Plantations Under Drip Fertigation

Agro-Knowledge Management

Agriculture Department
Netafim Ltd., Israel
1. Introduction
Bananas are cultivated on an area of 4.44 million hectares producing 72.47 million tons at
an average productivity of 16.32 tons/ha. In many developing countries, the bulk of banana
production is self-consumed or locally traded, thereby playing a crucial role in food security. The
total value of international banana trade ranges between US$ 4.5 and 5 billion per year. The
worlds leading producer of Cavendish bananas is India, followed by Ecuador, China, Colombia
and Costa Rica. These 5 countries account for over half of global Cavendish output (FAO, 2005).

2. Climatic requirement
Banana is basically a plant of the humid tropics, but is adapted to a wide range of climatic
conditions ranging from wet tropical to dry sub-tropical.
It can be grown from sea level to an altitude of 1200m.
New leaf emergence stops below 16 C; growth (dry matter assimilation) stops below 14 C;
optimum temperature for growth and for flower initiation is 22 C, and optimum leaf
emergence rate is about 31C. Frost kills rapidly banana leaves.
The overall mean temperature for an optimum balance between growth (assimilation) and
development (leaf emergence) is about 27 C.
Wind influences crop water use, tears the leaf laminae and at high speeds (about
30m/sec) destroys the plantations (50 100%).

3. Soil requirement
Deep, well drained, friable loamy soil with adequate organic matter, low (< 1.0 dS/m) EC e
and pH of 5.8 to 7.5 is ideal for banana cultivation.
The soil physical factors important for vigorous root growth of bananas are porosity and
mechanical impedance (compaction), aeration and natural drainage (waterlogging), water-
holding capacity and soil temperature.
Minimum soil temperatures below 10 to 15 C severely restrict root extension rate.

4. Varieties

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 The main cultivar is Dwarf Cavendish and synonyms of this are Canary Banana, Dwarf
Chinese, Basrai in India, Governer in the West Indies, and Enano in Latin America.
Taller Cavendish cultivars Williams and Grand Nain are preferred in choke throat
problematic areas in view of higher yields and better quality fruit.

5. Planting material
Sword suckers of 3 months old weighing 1.0 to 1.5 kg, free from diseases are widely used
as planting material in banana throughout the world. Avoid water suckers which have
broad leaves, narrow pseudostem, a small rhizome and low vigour as planting material.
Before planting dip the suckers in 0.1% Carbendazim (1 g/Litre) and 0.1% Monocrotophos
(2.5 ml/Litre) for 15 minutes as a prophylactic measure against soil borne pathogens.
Tissue culture plantlets (Fig.1) derived from in vitro techniques have also gained popularity
and are in use commercially in several countries as an alternative to conventional planting
material, sword suckers in view of several benefits.

Fig. 1. Healthy disease free banana tissue culture plantlets

6. Time of planting
Optimum time of planting for banana in a given agro-ecological zone is determined by the
choice of cultivar, timing the crop harvest to coincide with high market prices, timing the planting
date to benefit from, or to avoid certain climatic conditions (wind, low temperatures etc). Timing for
markets is usually only effective for the plant crop and possibly for the first ratoon cycle, after which
natural harvest spread nullifies this benefit.

7. Planting density

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 The optimum plant density varies with agro-ecological zone, cultivar, soil fertility,
desuckering, duration of planting and system of cultivation (sole crop system, intercropping system
and multistoried system) (Table 1).
Table 1. Initial spatial arrangement for banana in various countries
Plant No. of R1
S.No. Country Spacing (m)
population followers
1 NSW, Australia 3x2 1666 1
2 North Queensland, Australia 5 x 1.5 2050 1
3 Kununurra, Australia 3x2 1666 2
4 Burgershall, South Africa 3x2 1666 1
5 Komatipoort, South Africa 3 x 1.5 2222 1
6 Taiwan 2.1 x 2.1 2250 1
7 Jordan valley, Israel 3x3 1111 2
8 Coastal plain, Israel 3 x 3.5 950 3
9 Canary Islands 3.5 x 3.5 2450 3
10 Central America 2.6 x 2.2 1730 1
11 Honduras 3 x 1.8 2100 1
12 Puerto Rico 1.7 x 1.7 3460 1
13 India 1.8 x 1.5 3700 1
1.8 x 1.8 3086 1

8. Planting configuration under drip

The planting configuration followed for raising banana under onsurface and subsurface
drip irrigation system is presented in Fig. 2 and 3, respectively.

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 Fig. 2. Banana planting configuration under surface drip irrigation

Fig. 3. Banana planting configuration under subsurface drip irrigation

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9. Drip fertigation system
Growing bananas under drip irrigation has been found to be technically feasible,
economically viable and beneficial in many ways:
Better establishment of suckers/plantlets and early vigorous growth,
Uniform flower initiation and shooting fruit development
Improved fruit development contributing to increased hands/bunch, fingers/hand and
bunch weight,
Earliness and uniformity in harvesting leading to reduction in crop cycles duration (Plant
crop + 2 ratoons in 30 months)
Successful utilization of saline water for irrigation due to micro-leaching effect in the wetted
volume
Saving in water up to 51.8% (ICID, 1994) contributing to higher water productivity over
ridge & furrow method (Fig. 4)

Fig. 4. Banana water requirement Drip versus Surface furrow irrigation

Efficient use of fertilizers due to fertigation (Rasker, 2003)

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 Energy conservation (2434.42 kwh/ha) over surface method,
Improved weed control and saving in labour due fewer plant protection & harvesting
operations,
Less leaf spot disease incidence and
Higher yield (Fig. 5) and fruit quality viz., weight, size and colour (INCID, 1994; Young
et.al., 1985)

Fig. 5. Banana bunch yield Drip irrigation versus surface furrow irrigation
9.1. Drip design configurations
As a guideline the key design parameters followed in different countries for adoption of drip
irrigation system in banana plantations are presented below in Table 2:
Table 2. Drip design guidelines for Banana in different countries
Country
Drip design parameter
Brazil India Israel
Drip system version Surface Surface Subsurface
Planting configuration Double row Single row Single row
Spatial arrangement (m) [(2 x 4) 2] 1.8 x 1.5 5.5 x 3
Plant population/ha 1666 3700 666
Drip product Ram & Tiran Ram & DLN 2016 Ram & Uniram
Number of laterals/row One One 3
Dripline spacing (m) 3 1.8 1.66
Dripline installation depth (m) Onsurface Onsurface 0.2
Emitter spacing (m) 0.75 4.0 0.3 to 0.5
Emitter discharge (LPH) 3.5 & 4.0 2.0 1.6

10. Weed control

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 Weeds reduce yield up to 40 50% depending upon cultivar and soil. First 6 months of
crop growth are most critical for weed growth and is considered critical for crop weed
competition. Apart from agronomic measures, pre-emergence application of Diuron @ 4.0kg/ha is
effective in controlling weeds during the initial 3 to 4 months. Weeds emerging later could be
controlled by the application of Glyphosate (Glycel 41 EC) @ 2.0 kg/ha followed by Paraquat
(Gramoxone 24 EC) @ 1.8 kg/ha. Glyphosate should be applied using hood @ 10ml/litre of water +
Ammonium Sulphate 20g/litre where Cyperus rotundus or Cynodon dactylon are dominant.

11. Crop water requirement & Irrigation scheduling

Irrigation scheduling for bananas involves accurate calculations of the amount of water to
be applied at each irrigation, and the interval between irrigation, for each soil-plant-climate
combination. The banana is a tropical herbaceous evergreen plant which has no natural dormant
phase and which has a high water demand throughout the year, especially at high temperatures. In
this respect the important characteristics of the banana plant are:
a) A high transpiration potential due to the large broad leaves and high LAI
b) A shallow root system compared with most tree fruit crops
c) A poor quality to withdraw water from soil beneath field capacity
d) A rapid physiological response to soil water deficit
These factors make banana plants extremely sensitive to even slight variations in soil
water content, emphasizing the importance of correct irrigation scheduling. Daily water
requirements vary in the range of 3 6 mm/day depending on the combination of LAI, temperature,
humidity, radiation & wind. In the tropics, maximal Kc (ETc/Epan) is high and values range from
1.28 to 1.4 (Israeli and Nameri, 1987). In the subtropics, maximal summer Kc is somewhat lower at
0.8 to 1.0, decreasing to 0.6 in winter (Robinson and Alberts, 1989). In Israel banana production is
entirely dependent on drip irrigation @ 1050 mm/year in Western Galilee and 1500 mm/year in the
Jordan Valley) since the annual rainfall of 400 600 mm falls entirely in winter when no growth
occurs. A summary of banana crop water requirements under variable climates in different
countries are given in Table 3.
Table 3. Irrigation scheduling approaches in banana in different countries
(Stover and Simmonds, 1987)
Source Location Water requirements mm/week
Arscott et. al. (1965) Honduras (Upper Aguan Valley)
Aubert (1968) Ecuador 30 37

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 Ghavami (1973 & 1974) Honduras (Sula Valley) 1.3 x Class A pan 44
Meyer (1979) Martinique 1.2 x Class A pan 31
Da Silva et al. (1977) Brazil (Paraiba) (7S) 0.5 x Class A pan 28
Moreira (1968) Brazil (Campinas) (23S) 25 45
Bovee (1975) Lebanon 0.82-1.0 x Class A pan 40
Bredell et al. (1978) South Africa 0.90 x Class A pan ---
Robinson (1981) South Africa 0.80 x Class A pan 25 44
Lahav & Kalmar (1981) Israel 0.90 x Class A pan ---
Holder & Gumbs (1983) St. Lucia ---- 10 18
Trochoulias & Murison (1981) Australia (NSW) 0.6 x Class A pan 11 18
Hegde & Srinivas (1989) Bangalore, India 0.8 - 1.0 x Class A pan --

Otimum soil water potential range for optimum growth and yield is from field water capacity
to 20 kPa. Stomatal conductance, photosynthesis and yield start to be adversely affected at soil
water potential of 40 kPa and lower (negatively more). A field irrigation schedule prepared based
on crop coefficient approach for irrigating banana grown in Tropical conditions of India is presented
in Fig. 6 for field application.

Fig. 6. Banana Crop coefficient and water requirement

12. Fertigation
Banana plants require large quantities of nutrients during both their vegetative growth and
fruit production. The crop has high demand for nitrogen and particularly potassium. The
phosphorus requirement of the banana is not large compared with N and K. Average amount of
nutrients removed by a Cavendish banana plantation having a plant population of 2000 plants/ha

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with followers and an average bunch weight of 25 kg (roots not included) is shown in Fig. 7 (Lahav
and Turner, 1989).

Fig. 7. Nutrient uptake by Cavendish banana plantation

Banana being a heavy feeder requires very large quantities of nutrients for growth and
yield, accounting for 20 to 30% of the total cost of the production. The fertilizer recommendations
for banana in different countries are given in Table 4 (Martin-Prevel, 1992).
Table 4. Fertilizer recommendations for banana in different countries
Nutrients (kg/ha/year)
Country
N P2O5 K2O
South Africa 140 500 0 100 750 1600
Canary Island 500 600 200 300 700 1000
Egypt 380 500 55 300 950
Israel 400 90 200 1440
India 300 600 320 345 340 720
Taiwan 400 115 900
Australia 110 370 160 460 480 1560
Brazil 250 500 125 240 500 950
Costa Rica 300 450 0 160 600 750
Honduras 290 0 0
Jamaica 225 150 560
Carribban Islands 160 300 35 50 500
Source: Martin-Prevel, 1992

The critical concentration below which a response can be expected varies with cultivar,
site, climate and sampling procedure and guideline values are given in Table 5.
Table 5. Critical concentrations of nutrient elements in the dry matter at
the fully grown sucker stage in Dwarf Cavendish

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 Element Lamina 3 Midrib 3 Petiole 7
N (%) 2.6 0.65 0.4
P (%) 0.2 0.08 0.07
K (%) 3.0 3.0 2.1
Ca (%) 0.5 0.5 0.5
Mg (%) 0.3 0.3 0.3
Na (%) 0.005 0.005 0.005
Cl (%) 0.6 0.65 0.70
S (%) 0.23 -- 0.35
Mn (ppm) 25.0 80.0 70.0
Fe (ppm) 80.0 50.0 30.0
Zn (ppm) 18.0 12.0 8.0
B (ppm) 11.0 10.0 8.0
Cu (ppm) 9.0 7.0 5.0
Mo (ppm) 1.5 3.2 -- --
Hewitt (1955); Lahav (1970) Lahav (1970); Freiberg (1966)
Source Marchal and Martin-Prevel (1971) Langenegger & Plessis Lahav (1970)
Marchal et.al. (1972); Murrey (1960) (1977) Lahav (1977)
Recommended fertigation programme based on nutrient uptake, soil fertility status, crop
growth phase, efficiency factor etc is given in Table 6.
Table 6. Fertigation schedule for banana
Recommended dose Plant population/ha FYM N P2O5 K2O
Per plant 3700 plants 10 kg 150 g 50 g 240 g
Per hectare 3700 plants 37 tons 555 kg 185 kg 888 kg

FYM N P2O5 K2O

Weeks after planting
(Kg/plant) (g/plant) (g/plant) (g/plant)
Basal application 10 --- --- ---
1st to 8th week 24.0 15.0 15.0
9th to 16th week 58.5 25.0 19.0
17th to 24th week 37.5 10.0 51.0
25th to 32nd week 30.0 --- 71.0
33rd to 40th week --- --- 84.0
Total 10.0 150.0 50.0 240.0

13. Bunch propping

Lodging of banana plants is due to poor anchorage, selecting weak and shallow suckers,
exceptionally large bunches, thin and flexible pseudostems, strong winds, damage due to rhizome
rot, or the burrowing nematode or by the use of tall cultivars. To protect the crop from lodging and
to give support to bunches three main methods viz., use of wooden poles, tying of adjacent plants
and overhead cable system are advocated..

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14. Denavelling
Removal of male bud after completion of the female phase is referred to as denavelling or
bunch trimming. The male flower bud or bell is usually broken off by hand some 8 to 12 days after
bunch emergence, once the distance between the distal hand and the bell is at least 15cm. This
practice prevents movement of assimilates in to unwanted sink from the hanging bunch (i.e., male
flower), reduces fruit scarring and incidence of cigar end rot.

15. Bunch covers

The use of polyethylene bunch covers is widespread throughout the commercial banana
growing regions of the world. The practice is regarded as an essential pre-requisite to improve the
market quality and yield of the fruit. Bunch covers provide protection to the fruit surface against
wind damage, leaf and petiole scarring, dust, light hail, sunburn, bird feeding, and handling
damage during harvest and transport.
Bunch covers are typically made of thin plastic (low density polyethylene; 5 to 40 microns)
and are 81.3 to 91.4 cm (32 to 36 inches) wide and range in length from 1 to 1.5 meters (3.3 to 5
feet). The thin bunch covers are designed to be used only once. The thicker ones can be re-used,
but the removal process is time consuming and it is difficult to avoid damaging the plastic.
Commercially available bunch covers generally are blue, green, yellow and clear, with and without
silver sides.

16. Desuckering
Desuckering describes the practice of destroying unwanted suckers, which develop from
the rhizome of a banana plant. Remove excess suckers of 30cm height when the leaves are still in
the thin, bract like stage from the plant regularly, before they become too large and unmanageable.
Cut the sucker down, gouge a small cavity in the center of the cut surface, and pour in 2ml of
keresone or dieseline which moves downwards killing the meristem and preventing sucker growth.
Simply cutting off the young sucker at ground level with a machete, leaving the meristem
undamaged, causes the sucker to regrow and may need cutting several times. Hormone
desuckering with 2, 4-D amine (5% a.i.) is also successfully practiced in Queensland, Australia and
Israel, wherein 0.5ml of solution is applied to the funnel of the sucker of 30cm height which
eventually collapses at soil level.

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17. Ratoon sucker selection
Sucker selection refers to choosing the correct follower sucker to perpetuate the ratoon
plantation most effectively. There are three aspects to consider viz., stage of parent plant
development, number of suckers to select and the direction of selection. Select and retain one
follower sucker at after emergence of bunch having a height of 30cm. With very early selection,
there is a greater competition between parent and sucker whereby the latter grows more slowly,
remains suppressed for longer and produces a smaller bunch. Select a single sucker on each plant
along the row. Suckers must be of same shape, size and in the same direction otherwise planting
system becomes unmanageable. Taller suckers (50cm or 80cm) with broad leaves rapidly become
competitive with the selected follower sucker and reduce yields by 7.6% and 15.6% respectively,
compared with the recommended 30 cm desuckering (Robinson and Nel, 1990).

18. Leaf removal

Removal of whole leaves from a banana plant is a common practice to reduce spread of
leaf spot disease, to improve light penetration and utilization by suckers and to increase
pseudostem temperatures, and to avoid rubbing and scarring fingers on the developing bunch to
improve fruit quality. Leaf removal operation is done at bimonthly interval to avoid weakening of
pseudostem. Preferably maintain a minimum of 12 healthy leaves at flowering, and nine at harvest
to achieve maximum bunch filling green life (Robinson et.al., 1992).

19. Windbreaks
Windbreaks are often planted in subtropical banana areas, especially by the sea, to reduce
prevailing wind damage. Casuarina windbreaks are increasingly being used to reduce the high
incidence of bunch stalk breakage induced by a combination of heat stress and strong winds.
Artificial windbreaks are used in parts of Israel (sheets of polypropylene net with 40 to 50%
permeability) and in the Canary Islands (breezeblock bricks protecting terrace plantings).

20. Harvesting
Optimum time of harvesting of banana bunches and the correct handling of the fruit during
transport and packing are vitally important prerequisites for obtaining high quality and premium

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prices at the market place. For example, fruit could be harvested fully mature for immediate
ripening and local marketing. For short-distance transport of green fruit, 90% maturity could be
used, and for long distance transport by ship, 75% maturity is normally used. Conversely,
harvesting too immature in cool weather can lead to several kilograms loss of bunch mass and
extended ripening requirements.

21. Fruit Yield

A good commercial average bunch yield of banana raised with tissue culture plantlets
under drip fertigation in field conditions is 75 to 80 tons/ha (30 32 tons/acre).

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