Radharaman Group of Institutes, Bhopal

Department of Electronics & Communication

Antenna and wave propagation (EC-602)

List of experiments
1. To study various antenna characteristics and
theorems. Plot radiation pattern of omni directional antenna.
2. To plot the radiation pattern of simple
dipoles (/2 & /4) and calculated beam width, front/back ratio
and gain. Compare them.
3. To Plot the radiation pattern of folded dipole
and calculate its characteristics.
4. To study and plot the radiation pattern of
Yagi Uda 3 element and 5elements folded dipole antennae.
Compare them.
5. To study and plot the radiation pattern of
the end fire array.
6. To study and plot the radiation pattern of
the broad side array.
7. To study and plot the radiation pattern of
the log periodic and rhombus antennae.
8. To study and plot the radiation pattern of
the cut parabolic reflector antenna.
9. To study and plot the radiation pattern of
the slot antenna.
10. To study and plot the radiation pattern of
the helix antenna.
11. To measure the polar pattern and gain of a
waveguide horn antenna.

1
12. To study the characteristics of micro strip
patch antenna.

2
 Radharaman Group of Institutes, Bhopal

S.NO Name of Frequency band Frequency Range Principal use

1 ELF (Extremely Low frequency) 3-30Hz
2 SLF (Super Low Frequency 30-300Hz Power Grid
3 ULF (Ultra Low frequency) 300-3000Hz
4 VLF (Very Low Frequency) 3-30kHz Submarines
5 LF (Low frequency) 30-300kHz Beacons
6 MF (Medium Frequency) 300-3000kHz AM Broadcast
7 HF (High frequency) 3-30MHz Shortwave Broadcast
8 VHF (Very High Frequency) 30-300MHz FM, TV
9 UHF (Ultra High Frequency) 300-3000Mhz TV, LAN, Cellular, GPS
10 SHF (Super High Frequency) 3-30GHz Radar, GSO Satellites, Data
11 EHF (Extremely High Frequency) 30-300GHz Radar, Automotive, Data

Microwave Bands
S.No Old New Frequency
1 L D 1-2GHz
2 S E,F 2-4 GHz
3 C G,H 4-8 GHz
4 X I,J 8-12 GHz
5 Ku J 12-18 GHz
6 K J 18-26 GHz
7 Ka K 26-40 GHz

Decibel is a relative power unit. At audio frequencies a change of one

decibel (abbreviated dB) is just detectable as a change in loudness
under ideal conditions.
For a given power ratio the decibel change is calculated as:
dB = 10 log P2/P1
If we used voltage or current ratios instead then our formula becomes:
dB = 20 log V2/V1

3
 Radharaman Group of Institutes, Bhopal
Experiment No.1
Aim: - To study various antenna characteristics and theorems.

Apparatus Required:-
1. Antenna Trainer kit
2. Different antennas
3. Cathode Ray oscilloscope (CRO)
4. Power supply
5. Cables, connectors

Theory: - An antenna is a transducer designed to transmit or receive

electromagnetic waves. In other words, antennas convert
electromagnetic waves into electrical currents and vice versa.

Physically, an antenna is an arrangement of conductors that generate

a radiating electromagnetic field in response to an applied alternating
voltage and the associated alternating electric current, or can be
placed in an electromagnetic field so that the field will induce an
alternating current in the antenna and a voltage between its terminals.
Decibel
It is a relative power unit. At audio frequencies a change of one decibel
(abbreviated dB) is just detectable as a change in loudness under ideal
conditions.
For a given power ratio the decibel change is calculated as:
dB = 10 log P2/P1
If we used voltage or current ratios instead then our formula becomes:
dB = 20 log V2/V1

4
Array
An array of antenna elements is a spatially extended collection of N
similar radiators or elements, where N is a countable number bigger
than 1.
Radiation pattern
The radiation pattern is a graphical depiction of the relative field
strength transmitted from or received by the antenna or the radiation
pattern of an antenna is the geometric pattern of the relative field
strengths of the field emitted by the antenna
Efficiency
Efficiency is the ratio of power actually radiated to the power put into
the antenna terminals. A dummy load may have an SWR of 1:1 but an
efficiency of 0, as it absorbs all power and radiates heat but not RF
energy, showing that SWR alone is not an effective measure of an
antenna's efficiency
Bandwidth
The "bandwidth" of an antenna is the range of frequencies over which
the antenna maintains certain required characteristics like gain, front
to back ratio or SWR pattern, polarization and impedance etc.
Beam width
Antenna beam width is an angular width in degree measured on the
radiation pattern (Major lobe) between points where the radiated
power has fallen to half its maximum value.
Directivity
The directivity of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the radiation
intensity of the antenna in the direction of maximum radiation to the
average radiation intensity of antenna.
Maximumradiation int ensity
D
Averagerad iation int encity

max( , )

av( , )

5
Gain
The Gain, Directive gain or Power gain of an antenna is defined as the
ratio of the intensity (power per unit surface) radiated by the antenna
in a given direction at an arbitrary distance divided by the intensity
radiated at the same distance by a hypothetical isotropic antenna.

Polarization
The polarization of an antenna is normally defined in terms of
orientation of electric field vector in the direction of maximum
radiation.
The "polarization" of an antenna is the orientation of the electric field
(E-plane) not magnetic field of the radio wave with respect to the
Earth's surface and it is also determined by the physical structure of
the antenna and by its orientation.
Front to Back Ratio
It is define as the ratio of the power radiated in desired direction to the
power radiated in the opposite direction

FBR= PFrd / PBwd

Where PFrd = power radiated in desired direction

PBwd = power radiated in desired direction

Electrical length
The electrical length is usually the physical length of the wire divided
by its velocity factor (the ratio of the speed of wave propagation in the
wire to c0, the speed of light in a vacuum).
Standing wave ratio (SWR)

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The ratio of maximum power to minimum power of the wave is called
the standing wave ratio (SWR). A SWR of 1:1 is ideal.

Baluns
"A transmission line transformer for converting balanced input to
unbalanced output or vice versa. It may or may not provide wide
frequency range impedance transformation depending upon the
configuration used."

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

This theorem is used to ensure that a load receives maximum power

from the source. It states that a load receives maximum power when
its terminal resistance is equal to the Thevenin resistance of the
source.

Reciprocity theorem

In any system composed of linear bilateral impedances, if a voltage V

is applied between any two terminals and the current is measured in
any branch ,the ratio of V to I called the transfer impedance, will be
same as the ratio V to I obtained when the positions of generator and
ammeter are interchanged. The reciprocity theorem is used to derive
expressions for the short-circuit current at the terminals of a receiving
antenna and the input impedance of an antenna.

Viva- voce Question

1. What is the antenna?
2. What is decibel?
3. What is standing wave and standing wave ratio (SWR)?
4. Write advantages and disadvantages of using antenna in
communication system.

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 Radharaman Group of Institutes, Bhopal

Experiment No.2
Aim: - To plot the radiation pattern of simple dipoles (/2 & /4) and
calculated beam width, front/back ratio and gain. Compare them.
Apparatus Required:-
1. Antenna Trainer kit
2. Dipole antenna
3. Cathode Ray oscilloscope (CRO)
4. Power supply

Theory: -
Procedure:-
1. Keep the main unit on the table and connect power cord check
the mains voltage and switch ON the unit. The indicator lamp
should glow. Switch OFF the main unit.

8
 2. Assemble the coaxial antenna mast and fix it on the Goniometric
scale of the main unit.
3. Assemble detector assembly and mount detector unit on the
mast.
4. Keep main unit and detector assembly at a distance of 1.5
meter.
5. Install folded dipole antenna on the transmitting mast and align
the direction of transmitting and receiving antenna.
6. Bring the detector assembly near to main unit and adjust (keep)
height of both transmitting and receiving antenna same
7. Switch on the main unit and check for display in the meter of
directional coupler. If required adjust RF level and RS adjust. The
toggle switch can be in either FWD or REV position.
8. Check for display in detector meter. Adjust level of detector
meter for displays in the meter.
9. Rotate transmitting antenna between 0-360 and observe the
display on the detector assembly. The variation indicates that the
transmitter and the receiver are working and radiation pattern is
formed.

Note: - Ensure that there are no reflector sort things in the vicinity of
the experiment such as steel structures, pipes, cables, etc.
Precaution: -
1. The reflective bodies of automobiles, movement of people and
birds around the field caused fluctuations in readings.
2. Movement of the attenuator caused fluctuations in readings.
3. The mast and rotator box altered some of the radiation patterns.
4. The movement and positioning of the coaxial cable altered
patterns.
5. Mis-mounting of the antennas caused altered patterns.
6. The increasing temperature of the transmitter lowered dB levels.
7. Operator error.
8. Antenna design issues.

Observation:-

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Result: -

Viva- voce Question

10
 Radharaman Group of Institutes, Bhopal

Experiment No.3
Aim: - To Plot the radiation pattern of folded dipole and calculate its
characteristics.

Apparatus Required:-
1. Antenna Trainer kit
2. Helix antenna
3. Cathode Ray oscilloscope (CRO)
4. Power supply

Theory: - FOLDED DIPOLE The use of parasitic elements and

various stacking arrangements causes a reduction in the radiation
resistance of a center-fed, half-wave antenna. Under these conditions
obtaining a proper impedance match between the radiator and the
transmission line is often difficult. A convenient method of overcoming
these difficulties is to use a FOLDED DIPOLE in place of the center-fed
radiator

A FOLDED DIPOLE is an
ordinary half-wave
antenna that has one
or more additional
conductors connected
across its ends.
Additional conductors
are mounted parallel to
the dipole elements at
a distance equal to a
very small fraction of a
wavelength. Spacing of several inches is common. The feed-point

11
impedance can be further increased by using three or four properly
spaced parallel conductors. Standard feed-line SPREADERS are used to
maintain this spacing when required. In any folded dipole, the increase
of impedance is the square of the number of conductors used in the
radiator. Thus, a three-wire dipole has nine times (3 2) the feed-point
impedance of a simple center-fed dipole. A second method of stepping
up the impedance of a folded dipole is to use two conductors with
different radii, as shown in view B. The directional characteristics of a
folded dipole are the same as those of a simple dipole. However, the
reactance of a folded dipole varies much more slowly as the frequency
is varied from resonance. Because of this the folded dipole can be used
over a much wider frequency range than is possible with a simple
dipole.
Procedure:-
Transmitter
1. Keep the main unit on the table and connect power cord
check the mains voltage.
2. Assemble the coaxial antenna mast and fix it on the
Goniometric scale of the main unit.
3. Install folded dipole antenna on the transmitting mast and
align the direction of transmitting and receiving antenna.
4. Switch on the main unit and check for display in the meter of
directional coupler. If required adjust RF level and RS
adjust. The toggle switch can be in either FWD or REV
position.
5. Switch ON the unit. The indicator lamp should glow.
Receiver Unit

1. Assemble detector assembly and mount detector unit on the

mast.

12
 2. Keep main unit and detector assembly at a distance of 1.5
meter.
3. Bring the detector assembly near to main unit and adjust
(keep) height of both transmitting and receiving antenna
same
4. Check for display in detector meter. Adjust level of detector
meter for displays in the meter.

Note: - Rotate transmitting antenna step by step between 0-360 and

observe the display on the detector assembly. The variation indicates
that the transmitter and the receiver are working and radiation pattern
is formed.
Precaution: -
1. Ensure that there are no reflective bodies such as steel
structures, pipes, cables automobiles.
2. Movement of people and birds around the field caused
fluctuations in readings so be stay at same position.
3. Movement of the attenuator caused fluctuations in readings.
4. The mast and rotator box altered some of the radiation patterns.
5. Operator should take reading on detector meter very carefully to
avoid error.
6. The movement and positioning of the coaxial cable altered
patterns.
7. Mis-mounting of the antennas caused altered patterns so that .
8. Maintain the temperature of transmitter because increase in
temperature of the transmitter lower dB levels.
Observation:-

Result: -

Viva- voce Question

13
 Radharaman Group of Institutes, Bhopal

Experiment No.4
Aim: - To study and plot the radiation pattern of Yagi Uda 3 element
and 5elements folded dipole antennae. Compare them.

Apparatus Required:-
5. Antenna Trainer kit
6. Helix antenna
7. Cathode Ray oscilloscope (CRO)
8. Power supply

Theory: -

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15
Precaution: -
Observation:-

Result: -

Viva- voce Question

16
 Radharaman Group of Institutes, Bhopal

Experiment No.5
Aim: - To study and plot the radiation pattern of the end fire array.

Apparatus Required:-
9. Antenna Trainer kit
10. Helix antenna
11. Cathode Ray oscilloscope (CRO)
12. Power supply

Theory: -

Precaution: -

Observation:-

Result: -

Viva- voce Question

17
 Radharaman Group of Institutes, Bhopal

Experiment No.6
Aim: - To study and plot the radiation pattern of the broad side array.

Apparatus Required:-
13. Antenna Trainer kit
14. Helix antenna
15. Cathode Ray oscilloscope (CRO)
16. Power supply

Theory: - The horn antenna is used in the transmission and

reception of microwave signals, and the antenna is normally used in
conjunction with waveguide feeds. The horn antenna gains its name
from its appearance. The waveguide can be considered to open out or
to be flared, launching the signal towards the receiving antenna.

Horn antennas are often used as gain standards, and as feeds for
parabolic or 'dish' antennas, as well as being used as antennas in their
own right. One particular use of horn antennas themselves is for short
range radar systems, such as those used for automotive speed
enforcement.

When used as part of a parabolic reflector, the horn is orientated

towards the reflector surface, and is able to give a reasonably even
illumination of the surface without allowing radiation to miss the
reflector. In this way it is able to maximise the efficiency of the overall
antenna. The use of the horn antenna also minimizes the spurious
responses of the parabolic reflector antenna to signals that are not in
the main lobe.

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 Horn antenna

Basic concept

The horn antenna may be considered as an RF transformer or

impedance match between the waveguide feeder and free space which
has an impedance of 377 ohms. By having a tapered or having a flared
end to the waveguide the horn antenna is formed and this enables the
impedance to be matched. Although the waveguide will radiate without
a horn antenna, this provides a far more efficient match.

In addition to the improved match provided by the horn antenna, it

also helps suppress signals traveling via unwanted modes in the
waveguide from being radiated.

However the main advantage of the horn antenna is that it provides a

significant level of directivity and gain. For greater levels of gain the
horn antenna should have a large aperture. Also to achieve the
maximum gain for a given aperture size, the taper should be long so
that the phase of the wave-front is as nearly constant as possible
across the aperture. However there comes a point where to provide
even small increases in gain, the increase in length becomes too large
to make it sensible. Thus gain levels are a balance between aperture
size and length. However gain levels for a horn antenna may be up to
20 dB in some instances.

Horn antenna types

There are two basic types of horn antenna: pyramid and conical. The
pyramid ones, as the name suggests are rectangular whereas the
corrugated ones are usually circular. The corrugated horn provides a
pattern that is nearly symmetrical, with the E and H plane beam
widths being nearly the same. Additionally it is possible to control the
side lobes better with a conical or corrugated horn antenna.

Precaution: -
The reflective bodies of automobiles caused fluctuations in readings.
2.) The movement of people around the field caused fluctuations in
readings.
3.) The movement of birds and leaves caused fluctuations in readings.
4.) Movement of the attenuator caused fluctuations in readings.
5.) The mast and rotator box altered some of the radiation patterns.
6.) The movement and positioning of the coaxial cable altered patterns.
7.) Mis-mounting of the antennas caused altered patterns.
19
8.) The increasing temperature of the transmitter lowered dB levels.
9.) Operator error.
10.) Antenna design issues.

Observation:-

Result: -

Viva- voce Question

20
 Radharaman Group of Institutes, Bhopal

Experiment No.7
Aim: - To study and plot the radiation pattern of the log periodic and
rhombus antennae.

Apparatus Required:-
17. Antenna Trainer kit
18. Helix antenna
19. Cathode Ray oscilloscope (CRO)
20. Power supply

Theory: -

Precaution: -
The reflective bodies of automobiles caused fluctuations in readings.
2.) The movement of people around the field caused fluctuations in
readings.
3.) The movement of birds and leaves caused fluctuations in readings.
4.) Movement of the attenuator caused fluctuations in readings.
5.) The mast and rotator box altered some of the radiation patterns.
6.) The movement and positioning of the coaxial cable altered patterns.
7.) Mis-mounting of the antennas caused altered patterns.
8.) The increasing temperature of the transmitter lowered dB levels.

21
9.) Operator error.
10.) Antenna design issues.

Observation:-

Result: -

Viva- voce Question

22
 Radharaman Group of Institutes, Bhopal

Experiment No.8
Aim: - To study and plot the radiation pattern of the cut parabolic
reflector antenna.

Apparatus Required:-
21. Antenna Trainer kit
22. Helix antenna
23. Cathode Ray oscilloscope (CRO)
24. Power supply

Theory: -

Precaution: -
The reflective bodies of automobiles caused fluctuations in readings.
2.) The movement of people around the field caused fluctuations in
readings.
3.) The movement of birds and leaves caused fluctuations in readings.
4.) Movement of the attenuator caused fluctuations in readings.
5.) The mast and rotator box altered some of the radiation patterns.
6.) The movement and positioning of the coaxial cable altered patterns.
7.) Mis-mounting of the antennas caused altered patterns.
8.) The increasing temperature of the transmitter lowered dB levels.
9.) Operator error.
10.) Antenna design issues.

Observation:-

Result: -

Viva- voce Question

23
 Radharaman Group of Institutes, Bhopal

Experiment No.9
Aim: - To study and plot the radiation pattern of the slot antenna.

Apparatus Required:-
25. Antenna Trainer kit
26. Helix antenna
27. Cathode Ray oscilloscope (CRO)
28. Power supply

Theory: -
Precaution:

Observation:-

Result: -

Viva- voce Question

24
 Radharaman Group of Institutes, Bhopal

Experiment No.10
Aim: - To study and plot the radiation pattern of the helix antenna.

Apparatus Required:-
29. Antenna Trainer kit
30. Helix antenna
31. Cathode Ray oscilloscope (CRO)
32. Power supply

Theory: -

Observation:-

Result: -

Viva- voce Question

25
 Radharaman Group of Institutes, Bhopal

Experiment No.11
Aim: - To measure the polar pattern and gain of a Waveguide horn
antenna.

Apparatus Required:-
33. Antenna Trainer kit
34. Horn antenna
35. Cathode Ray oscilloscope (CRO)
36. Power supply

Theory: - The horn antenna is used in the transmission and

reception of microwave signals, and the antenna is normally used in
conjunction with waveguide feeds. The horn antenna gains its name
from its appearance. The waveguide can be considered to open out or
to be flared, launching the signal towards the receiving antenna.

Horn antennas are often used as gain standards, and as feeds for
parabolic or 'dish' antennas, as well as being used as antennas in their
own right. One particular use of horn antennas themselves is for short
range radar systems, such as those used for automotive speed
enforcement.

Horn antenna

Basic concept

The horn antenna may be considered as an RF transformer or

impedance match between the waveguide feeder and free space which

26
has an impedance of 377 ohms. By having a tapered or having a flared
end to the waveguide the horn antenna is formed and this enables the
impedance to be matched. Although the waveguide will radiate without
a horn antenna, this provides a far more efficient match.

In addition to the improved match provided by the horn antenna, it

also helps suppress signals traveling via unwanted modes in the
waveguide from being radiated.

Horn antenna types

There are two basic types of horn antenna: pyramid and conical. The
pyramid ones, as the name suggests are rectangular whereas the
corrugated ones are usually circular. The corrugated horn provides a
pattern that is nearly symmetrical, with the E and H plane beam
widths being nearly the same. Additionally it is possible to control the
side lobes better with a conical or corrugated horn antenna.

However the main advantage of the horn antenna is that it provides a

significant level of directivity and gain. For greater levels of gain the
horn antenna should have a large aperture. Also to achieve the
maximum gain for a given aperture size, the taper should be long so
that the phase of the wave-front is as nearly constant as possible
across the aperture. However there comes a point where to provide
even small increases in gain, the increase in length becomes too large
to make it sensible. Thus gain levels are a balance between aperture
size and length. However gain levels for a horn antenna may be up to
20 dB in some instances.

Precaution: -

Observation:-

Result: -

27
 Radharaman Group of Institutes, Bhopal

Experiment No.12
Aim: - To study the characteristics of micro strip patch antenna.

Apparatus Required:-
37. Antenna Trainer kit
38. Micro strip patch antenna
39. Cathode Ray oscilloscope (CRO)
40. Power supply

Theory: -

Precaution: -

Observation:-

Result: -

Viva- voce Question

28