e issuance of lhe 1983 report of the V.S. govern-
ment-sE?nsored National Commission on Excellence in Education: A Na-
tion aJ..!JY...k.
In fact, Diane Ravitch anel Chcster Finn, two oflhe drum beaters
for a return of V.S. Schools to traditional formal academic instruction, re-
called that their founding in 1981 ofthe Education Excellence Network re-
ceived little attention until the issuance of lhe Nation at Risk report. Both
Ravitch and Finn served in the U.S. Department of Education and dedi-
cated their professionallives to the creaiion of governmenl-mandated stan-
dardized curriculum and high-stakes exarninations. "To put it mildly," they
rernembered, "this bornbshcll [A Nation at RiskJ awakened parents, educa-
tors, governors, legislators, and lhe press .... Its warning of 'a rising tide of
mediocrity' helped launch what came to be called lhe excellence move-
ment, which included a mass of other commissions, studies, and reports."?"
The Nation at Risk report made education cent ral to economic globaliza-
tion. trS. Secretary of Education Terence Bell requested lhe National
Commission on EXcellence in Education lO compare "Arnerican schools
ahd colleges with those of other advanced narions.?" The Commission was
created as a legal U.S. government aclvisory comrniuee to the Secretary of
Education who appointeel its chair anel membership. It conducteel 17 Com-
mission meetings, public forums, anel pane! discussions in 11 different sites
across the United States."
After making this comparison, lhe Commission dramatically opened its
report: "Our nation is at risk. Our oncc unchallengeel preeminence in com-
merce, industry, science, anel technological innovation is being overtaken
by competitors throughout lhe world."!" Anel, using military images appro-
priate for an educational security state, lhe report asserted: "If an un-
frienelly foreign power had atlempted to impose on America the mediocre
educational performance that exists today, we might well have viewed it as
an act of war."'" The Commission blamed lhe public schools for the
declining place of lhe United Starcs in-world markets.
The problem, which supported lhe coruentions of educaiional conserva-
tives, was identified as the elecline of lhe eelucat ional security state that hael
l)eenLfeate in the 1950s in response to Soviet lechnological gains. "We
have squandered," the report c1aimeel, "lhe gains in srudent achievernent
maele in the wake of lhe Sputnik challenge. "m Anel again using military im-
agery, the report asserteel, "We have, in effcct, been commiuing an act of
unthinking, unilateral educational disarmament [my emphasisj.t''"
THE EDUCATIONAL SECURITY STATE 213
Although the goals of V.S. schooling hael been frequently attuneel to
worlel issues such as the Colei War, the Nation at Risk placeel the eelucational
objectives squarely in the arena of glbal economics, Under the report's
section titleel "The Risk," there appeareel the following statement on
globalization:
The Worldis indccd one global..yilla~ We live among determinecl, well-eelu-
catcd, anel strongly motivateel competitors. We compele with them for intcr-
national standing anel markets, not only with products but also with the idcas
01' our laboratories and neighborhood workshops. Arncrica's position in the
world may once havc becn reasonably sccurc with only a fcw cxceptionally
wcll-traincd mcn and women. It is no longer.99
Who were the "others" threatening V.S. dominance in lhe global econ-
omy. The report specifically identified J apan, South Korea, and Germany.
Thc risk is not only that theJapanese make autornobilcs more cfficicruly than
Arncricans and have govcrnment subsidies ror devclopment and cxport, It is
notjust that lhe South Koreans recently built the world's most efTicient stecl
mill, or that American machine tools, once the pridc of thc world, are being
displaced by Gcrman products. It is also that thcsc dcvcl0fomcnts signi[y a re-
distribution of traincd capability-tnroughout thc globo.' o
What evidence was presented that American schools, and particularly
theprogressive reforms touted in the 1960s anel 1970s, had broughtdown
- the American economy? None! There was evidence presented of declin-
mg test scores on college entrance examinations and standardized
achievement tests. However, there was no evidence presented of a rela-
tionship between test scores and V.S. economic decline. If fact, there are
so many Iactors determining economic growth and expansion that it is dif-
ficult to Iilame one factor let alone placing the burden on education.
Could it have been the federal debt left from the Vietnarn War, the surge
in oil prices, or a failure of American corporate management? Besides,
graduates do not leave school and immediately bring elown an economy.
In fact, the graduates ofthe supposedly educationally superior 1950s were
more than 40-years old by 1983. They were the ones holding the leader-
ship positions in business and the military. David Berliner anel Bruce
Biddle would eventually title their book about this heavy handed criticism
of public school, The Manufactured Crisis: Myths, Fraud, and the Auack on
America's Public Scliools. 101
The real concern was enfolding schools into the economic and military
needs ofthe educational security state. In its list of vIndicators ofthe Risk,"
the report stated:
 214 CHAI'TER 7
Busincss anel military lcadcrs complain that thcy are rcquircd to spcnd mil-
lions of dollars on costly rcrncdial cducation aliei training progl"ams in sueh
basic skills as rcading, writing, spclling, and computation. Thc Dcpartrncnt of
thc Navy, for cxarnplc, rcportcd to lhe Cornrnission that onc-quartcr of its rc-
ecnt rceruits eannot. rcad at thc ninth grade lcvcl .... Without rcmcdial work
thcy ca nn o t cvcn bcgi n, m uch Icss com)J Ie te, lhe sophistiaed tramin g essential in
1II'/1ch of the modern lItilitary [my cmphasisl.I02
Similar to China's Deng Xiaoping during lhe sarne time period, lhe
Commission ou ExceUence in Education recornmended tight governance
of the educational systern ihrough "srandardized tests of achievement." 103
The first recornmendation of the Commission was increasing academic re-
quirernents for high school graduation "for ali students.:"?' 1am emphasiz-
ing phrase "for ali stuelents" because after lhe Commission's rcport, there
would be a push for uniform graduation requirements that would undercut
any arternpt to individualize lhe curriculum based on student interests. The
second recommendation initiatcd thc drive to o-cale centralized contrai of
the curriculum anel exam sysrern similar to Japan. "We recommencl," the
Commission saicl in words that were harbingers to Iuture strict government
control of the knowledge disserninared by schools, "that schools, colleges
and universities adopt more rigorolls and measurable standards .... " Cer-
tainly worrisorne to defenelers of acaelemic Ireedom in higher education
was the inclusion of colleges and universitics in lhe call for "rneasurable
standarels." In this recommendation, lhe Commission srated, "Standard-
ized tests of achievement (not to be conuscd with apritude tests) shoulel be
aelministered at major transition points Irorn one levei of schooling to an-
other anel particularly from high school to college or work."I05
The testing recomrnendation raiscd lhe issue of political power, similar
to what happened inJapan in the 1950s, over lhe control ofthe content of
instruction. In the United States, state governmcnts hael lhe constitutional
power to contrai local schools. Could there be nationwide examinations
that would control the contem of instruction similar to lhos e in Japan? Po-
litical control of knowleelge or lhe context of instruction was an importam
issue. Obviously, teachers would be required directly or indirectly to teach
students the material that would be on lhe standardized tests of achieve-
ment. This woulcl be particularly true if the tests were usecl 10 determine
prornotion between grades and graduation Irorn high school.
The Commission avoieled a discussion ofwhich branch of government
would attempt to control knowledge in schools by leaving the issue unre-
solved. In a confusing staternent, lhe Commission called fornationwide tests
administered through local and state governments. The irnplication was
that ali U.S. stuelents would be subjectcd to lhe same tests. Th'Commission
THE EDUCATIONAL SECURITY STATE 215
recommeneleel: "The tests shoulel be adrninistered as part.of a nationwiele
(but not federal) system of state anel local standardized tests." 106
It was President George H. W. Bush who, after being e1ected in 1988, rec-
ommended a feeleral system of achievement tests as part of an educational
lan called "Goals 2000." Ip. 2001, fed~ll"egi.slation alled "N Child Left
Behind" woulel require states to aelminister stanelardizeel achievement tests
at different transition points in the stuelents' progress through schools. Un-
d~Child Left Behind," the control o knowledge in lhe schools would
be given to state governments under federal supervision.!"
~o, the Commission advocated absorbing an increasing amount ofthe
lives of children and adolescence in efforts to achieve global economic and
iTIi1ilarydominance. One could argue that the ultimate goal of an educa-
tional securiiy state would be engaging the entire lives of children and
youth in preparation to meet economic and military needs. Penetration
into farnily life and after-school life would give schools greater space and
lime to enfold student lives into the needs ofthe educational security state.
The Commission recommended more homework anel a longer school day
and year. "We recornmend," the Commission's report stated, "that signifi-
cantly more time be devoted to learning the New Basics. This will require
~ore effective use of the existing school day, a longer school day, or a
lengthened school year. Students in high schools should be assigned far
more homework than is now the case."!"
The "New Basics" referred to a uniform curriculum recommended for
ali high school students. These basics were attuned to what Commission
members believed were required to ensure the United States' ability to com-
pele in world markets. Therefore it is not surprising to Iind the arts missing
Irorn lhe New Basics. The recommended New Basics were 4 years 01' Eng-
lish, 3 years of mathematics, 3 years of science, 3 years of social studies, and
a '12 year of computer science.'?"
For some Americans, the recommendation for nationwide testing
brought into sharper focus the organization of Japanese schools and Ja-
pan's economic achievements. Typical of U.S. corporate fans of lapanese
educalion was Louis Cerstner, Chair and CEO ofIBM. Applauding the ac-
com plish ments of the J apanese school system, Cerstner and his colleagues
in U.S. school reforrn in the 1990s wrote, "The Japanese, who boast one of
lhe rnost successful school systems in the world, tell interviewers that they
have the best bottom half in the world. They do. They have perfected mass
education, and educate nearly everyone." 110 William Bennett, former Sec-
retary ofEducation and conservative critic ofU.S. schools, revered theJap-
anese schools. He claimed, "Our educational ideaIs are better reaIized on a
large scale in japan."!!'
216 CI-IAPTER
Adrnirers ofjapanese workcrs such as Benjamin Duke, in his book The
[apanese Scltool: Lessons for Industrial A merica , praised the amount of time of
a child's life absorbed by thejapanese exam system, particularly the send-
ing of children to erivate cram schools for exam preparation. This was
readying lhe studenr Ior work in the global econorny.Tn keepingwith the
military imagery ofthe educarional security state, Duke praiseel "ronin" or
masterless warriors who, after failing university ent rance examinations,
auended full day courses at Yobiko schools. In lhe japancse systern of
exam preparation, Yobiko schools enroll as many 35,000 in branches
across the country.j ukus are privately operated neighborhood schools fo-
cusing on examination preparation. They operate outside the hours of
regular schools. So, parents might send their chilelren to ajuku in the eve-
nings or on Saturdays 01' Sunelays. In aeldition, therc are commercially
published home tests anel drill books for practice at home. Similar to the
recommenelations ofthe Commission on Excellence in Eelucation, a large
proportion of the life of the japanese chilel is comrniued to preparation
for work in the global economy.!"
JAPAN AND THE UNITED STATES:
THE EDUCATIONAL SECURITY STATE IN THE 21ST CENTURY
j apanese education was reaching a crisis point as V.S. politicians werc
pushing their schools to adopt standardized curricula and high-stakes ex-
aminations, nel Iilling the life ofthe children anel adolcscence with prepa-
ration for a global workforce. The American goal woulcl reach some
coriipletion with the passage orhe 200 I federal legislation "No Child Left
Behind."!" lronically, "No Child Lcfi Behinel" was passed 1 year after the
japanese exam-elriven system was declared "on lhe verge of crisis" by the
japanese Prime Minister's National Commission on Educaiional Reforrn.
The Commission's repor! was submitted to Prime Minister Yoshiro Mori
anel containeel the fearul warning: "At lhe threshold ofthc 21st ccntury ...
the reality is the japanese education is eleteriorating, and this cannot be
overlookeel. Continued occurrences of bullying, studcnts who refuse to go
to school, school violence, classroom disruption, violentjuvenile and other
problems concerning education have become serious."!" Vsing language
similar to A Naton ai Risk, the report tried to sound an emergency call to
change j apanese education: "We are on the verge of a crisis; our society will
be unable to carry on if the current situation continues." 11:;
The japanese Ministry of Eelucation asserted that the Commission's re-
port showed that "through lhe stanelardization of education resulting from
excessivc egalitarianism, and t he cramming of imrnoderatc leve\s ofknowl-
edge, education oricnrcd roward lhe indivicluality anel compcrcncc of lhe
7 THE EDUCATlONAL SECURITY STATE 217
children has been given to neglect."!" One Commission member, Ikuyo
Kaneko, principal ofKeio Yochisha Elementary School, applaudeel the ac-
tions ofthe Ministry ofEelucation after the issuance of the report for reduc-
ing required learning standards for each subject by 30%. Principal Ikuyo
commented, "The 30% cut is-the deregulation the education ministry has
rnade over the nation's education system. It means schools will have more
flexibility over uilu and how they teach students [my ernphasis]."!'?
Consequently, j apanese educational reformers were blaming standarels
and the examination system for increaseel problems with children at the
same time that this agenda was being nationalized in the Vnited States with
the 2001 passage of"No Child Left Behind." The Commission's report was
very explicit as to what it thought needed to be corrected in its test driven
educational system. The report's "Introduction" contained the following
bulleted objectives:
Remedy standardized eelucation anel introeluce an eelucational sys-
tem that deve\ops individuality.
Remedy the excessive emphasis on rote learning and diversify uni-
versity entrance exarninations.U''
The report warned, "The trend of stressing similarity to others has cre-
ated the tenelency to ham per the creation of new values and the emergcnce
of leaders who can lead society."!"
tis important to note thatraising these concerns diel not mean changing
the overall goal of schooling to produce workers for competition in the
global economy. The report was simply stating that an educational system
controlled by government curriculum standarels and examinations might
!l0t be the best way to ensure a growing econorny. In fact, the report sug-
gesteel that standarelization and exams were contributing to major social
anel psychological problems amongjapan's young people. The report spe-
cifically calleel for promoting "education that cultivates a view of a career
anel work."120 ln Iact, the report suggested that globalization required
major changes in the test-driven educational system.
Peoplc in the world are linked directly, inforrnation is instantly sharcrl, anel
the glohalizat.ion 01' the economy is progressing. Thc structure and aspects
of socicty have been changing on a global scalc, and complcxities havc
emerged which are dilficult to cope with givcn existing organizations anel
systems .... Thc traditional educational systcm is lagging behind the currcnt
olthc times.121
The Commission's major reform proposals blameel national examina-
Iions {()J'
(TCal ing conclitions that prornotcd rote learning and stiflcd cre-
 218 CHAI'TER 7
ativity. "ltis noted," lhe report siated, "that.children inJapan become dull
as they advance tojunior and senior high schools and universities, although
elementary school children are lively. The reason behind this is that stu-
dents are so conscious of university cnrrance exarninations that ... their
study is mainly concentrated 011 role learnillg."122 Consequenily, lhe Com-
mission proposed that universities use a varicty of rneasures for deterrnin-
ing college admission, including essays, intcrvicws, and recomrnendations,
and that entrance exams be changed to measure a diversity ofacaelemic tal-
ents and critical thinking skills. II was also proposed that lhe secondary
school entrance examination be eliminated by merging lower and upper
secondary schools. In keeping with neo-liberal global trends and the desire
t2,.promote more intellectual diversity, lhe report called for decentraliza-
tion 0Lcontrol, greater parental involvernent in schools, and cornmunity
s'Cfiols.This greater local control over lhe curriculum was aided by the
Minist.ry of Education 's 30% reeluction in curriculum requirernents.
For some Japanese educators, these proposals did not go far enough.
For instance, Daisaburo Hashizume, a sociology professor at the Tokyo In-
stitute of Technology (TIT) calleel for abolishing entrance examinations:
"University entrance exams are not mcet ing lhe goals they're supposed to
achieve. To make a rational system that creates less strain for a siudent, we
should abolish entrance exams. Unless we do that , 'reforms' are never really
going to reform." He objected to the "exarn hell" that had become part of
Japanese student culture.
Similar to Japan's educaiional reforrners, U.S. critics ofthe implernenta-
tion of an exarn-driven educational sysrern cxpressed their outrage at edu-
cational trends in books with descriptivc titlcs, such as One Size Fits Feio: The
Foliy of Educational Standards by Susan Ohanian and Kat hy Emery; The Case
Against Standardized Testing: Raising lhe Scores, Ruining lhe Scliools by Alfie
Kohn; Standardized Minds: The J-ligh Price of A merica's Testing Culture and
What We Can Do to Cluinge lt by Peter Sacks; anel Why is Corporate Amrica
Bashing Our Schoolst by Susan Ohanian.!"
GLOBALIZATION AND NATIONALISM: THE EDUCATIONAL
SECURITY STATE IN JAPAN AND THE UNITED STATES
In the 21st century, public officials in Japan and lhe United States ex-
pressed concern about maintaining a strong nation in the face of globaliza-
tion and disruptive student behavior. The report 01'Japan's National
Committee on Educational Reform anel lhe U.S. legislation "No Child Left
Behind" dealt with the issue of character eelucation anel nar ional identity. I
remind the reader that what J mean by "nation" is the emotional and imagi-
nary feeling of personal belonging and attachrnent to lhe people and terri-
torial boundaries encompassed by lhe political authority of thc state,
THE EDUCATIONAL SECURTTY STATE 219
LnJ ~n, the issue of character education centered on protection of tra-
ditional values. The report ofJ apan's National Commission on Educational
Reform ~ed the loss oftraditional values on its youth crisis. The report
claimed:
Sclf-disciplinc, consideration for others, love 01" nature, a ICcling of dccp rc-
spect for that beyond an individual's capability, respect for traditional culture
and social norms, fostering a mentality and altitude whic/t slunu aUction loward
oue's oum home c01.lnlryor natum, learning basic Imowledge or culture requiredfor lire
in sociely must be lhe basis for ali educauon. Today's educational crisis in.J apan is
rooted in the ncglcct or these basics of a natural and fundamental erlucation.
Not only schools and homes but also society as a whole are required to share
this understanding and address the situation in ordcr to realize these basics of
cducation [my crnphasisl.l'"
The report made it clear that the fostering of traditional values dicLnot
mem a narrow nationalism but the maintenance of a J apanese identity in
!be context of globalization or, in the words ofthe report, "fostering people
"Yho,while having identity as a]apanese, are able to contribute to mankind
in lhe progress of globalization."!" The report advocated the teaching of
morals in elementary, junior, and senior high schools. It should be noted
that lhe teaching of morality had been part of lhe j apanese curriculum
since the restoration of state control in the 1950s. In lhe 2000 report, moral
instruction is specifically tied to the problem ofjapanese identity in a glob-
alized environment. The report calls for instruction in japanese "classics,
philosophy, [and] history" as part of moral instruction.!"
In discussing globalization, the report emphasized lhe importance of
maintaining a japanese identity through teaching traditional culture while
recognizing the importance of modern science and technology. This dis-
cussion was similar to that captured in the 19lh-century phrase "Western
Science, Eastern Morals" which marked the introduction of Western educa-
tional Iorrns, 111 referring to the new globalized age of science and technol-
ogy, particularly information technology and life science, the report
emphasized: "Under such conditions, it is also necessary 10 develop and
give a great deal of respect for our traditions, culture, and other elements to
be handed down to the J apanese in future generations from the viewpoint
of contributing generally to mankind while possessing an awareness and
identity as aJapanese person."127
Similar to Japan's National Commission on Educational Reforrn, the
United States's legislation "No Child Left Behind" advocates moral in-
struction in the form of "Partnerships in Character Education" and
"School Prayer." "Character education," according to a press release from
the U.S. Department of Education, "is a key Ieature of No Child Left Be-
hind, lhe landrnark education reform law dcsigncd 10 changc lhe culture
 220 CHAIYrER 7
of American schools."!" For self-idcnt ificd "cornpassionate conserva-
tives" such as President George W. Bush, who clairned responsibility for
the passage of "No Child Left Behind," there is an assumption that in
most cases poverty, crime, and other social problems result from a failure
in personal character and values. President Bush frequently combined his
religious views with a high degree of patriotisrn.P? Consequently, direct
charity or government welfare doesn't solve the problern, in fact, it might
reinforce negative character traits. The solution is providing the condi-
tions by which people can help themselves. Self-help, cornpassionate con-
servatives believe, will result in a transformar ion of character and the
acquisition of positive values. This character transformation is aided by
exposure to religious values. Consequently, lhe imposed discipline of ed-
ucational standards and testing is to hclp' students, accoreling to compas-
sionate conservatives, to develop the characrer traits of self-discipline anel
hard work. Aieling in this proccss are character education, student-initi-
ated school prayer, anel exposure to religious values as provided for in the
School Prayer section of"No Child Left Behind.:"!?
Therefore, in bOJ.l:1-cD.lJ.lltPt:, Ieaelers linkeel traditional values with
moral character; of course traditional values were dillerent 111 60th coun-
!!ies with the Confu..0an ernphasis on social harrnony inJapan a~ld in~9-
ua! responsibilil)! in the_Vniled States. In addition, both countries
promoted the teachil2g f a nat ionalist ic histQry .1,0 schools.as a_means ()t
maintaining national identitY.:.,In the development of national standarcs
ana tests in the Vniteel States in the J990s, lhe subject ofhistory proveel to
be the rnost poJitically contentious subject. What interpretation of histOlJ
shoulel ap~r in V.S. textbooks? American neo-conservatives wanteiJ
Filghlynationalistic history rellectingwhal they considered to be traditional
AmeriCii vlS":'rCN.cLCllildLeft Behind" speciically addressed ~ iss~e
'l:JfPfVing.g'EitsfOl:.the teaching of traditional Ll.S. history. In this con-
text, traelitional V.S. history refers to the contem qf history prior to an em-
pr~is on social and cultural history that occurreel in the 1960s~AmeriCan
neo-conservatvesbelieve that social anel cultural history erodeel the nation-
alstic spirit of pu61iC school Iiistory.!" 1l!.~put.e. @gJ:iIigfitssi'giiifiU
~nerences reg2reling)h.teaching and interpreration of U.S. !listol1(. For
neo-conservatives, the major purpose of teaching hisrory is to q:ei'!,!e.Jlll-
!!2.naf uruty yreching a cornrnon sct of political and social val~T~e
&ommon value-i....su:cQtding.J..olhe. nco-conscrvative approach, sh2!l!2...!>e
based on the beliefs unelerlying V.S. institui ions. In lhe words of historian
- thur Schlesinger Jr., "For better or worse, the White Anglo-Saxon
Protestant traelition was for two centuries-and in crucial respects still
is-the dorninant influence on American culture anel sociery .... The lan-
guage ofthe new nation, irs laws, its institutions, its political idcas, its litera-
THE EDUCATIONAL SECURITY STATE 221
ture, its custorns, its precepts, its prayers, prirnarily derived frorn
Britain."!" "No Child LeftBehind" states that grants are to be given
(1) to carry out activities to promote the teaching of traditional American his-
tory in elcmentary schools anel sccondary schools as a scparatc academic sub-
jcct tno: as a componen: of social sludies); anel
(2) for the devclopmcnt, implcmentation, and strengthening of programs to
teach traditional American history as a scparatc academic subjcct (11,01 {~5 a C01l!~0-
neni oIlOci.alsludies)within clementary school anel secondary school curricula.P
The militaristic parts of"No Child Left Behind" heighteneel the nation-
alistic spirit embodieel in those parts of the legislation that address tradi-
tional history, English acquisition, character education, and school prayer.
This is in keepingwith the military and economic goals ofan educational se-
curity state. The legislation specifically gives V.S. military recruiters access
to public schools to recruit students for duty in the arrned forces: "each local
educational agency receiving assistance under this Act shall provide, on a
request made by i:nilitary recruiters or an institution of higher education,
access to secondary school students names, addresses, and telephone list-
ings."!" This was required even ifa state had a law barring the military from
public schools: "A local educational agency prohibited by Connecticut State
law (either explicitly by statute or through statutory interpretation by the
State Supreme Court or State Attorney General) from providing military
recruiters with information or access as required by this section shall have
until May 31,2002, to comply with that requirernent.t'P'' In addition, the
legislation suggests hiring forrner military personnel as school teachers and
counting military service as training forvocational education.!" In a section
of supporting innovative preretirement teacher education certification
programs it is required that these programs "shall (1) provide recognition
of military experience and training as related to certification or licensing
requirements'{" The equating of military training and duty with teacher
training reflects an eelucational security state where public schools are
required to serve the economy and military.
JAPAN, CHINA, AND KOREA:
THE HISTORY TEXTBOOK CONTROVERSY
On April5, 2005, the japanese Ministry ofEducation approved eight his-
tory textbooks for use injunior high schools. The action sparked protests in
China anel Korea, with Chinese demonstrators demanding a boycott ofJ ap-
anese goods. The ministry's approval of a highly nationalistic history text-
book paralleled a similar situation in the Unitcd States. In japan, the
 222 CI-li\PTER 7 TI-IE EDUCATIONAL SECURITY STATE 223

textbook that sparked the internat.ional controversywas written by a nation- against humanity? Injapan, the issues are the country's list ofatrocities be-
alistic graup of academics called the japanese Society for History Text book fore and during World War 11, inclueling forcing Korean women into sexual
Reforrn. This group accused orher japanese hisrory textbooks ofbeing "bi- slavery for japanese soldiers; the impressment of Koreans to work in war
ased against" japan and filled wirh "self-denigration."!" Before the 2005 plants; the brutal treatment of civilians during colonizaton and occupation
decision by the Minister of Education, proicsts in japan had already oc- of Korea and Taiwan; and the mass killing ofcivilians during the capture of
curred when the Ehime Prcfecture announced that it woulel be using the na- Nanjing, China in 1937 (known as "the rape of Nanjing").
tionalistic textbook. In response to lhe proicsts, a spokesman for the A week after the 2005 approval of japanese textbooks that failed to
japanese Society for History Reforrn declareel, "Wc respect the Ehime Pre- mention or glossed over these atrocities in japanese history, the Prime
fectural Board of Education's decision. japan's education has been based Minister ofChina Wenjiabao demanded during a visit to India thatjapan
on view ofthe Allieel forces [after World War lI] that try to describe the nation "face up to" its wartime atrocities. As the Prime Minister was speaking,
as a sole evil. The textbook is a model to alter sucli a prejudiced thouglu. "139One massive protests againstjapan were occurring in China. The Prime Minis-
day after the 2005 Minister of Education's decision an editorial in the Chi- ter continued, "The massive war waged by japan inflicted huge and tre-
nese People's Daily reported that lhe japanese Society for History Reform mendous suffering and hardships in China, Asia and the world at large.
wrote the book to counter "a historical conception of maltreatment" and The core issue in China-japanese relationship is thatjapan needs to face
"anti-japanese education." The goal ofthe Society's tcxt was to make japa- IIp to history squarely."!" An editorial in the People's Daily emphasized the
nese "feel proud.""" international importance of japanese history textbooks: "But these text-
In japan and the Vnited States, conservative narionalist groups want books are not ordinary books, they involve accounts on the neighboring
textbooks to present a positive view of thcir nation's past without giving at- Asian countries, and involve the concealment anel adulteration ofthe his-
tention to unsavory incidents and time periods. This is exernplified by the torical facts about japanese militarist expansionism. Obviously, this has
japanese Society for History Text.book Reforrn references to "biased gone beyond the scope ofjapan's internal affairs, it concernsjapan's rela-
againstjapan," "self-denigration," anel "thc nation as a sole evil." Similar tions with neighboring countries."!"
language was used by neo-conservat ives when national history standards Although international attention was directed at the textbook written
were released in the Vnited States in 1994. Lynne Cheney (her husband by the j apanese Society for History Textbook Reform, there was also the
was famed neo-conservative and, lat er Vice President, Dick Cheney), who issue of changes in other history texts that seemed to elownplay the history
at the time was head ofthe National Endowment for lhe Humanities, at- of the nation's atrocities. The newspaper japan Today reported that text-
tacked the standards for making "it souncl as ir everything in America is book publishers blamed the mounting pressure from the j apanese Society
wrong and grim."141 When history siandards more in line with what for History Textbook Reforrn on the glossing over of nega tive aspects of
neo-conservatives wanteel were issuecl in 1995, Educatum Week's reporter japanese history. "'Education boards tend not to choose textbooks that
Karen Diegmueller recounted that 1 he criticisms of the history standards contain a lot ofthe self-denigrating content,' one publisher said." 145In re-
were primarily frorn neo-conservat ives who contended, in Diegmueller's garding the removal ofnegative material from textbooks, thejapan Today
words, that "the standards undercut lhe great figures that traditionally noted that textbooks approveel in 2001 listed the nurnber of civilians
have elominateel the landscape of history and portray the United States killeel in the rape of Nanjing as about 200,000, while those approved in
and the West as oppressive regimes that have victimizeel women, minori- 2005 useel the term "rnany." In 2001, three of the eight approved history
ties, and thirel-world countries."!" What the critics wantecl, Diegmueller textbooks used the terrn "cornfort wornen" or "cornfort facilities" to refer
wrote, was a history that emphasized U.S. accomplishments and provieleel to the sexual enslavement of Korean women. In 2005, only one textbook
stuelents with uplifting ideais. used the term "cornfort facilities."!"
The reality is that both countrics' histories coruain what must be consiel- Nationalism also reared its head in other forms in japanese and V.S.
ered as violent acts against humanity. V.S. history contains stories of geno- schools. In 1999, the j apanese government identified Hinomaru flag and
ciele against Native Americans, slavery, discrimination against minority Kimigayo as the national flag and song, respectively. On March 6, 2005,
graups anel women, terrarism against re!igious anel racial minorities, anel one month before the eruption ofthe textbook controversy, the Minister of
the brutal conquest of N ative American nat ions, Hawaii, lhe northern part Education Nanaki Nakayama called on "teachers lo teach students to re-
of Mexico, and Puerto Rico. Should U.S. textbooks dcrail Ihese crimes spcct lhe nat ional Oag and anthem regardless of what their beliefs maybe. If
 224 CI-IAPTER 7 THE EDUCATIONAL SECURITY STATE 225

children are not taught to pledge allegiance to lhe national flag and an-
thern, they will feel ashamed and ridiculed when they go abroad."':" The
Minister's worels aeldeel fuel to lhe controversy causeel by lhe Tokyo school
system requiring teachers to have students face lhe Ilag while singing the
national anthem. Fifty-two Tokyo teachers' salarics were cut for disobeying
lhe order to sing the national aruhern and another 36 for refusing to sing it
during graduation cerernonies.!" Acting under a ruling by the Ministry of
Education that schools requirc lhe singing of the national anthem, lhe
Fukuka Prefecture school board announced that it hael measured the vol-
ume of singing and reprimaneleel six of its schools for having "small" vol-
urne.!" The school board of lhe Tottori Prefecture issueel a warning to a
teacher who refused to sing the national anthem during graduation cere-
monies.!" Tokyo District Court ruleel in favor lhe Tokyo school board for
reprimanding a teacherwho refuseel to play the national anthern on a piano
eluring a school cerernony.!"'
Although the above stories inelicate a resistance to growing nationalism
in ]apanese schools, they also indicare lhe extent of its oficial sanction.
Similar events have occurreel in the United Stares. After lhe September l I,
2001 attacks on the Worlel Traele Center politicians urged saying the
Pledge of Allegiance anel singing the national anthcm in public schools.
The V.S. newspaper, Educatuni Week reported,
State lawmakers around the country have been crafting lcgislation that would
have schools begin the day with lhe Pledge of AIlcgiance, post the national
motto "'11 God We Trust" in classroorns, or require sturlcnts 10 takc classes
thar tcach patriotismo The Ilurry obills, many olwhich are still pending, has
emcrgcd against a hroader hackd1'Opolrcncwcd national pride lollowing the
tcrrorist attacks of Scpt. 11.152
Although V.S. court rulings allow students and teachers not to partici-
pate in these nationalistic rituais, lhe ceremonies can bc performed in the
presence of alI. This leel to atheists objecting to lhe words "under God" in
the American Pledgc of Allcgiance. A parent objected in California because
his daughter was required to "watch and listen as her state-employeel
teacher in her state-run schoolleads her classmates in a ritual. proclaiming
that there is a God, anel that ours is 'one nation under Goel.'" 153
In sumrnary, ]apanese anel V.S. educational policies have been inter-
twined since World War H, with lhe United States imposing its educational
structure on]apan;]apan cenlralizing its control ofcurriculum and exarni-
nations; the United States admiring the ]apanese testing and adopting a
similar methoel of control; conservatives in both countries objecting to any
textbook material that dctracted Irom a positive image of their nations; anel
the growth of militarism and nationalism in public schools.
THE NEW RUSSIA:
MILITARISM, STATE EXAMS, AND HUMAN POWER PlANNING
"Anti-patriotic sentiments widespread among Russia's youth pose a threat
to national security," eleclared Oleg Smolin, the heael of the State Duma
committee for education anel science. "This is a direct threat to Russia's na-
tional security comparable to terrorism," Smolin told a 2005 video confer-
ence on "Youth-Future of Russia."!" Patriotic plans were already stirring
in Russia's Ministry of Education with the 2004 announcement of a carn-
paign called, "Ready for Work and Defense of the Motherland." The new
patriotic campaign was the work of the Russian Ministries of Education,
Culture, and Defense. The picture accompanying the announcement in
MosNews showed three young girls dressed in World War II Soviet uniforms
exemplifying the attempt to recapture the patriotic fervor for the Mother-
land that had once existeel in the Soviet Union. In Iact, "Ready forWorkand
Defense of the Motherland," was considered a revival of a Soviet-era pro-
gramo The revised program was planned to instill patriotism for work and
the nation through sporting events, rallies, clubs, military training games,
and patriotic video games. 155
The attempt t9 revive Soviet-style patriotism was accompanied by the
institution of nationwide coI1ege entrance examinations as a means [01' lhe
\1:1l11StryofEaucation to gain control over a school system that had be-
come increasingly diversihe~after the 1991 dernise of the Soviet Union;
an event that Russian Prime Minister Vladirnir V. Putin later called the
"greatest geopolitical tastropRe-of the century.,,156 With only minor
changes to the educational structure, the uniforrnity ofStalinist eelucation
had continued until the collapse of the Soviet U nion. 157Afterwards, there
~el(lped a diversified system of private, for-profit, apbllCinstu-
tions with each university being able to define its own admission stan-
dards.158 However, the actual power still rernained in the Ministry of
Efcation. The 1993 Russian Constitution stated: "The Russian Federa-
tion shall in?titut federal state educational standards and support various
~rms oflucation and self-education."!"
Similar to the United States and ]apan, Russia is becoming highly na-
tionalistic, particularly towards Europe and the United States. Similar to
the program "Ready for Work anel Defense ofthe Motherland," this nation-
alism is based in part 011 the past glory ofthe Soviet Union. In a 2001 speech
to the State Council it was reported by the St. Petersburg 1'zrnes that Prime
'Nfinister Vladimir Putin directly praised the previously existing Soyiet
~lsy.s~n the words ofreporter Oksana Yablokova, "Putin praised
the Souiet education system and warned against blindly emulating Westcrn
-standards, 'cvcn lhe most progrcssivc oncs [my emphasis]'."160 Whcn the
288 NOTES NOTES 289

61. "Shanghai Cops Sucd in jurnper's Death," People's Daily Online 81. Quoted in Marshall, pp. 177-178.
(February 25,2005) http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/.This arti- 82. Teruhisa Horio, Educatumal Thought and Ideology in Modernjapan
ele was retrieved on March 2, 2005. (Tokyo: University ofTokyo Press, 1988), p. 147.
62. "Anti-Cheating Device to be Used in Exarns," People's Daily Online 83. Quoted by Horio, p., 146.
(October 13, 2004) http://cnglish.peopledaily.com.cn/.This arti- 84. Quoted by Horio, p., 149.
ele was retrieved on February 26, 2005. 85. See j oel Spring, The Sorting Machine Revisited: National Educational
63. "Lawmaker Proposes Legislation Against Exam Fraud," People's Policy Since 1945 (White Plains, NY: Longman Inc., 1988).
Daily Online (March 12,2005) http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/. 86. Horio, p. 215.
This artiele was retricved on April 2, 2005. 87. "The Advance of Manpower Capability and the Promotion of Sei-
64. "Education Law ofthc Pcople's Republic ofChina-Chinese Laws entific Technology: Economic Advisory Committee" injapanese
and Regulations-Pcople's Daily Online Ncws Leuer," People's Education Since 1945 ... , pp. 148-149.
Daily Online, http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/.This law was re- 88. "A Proposition from Businessmen for Educational Reform: In
trieved on March 5, 2005. Pursuit of Creativity, Diversity, and Internationality, Education
65. Ibid. Council, japan Committee for Economic Development, July
66. Ibid. 1984" in Ibid., p. 285.
67. Ibid. 89. Quoted in Horio, p. 215.
68. Ibid. 90, Quoted in Horio, p. 216.
69. Ibid. 91. See Benjamin Duke, The japanese School: Lessons for Industrial
70. "Artiele 26," lbid. America (NewYork: Praeger, 1986), pp. 93-97, 216-217.
71. Ibid. ~2. Chester Finn.jr., & Diane Ravitch, "Educational Reform 1995-96
72. lbid. Introduction." Available: www.edexcellence.net, p. 2. Retrieved
(J 3.' Quoted in Sheldon Garon, Moldingfapanese Minds: Tlie Stale in Every- on September 24, 2004.
day Life (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), p. 149. 93. The National Commission On Excellence in Education,A Nation
74. This brief discussion of post-World War II japanese education is at Risk: The Full Account (Portland, OR: USA Research, 1984), p. 1.
based on my prcvious publishcd book:Jocl Spring, Education and 94. See "Appendix," Ibid., pp. 87-114.
the Rise of the Global Economy (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum As- 95. Ibid., p. 5.
sociates, 1998), pp. 37-70. In Education and the Rise ofthe Global 96. Ibid., p. 5.
Economy, I discuss the elevelopment of japanese education from 97. Ibid., p. 5.
the time of 19th century Westernization until roughly the 1990s. 98. Ibid., p. 5.
What is differcnt about the eliscussion in this book is the analysis of 99. Ibiel., p. 6.
the impact of japanese cducation 011 U.S. educational policies 100. lbid., pp. 6-7.
anel the analysis of the changes in both countries in the 21 st cen- 101. David Berliner and Bruce Biddle, The Manufactured Crisis: Myths,
tury,
75. Quoted in Byron Marshall, Learning to BeModern:japanese Discourse
'- Fraud, and the Auack onAmerica's Public Schools (New York: Perseus
Books, 1995).
011, Educatum (Boulder; CO: Westview Press, 1994), p. 157. 102. The National Commission on Excellence in Education ... , pp. 9-10.
76. Ibid., pp. 157-159. ' 103. Ibid., p. 70.
77. The J apanese Constitution can be found on lhe oficial Web site of 104. lbid., p. 70.
the Prime Ministerofjapan, http://www.kantei.gojp/forcign/gov- 105. Ibid., pp. 73-74.
ernment_e.html. This documentwas retrieved on April18, 2005. 106. Ibid., p. 74.
78. Ibid. 107. I detail this history in Joel Spring, Political Agendas for Education:
79. Marshall, p. 163. From the Religious Right to the Green Party Third Edition (Mahwah,
80. "The Board ofEducation Law," injapanese Educauon Since 1945:A NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2005). Also see No Child Left
Documentary Stndy (Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1994) edited by Behind Act of 2001, Public Laui 107-110 (january 8, 2002)
Edward R. Beauchamp anel James Vardaman, jr., p. 118. http://www.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/esea02/ 107 -110. pdf.
 290 NOTES NOTES 291

108. The National Commission on Excellence in Education ... , p. 75. 129. See George W. Bush, 017, God and Country edited by Thomas
109. Ibid., p. 70. Freiling (Washington, DC: Allegiance Press, lnc, 2004).
110. Louis V Gerstner, J r., et aI., Reinventing Educatum: Entrepreneurship 130. The major statement of the ideology of compassionate conserva-
in America's Public Schools (New York: Dutton, 1994), p. 59. tism can be found in Marvin Olasky, Renewing American Campos-
111. WilIiam Bennett, "Epilogue, [apanese Educauon Today (Washing- sion (Washington, DC: Regenery, 1997). An example of the
ton, DC: Department of Education, 1987)," p. 69. relationship between religious values and "N o Child Left Behind"
112. See Benjamin Duke, Tlie [apanese Scliool: Lessons for Industrial can be found in the document from the V.S. Department of Edu-
Amenca (NewYork: Praeger, 1986), pp. 93-97, 216-217. cation, "No Child Left Behincl and Faith-Based Leaders: Working
113. On the politics leading up to "No Child Left Behind" see Spring, Together So Ali Children Succeed" (Washington, DC: VS Covern-
Political Agendas ... ment Printing Office, 2004), http://www.ed.gov/nclb/free-
114. The National Commission on Educational Reforrn, Repott by lhe dom/faith/leaders. pdf.
National Commission on Educational Reform, December 22,2000, Of- 131. On the controversy about historical interpretations to be included
ficial Government Web site for the Prime Minister of Japan and in American textbooks and curricula see Catherine Cornbleth &
His Cabinet, htt:p://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/index-e.html.. p. 2. Dexter Waugh, The Great Speckled Bird: Multicultural Politics and Ed-
Retrieved on April 6, 2005. ucation Policymakmg (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
115. Ibid., p. 2. 1995). For an American neo-conservative guide to textbooks see
116. Ministry of Education, "Educational Reforrn: Education Reform Diane Ravitch, A Consumer's Cuide to High School History Textbooks
Plan for the 21 st Century," Official Government Web site for the (Washington, DC: Fordham Institute, 2004).
Japanese Ministry of Education http://www.mext.go.jp/eng- 132. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., The Disuniting of America (KnoxvilIe,
lish/org/. Retrieved on April 25, 2005. TN: Whittle Direct Books, 1991), p. 8.
117. Eriko Arita, "Education Expert CalIs for Radical Reforms,".fapan 133. No Child Lefl BehindAct of2001 ... , p. 243.
Times 011, lhe Web, http://wwwjapantimcs.cojp/cgi-bin/makeprfy. 134. Ibid., p. 559.

x 11~
9.
120.
pI5?nn20010724b5.htm.

Ibid., p. 4.
Ibid., p. 1.
Retricved on April 25, 2005.
The National Commission on Educational Reform, p. 1.
135.
136.
137.
138.
Ibid., p. 560.
lbid., pp. 201, 226.
Ibid., p. 230.
"Gov't oks nationalist text; sex slavery glossed over (6 April
121. Ibid., p. 3. 2005)," .fapan Today http://wwwjapantoday.com/. Retrieved on
122. Ibid., p. 10. ApriL 26. 200E.
123. Kathy Emery and Susan Ohanian, Why is Corporate Amrica Bash- 139. "Ehime give go-ahead on use of controversial text (15 August
ing Our Schools? (Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2004); Susan 2002)," Mainichi Shimbun http://mdn.mainichi.cojp/. Retrieved
Ohanian, One Size Fils Few: The Folly of Educatumal Standards on April 26, 2005.
(Portsrnouth, NH: Heinemann, 1999); Alfie Kohn, The Case 140. "[apan's right-wing textbook is teaching material by negative ex-
Againsl Standardized Testing: Raismg lhe Scores, Ruining lhe Schools ample: Comment (6 April 2005)," People's Daily Online http://eng-
(Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 2000); and Peter Sacks, Standard- lish.people.com.cn/. Retrieved on April 11,2005.
ized Minds: The High Price of America's Testing Culture and Whal We 141. "Plan to Teach V.S. History Is Said to Slight White Males," New
Can Do to Cliange It (New York: Perseus Publisbing, 2001). York Times, 26 October 1994, p. B12.
124. The National Commission on Eclucational Reform, p. 3. 142. Karen DiegmuelIer, "Revise History Standards, Two Panels Ad-
125. Ibid., p. 5. vise," Education Week, 18 October 1995, p. 11.
126. Ibid., p. 7. 143. "J apan must 'face up to history,' China Wen says, (12 April 2005),"
127. Ibicl., p. 18. The Globe and Mail http://www.theglobeandmail.com/. Retrieved
128. Press Release, "Character Educat ion Grants Awarded," (Washing- on April 12,2005.
ton, DC: V.S. Departrnent of Education, September 29, 2003), 144. "[apan's Right-wing textbook "
http://wvvw.ed.gov/news/pressreleases/2003/09/09292003.html. 145. "Cov't Oks Nationalist Text "
292 NOTES NOTES 293

146. Ibid. 163. "Hundreds Protest Standardized Exam (31 May 2004)," Mosnews
147. "Teachers urged to tell students to respect lag, anthem (6 March http://ww.mosnews.com/. Retrieved on April 20, 2005.
2005)," japan Today bttp://wwwjapantoday.com/. Retrieved on 164. lrina Titova, "Education Plans Meet National Protests (2 March
April 28, 2005. 2001)," St. Petersburg Times http://www.sptimesrussia.com/.Re-
148. "36 Tokyo teachers seek reversal of reprimancls over anthem (6 trieved on April 26, 2005.
April 2005)," japan Today hup://wwwjapanloclay.com/. Retrievecl 165. "Hundreds Protest Standardizecl Exam .... "
on April 28, 2005. 166. Yablokova, "Education System .... "
149. "Board checked to see how loud stuclents sang anthem (31 May 167. "Russia Returning to Ways of Stalin (4 April 2005)," Mosnews
2004)," japan 7day http://wwwjapantoclay.com/. Retrievecl on http://ww.mosnews.com/. Retrieved on April 20,2005.
April 28, 2005. 168. Ibid.
150. "Teacher warned for refusing to sing nat'l anthern (24 March 169. "This is Civicus, About Civicus, Our Mission," http://www.civicus.
2005)," japan Today http://wwwjapantoclay.com/. Retrievecl on org/. Retrieved on May 16,2005.
April 28, 2005. 170. The Commission is the politically independent institution that
151. "Court rules against teacher refusing to play anthem on piano represents and upholds the interests ofthe EU as a whole. lt is the
(December 4, 2003)," japan Today http://www.japantoday.com/. driving force within the EU's institutional system: it proposes leg-
Retrieved on April 28, 2005. islation, policies and programs of action and it is responsible for
152. John Gehring, "States Weigh Bills to Stoke Studerus' Patriotism implementing the decisions of Parliament and the Council.
(27 Marcb 2002)," Education Week Online hltp://www.edwcek.org/. 171. Commission of the European Communities, "Communication ,
Retrieved April 18,2005. from the Commission, Mobilizing the Brainpower ofEurope: En- ~
153. Rhea R. BOIja, "Pledge of Allegiance in lhe Legal Spotlight (l0 abling Universities to Make Their Full Contribution to the Lisbon

154.
July 2002)," Educalion Week Online http://www.eclweek.org/.Re-
trieved April 18,2005.
"Unpatriotic Russian Youth as Dangerous as Terrorism-Duma Of-
172.
Strategy," (Brussels: The European Commission, April 4, 2005).
Directorate-General for Education and Culture, Education and
Training in Europe: Diverse Systerns, Shared Goals for 2010 (Luxem-
K
Iicial (3 March 2005)," Mosnetos http://ww.mosnews.com/.Re- bourg: Offtce for Oficial Publications ofthe European Cornrnuni-
trieved on April 20, 2005. ties, 2002), p. 7.
155. "Russia to Instill Youth wit:h Patriotism Through War; Video 173. Quoted inJoel Spring, Education and the Rise ofthe Global Econorny
Carnes (2 November 2004)," Mosnews hu,p://ww.mosnews.com/. (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998), p. 97. Chap-
Retrieved on April 20, 2005. ter4 ofthis book provides a pre-21st century analysis of education
156. C.J. Chivers, "Russia will Pursue Democracy, but in lts Own Way, and the EU.
Putin Says (26 Spring 2005)," The New York Times 011 the Web 174. Directorate-General for Education and Culture, Education and
http://www.nylimes.com/. Retrieved on April 26, 2005. Training in Europe ... , p. 7.
157. See Anthony Jones, "The Educalional Legacy of the Soviet Pe- 175. Ibid, p. 12.
riocl," in Education and Society in lhe New Russia edited by Anthony 176. lbid, p. 14. .
Jones (Arrnonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 1994), pp.3-23. 177. Quoted inJoel Spring, Educauon and the Rise ofthe Global Econorny
158. See Stephen T Kerr; "Divcrsification in Russian Education," ... ,p.110.
Ibicl., pp. 47-75. 178. Ibid., p. 110.
159. Russian Constitution http://www.clepartmen ts.bucknell.cdu/rus- 179. Ibid., p. 108.
sian/const/ch.html. Retrieved on April 18, 2005. 180. Directorate-General for Education and Culture, Education and
160. Oksana Yablokova, "Education Systern to Get a Financial Boost, Training in Europe ... , p. 16.
(31 August 2001 )," St. Petersburg Times hllP://WWw.splimesrussia. 181. Ibid., p. 17.
com/o Retrieved on April 26, 2005. 182. Commission ofthe European Communities, "Annex to the: Com-
161. Chivers, "Russia will Pursue Dcmocracy .... " munication frorn the Commission, Mobilizing the Brainpower of
162. Yablokova," Education Systern .... " Europe: Enabling U niversities to Make Their Full Contribution to