University of Chicago

March,

T I P B

Alexis Sanderson

For a full presentation of the evidence outlined here see S .

: Atimrga (c. nd century +) (Pcrthika Pupata Lkula Somasid-
dhanta) and Mantramrga (c. th c. +). Mantramrga (Tantric aivism): Siddhnta,
Mantrapt.ha, Vidypt.ha.

C- B under royal patronage during the early

medieval period: the Vis. nuku
. . of ndhra, the Maitrakas of Vallabh, the Licchavis
n. dis
and Thkurs
. of Nepal, the Bhauma-Karas of Orissa, the Candras of S-E Bengal, the
Khadgas
. of Samata t.a, the Candras of Arakan, the Plas of Bengal and Bihar, c.
), the Khmers, the Chams, Majapahit eastern Java. Vais. navism
. and Buddhism:
the Krkot.as of Kashmir.

T - P B:
. Pla kings who are identied as paramasaugatah. in inscriptions and manuscript
colophons. ose for whom we have no such evidence of religious aliation
are given in italics. ose during whose reign the Pla realm was expansive are
given in bold:
Gopla I (r. c. : a Buddhist according to the Rjavykarana. and
Tranthas Rgya gar chos byung, but no inscriptions or MS colophons
to conrm this)
Dharmapla (r. c. )
Devapla (r. c. )
rapla I (r. c. )
Vigrahapla I (r. c. )
Mahendrapla (r. c. +)
Nryanapla
. (r. c. +)
Rjyapla (r. c. -)

 Gopla II (r. c. )
Vigrahapla II (r. c. )
Mahpla I (r. c. )
Nayapla (r. c. )
Vigrahapla III (r. c. )
Mahpla II (r. c. -)
rapla II (r. c. )
Rmapla (r. c. )
Kumrapla (r. c. )
Gopla III (r. c. -)
Madanapla (r. c. )
Govindapla (r. c. )
Palapla (r. c. )
. Major royal monastic foundations: Uddan. dapuramahvihra
. (Dharmapla,
Trikat.ukavihra (Dharmapla), Somapuramahvihra (Dharmapla); Vikrama-
lamahvihra (Devapla [alias Vikramala]); Uruvsavihra (a branch mona-
stery of Uddan. dapura),
. and additions to the monastic complexes of Nland,
Somapura, and Trikat.uka (works attributed by Trantha, to Mahpla, prob-
ably in error for Mahpla I); Rja-Jagaddalamahvihra (existed in the time of
Rmapla; founder unknown).
. Major east-Indian scholars of the Buddhist Mantranaya:
(a) K, C, and Y: Buddhaguhya (commen-
taries on the Dhynottara (K), the Subhupariprcch
. [K-
], the Mahvairocanbhisambodhi
. [C], the Sarvadur-
gatipariodhana [Y], and the Sarvatathgatatattvasamgraha
. [Y-
]),
(b) Y (= Yogatantra, + Yogottaratantra/Mahyogatantra): Vilsava-
jra (Nmasamgti-nmamantrrthvalokin),
. Buddharjna (founder of
the Jnapda school of Guhyasamja exegesis), Dpankarabhadra (Gu-
hyasamjaman. dalavidhi),
. nandagarbha (commentaries on Sarvatathgata-
tattvasamgraha,
. the Paramdya, Myjla, Guhyasamja, and the Sar-
vakalpasamuccaya [the Uttaratantra of the proto-Yogintantra Sarvabud-
dhasamyoga]; Vajrajvloday (a Herukasdhana following the Sarvabud-
dhasamyoga, and the Sarvavajrodaya, a Yogatantra initiation manual),

 Padmavajra (the Guhyasamja-based Guhyasiddhi), Padmarmitra ([Gu-
hyasamja-]man. dalopyik),
. ryadeva (founder of the rya school of
Guhyasamja exegesis, author of the Carymelpakapradpa), Ngrjuna
(Pacakrama), Candrakrti (Guhyasamja comm. [Pradpoddyotana]).
(c) Y (=Yoganiruttaratantra) (Principal cycles: Cakrasamvara, .
Catusp
. tha,
. Hevajra): Jayabhadra (Laghuamvara . comm.), Bhavyakrti
(commentary on Laghuamvara . and the Pradpoddyotana of Candrakrti),
Durjayacandra (commentaries on the Laghuamvara, . Hevajra, Mahmy,
and Catusp . tha),
. Alakakalaa (Yoginsamcra
. comm.), Kumracandra (co-
mmentaries on the Herukbhyudaya and Anvila), Bhavabhat. t. a (com-
mentaries on the Laghuamvara, . the Hevajra, and the Catusp . tha),
. De-
vagupta (Laghuamvara . comm.), Kambalapda (Laghua mvara
. comm.),
Ratnaraks. ita (Samvarodaya
. comm.), Lypda (Cakrasamvarbhisamaya),
.
Ghan. t.pda (Cakrasamvarapacakrama,
. Cakrasamvarapacakramav
. rtti,
.
etc.), Kr. s. napa
. n. dita/K
. . (Hevajra comm.), Ratnkaranti (commen-
nha
taries on the Hevajra, Mahmy, and Khasama; the Bhramahara [He-
vajrasdhana]), Saroruha (Hevajra comm.), Kelikulia (Hevajra comm.),
Tathgataraks. ita (commentaries on the Laghuamvara . and the Yoginsam-
.
cra), Abhaykaragupta (commentaries on the Buddhakapla [Abhayapa-
ddhati] and Sampu . ta . [mnyamajar]; Vajrval, and Nispannayogval),
.
kyaraks. ita (Abhisamayamajar [Vajravrh]), Vibhticandra, Vajra-
vilsionstotra; Advayavajra (Sdhanas of Cakrasamvara, . Hevajra, and Va-
jravrh; texts of the Amanasikra group in the Mahmudr cycle).
(d) K: Pun. darka
. (Vimalaprabh), Nrop (Sekoddeatk),
. Anu-
pamaraks. ita (Sa
. .dangayoga), Ravirjna (Gunabhara
. n
. [comm. on Sa-
.
. ngayoga), Rmapla (Sekanirdeapajik), Vajrapni
da . (Klacakra-based
Laghuamvara
. comm.), Vajragarbha (Klacakra-based Hevajra comm.).
P :
. According to the Mld District Museum copper-plate of Mahendrapla (Epi-
graphia Indica :, ll. ), the paramasaugatah. Devapla built two temples
of outstanding beauty during his rule, one for the Buddha and the other for
the consort of iva:.
. e Bhgalpur copper-plate of Nryanapla
. (r. c. ) (Indian Antiquary
, pp. , ll. ) calls him a paramasaugatah. but records his estab-
lishing a iva and granting a village to it and an association of Pupatcryas
(pupatcryaparisa
. t)
. attached to the foundation, and refers to his having
founded of a vast number of temples for this deity.

. An image of the emaciated goddess Carc (Carcik/Cmun. d)
. established by
the paramasaugatah. Mahendrapla (Siyn stone slab inscription of Nayapla,
Epigraphia Indica :, v. ).
. A monastery bestowed on the Saiddhntika Guru Indraiva by paramasaugatah.
Mahpla I, described in this context as a knower of reality (tattvavit), a
description that in this context suggests that he was a aiva initiate. e Bngarh
.
Praasti of Mrtiiva (ed. S, Journal of Ancient Indian History [],
Parts , , pp. ), ll. .
. e paramasaugatah. Nayapla had as his royal preceptor (gaudarjaguru
. h)
. the
Saiddhntika Guru Sarvaiva, who was a successor of Indraiva, and who, when
he retired, passed on this oce to his brother Mrtiiva (ibid., ll. ).
. In the twelfth century the South-Indian Saiddhntika Trilocanaiva tells us
that his preceptorial line reached him from a Dharmaambhu (Dharmaiva)
who had held oce as the royal preceptor of the king of Gauda. through
three intervening preceptorial generations. e chronology indicates that this
was probably the paramasaugatah. Rmapla (r. c. ). Somaambhu-
paddhativykhy, colophonic verses (IFP, MS Transcripts [T] and
[T]; edition in B , Pt. , pp. [B]): tadvamaja
. h.
ivamatgamalaksavett
. rdharmaambhur iti gaudapatndrantha
. h.
.
. e Srnth pedestal inscription of Mahpla I (Indian Antiquary , pp.
), dated in , reports that Mahpla I had hundreds of temples of iva,
Citraghan. t., and other [aiva] deities built in Benares.
. e Siyn stone slab inscription (EI :) details numerous pious works by
Nayapla. ey break down as follows: iva temples, aiva Mat.has, a golden
Trila, a golden Linga cover, a golden nial for a iva temple, a bejewelled
golden iva, a silver image of Sadiva, golden images of Can. dik
. and Ganea,
.
a silver Candra, a silver Srya, a golden lotus engraved with images of the
Nine Planets, Bhairava temples (one surrounded by the Sixty-four Mothers in
Nayaplas capital), kta temples (including a complex of nine shrines for the
Nine Durgs), Vis. nu
. temple, Pcartrika Mat.ha, Laks. m temple, Sun
temple; a few other temples and one monastery, whose deities and aliation
are lost through damage to the inscription; a hospital (rogyal), and gifts to
brahmins. No Buddhist temple. monastery, or image is mentioned.
. Nayaplas son and successor paramasaugatah. Vigrahapla III described in his
mgchi
. copper-plate inscription as devoted to ivas worship. Epigraphia
Indica :, l. (v. a): smararipoh. pjnuraktah. sad . . . ).

 . e poet Samdhykaranandin
. describes Madanapla (paramasaugatah) . as a
devotee of iva (Rmacarita .b: ivapranay)
. and as having attained his
. (Rmacarita .ab: can. dcara
success in war through the favour of Can. d . na-
.
sarojaprasdasampannavigraharkam).
.
T I P B. e co-existence of Buddhism and aivism
was facilitated by the fact that the form of Buddhism adopted and developed was one
that had equipped itself with a repertoire of Tantric ceremonies that parallelled that
of the aivas and indeed had modelled itself upon it:
. Man. dala
. initiation.
. a system of worship animated by the principle of identication with the deity of
initiation (devathamkra
. h,
. devatgarvah)
. through the use of Mantras, Mudrs,
visualization, and re-sacrice (homah).
.
. the claim that it could bestow not only Buddha-hood [in this life] but also the
production of supernatural eects (siddhih)
. : ntikam, paus.tikam,
. abhicrah,.
and control of the rain (varspa
. . nam and ativr stidhra
. .. nam).
.
. ceremonies for patrons in the public domain: for the consecration (pratis.th)
. of
temple images (pratim), paintings of deities on cloth (pata. h),
. manuscripts of
sacred texts (pustakam), monasteries (vihrah),
. shrines (gandhakut),
. Caityas,
reservoirs (puskari
. nydi),
. gardens and the like (rmdi).
. A Buddhist funeral rite (antyes.ti
. h)
. for initiates.
at this transformation of the Mahyna had been achieved by absorbing and
adapting non-Buddhist practices was, of course, evident from the beginning:

. e C Mahvairocanbhisambodhi . (th century) (rNam par snang

mdzad chen po mngon par byang chub pai rgyud, f. r): O [Vajrapni,] .
Lord of the Yaks. as, in time to come there will arise people of inferior under-
standing and no faith who will not believe this teaching. ey will dissent and
have many doubts. ey will hear it but they will not take it to heart and
they will refuse to put it into practice. Being themselves unworthy they will
bring others too to ruin. [For] they will say that this is not the teaching of the
Buddhas but belongs to the outsiders.
. e K Majuriyamlakalpa (up to late th century) .b:
esa
. mantro may proktah. sattvnm. hitakmyay | lamudrsamyuktah. sarva-
bhtavinakah. || yan may kathitam. prvam. kalpam asya purtanam |

 *aivam. tad (conj. : aivam Ed.) iti vaksyante
. sattv bhtalavsinah. || vividh
gunavistr
. h
. aivatantre mayodit h
. I have taught this Mantra [of iva] which
together with the trident Mudr destroys all demons, out of my desire to benet
living beings. ose living on the earth will say that its ancient Kalpa, that I
taught in former times, was taught by iva. [But] the various excellent extensive
[Kalpas] in the aiva Tantras are in fact my teachings.
. .: sarvam. aivam iti khytam. sarvair bhtalavsibhih. | mayaiva nigaditam.
prvam. kalpe-m asmim. savistare || pacd anyo janah. prhuh. kalpamantrm.
prthak
. prthak
. | *tumburoh. (corr. : tumburuh. Ed.) srthavhasya tryambakasya
tu *dhmatah. (corr. : dhmateh. Ed.) It was I that rst taught, in this vast
Kalpa, everything that the inhabitants of earth without exception refer to as
the teaching of iva. It was only later that others taught in the various texts
[considered to be taught by him] the Kalpamantras of the wise iva Tumburu
the Trader.

S B M:

. Sarvatathgatatattvasamgraha
. (end of the seventh century, expanded in the
eighth);
(a) veah.
.
(b) Section : Vajraguhyaman. dala,
. in which the ve Tathgatas are replaced
by goddesses (): Vairocana at the centre by Vajradhtvvar
and, around her in the four directions, Aks. obhya by Vajravajrin,. Rat-
nasambhava by Ratnavajrin, . Amityus by Dharmavajrin,
. and Amoghasi-
ddhi by Karmavajrin.. : Ah, how benevolent is the Bodhicitta to
all beings! For the Buddhas take on even female form to accord with [the
expectations of] their disciples (vineyavat).
(c) incorporation of sexual intercourse into the activities of worship as a
higher form of practice (niha
. nkcrah).
.
. Guhyasamja (th century): copulating deities, sexual initiation rites, and the
sacralization of impurity
. Sarvabuddhasamyogadkinjlaa
. mvara
. (th century): Heruka and his Yogins,
Kplika iconography, the Ganama
. n. dala,
. and the rst signs of aiva-Buddhist
intertextuality ( Vnikha
. [see T ]).

. e Cakrasamvara
. texts (Laghuamvara/Cakrasa
. mvara/Laghvabhidhna
. [rst
commentary in the early tenth century], Herukbhyudaya, Vajradka, . Abhi-
dhnottara, Yoginsamcra,
. Caturyoginsampu
. ta,
. Samvarodaya,
. and Dkr
. nava):
.
the full appropriation of the kta aivism of the Vidypt.ha (Picumata, Tantra-
sadbhva, Yoginsamcraprakara
. na,
. Siddhayogevarmata, Niisamcra):
.
(a) amvara/Vajrarudra
. and Vajravrh: the transformation of Bhairava and
his consort.
(b) e rise of the goddess to independence.
(c) e adoption of the Vidypt.has Cary and Yoga
i. Vidypt.has Kplika mode of post-initiatory observance (cary-
vratam
ii. e pan-Indian topography of the kta aivas sacred sites, their
Pt.has, Ks. etras, Upaks. etras, Samdohas/Chandohas
. and the like (La-
ghuamvara
. and Vajradka).
.
iii. e practice of visiting these sacred sites (pthabhrama
. nam)
. in search
of meetings with the Yogins/Dkins. that are believed to frequent
them and to be incarnate there in human women enlightened from
birth or in childhood.
iv. Classifying such women as belonging to one or other a xed number
of deity-clans (kulam) and of specifying various characteristics of
appearance and behaviour that enable the adept to determine these
clan-aliations.
v. Consumption and oering of meat and alcoholic liquor in their rites.
vi. e consumption of foul substances without inhibition as an initia-
tory test of nondual awareness.
vii. e practice of visualizations in which the Sdhaka enters the body
of a victim through the channels of his vital energy (nd), . extracts
his vital essences, and draws them into himself.
viii. Yogically raising ones consciousness out of ones body through the
central channel as a means of ending ones life and ascending to a
paradise or liberation, (utkrntih, . Tib. pho ba).
ix. e adaptation of this practice as a means of assisting the dying and
the dead.
x. e practice of transferring ones consciousness out of ones body to
pass into and animate a corpse (parakyapraveah). .
xi. e Yoga of the three Nds. .

C O:
. Rjnaka Jayadratha (th century), Haracaritacintmani
. .
. e prominence of ktism in eastern India before and during the time of the
Plas:
(a) Prominence of eastern India in the earliest canonical lists of kta sacred
sites (Pt.has, Sandohas etc.). Mdhavakula in Tantrlokaviveka on .;
Tantrloka .c; Kularatnoddyota f. r; Niisamcra
. f. v;
Kubjikmata ..
(b) Carcik /Cmun. d/Klartri
. of Kot.ivars. a/Devkot.t.a (Skandapurna-Ambi-
.
. [Adhyya ], Picumata, Niisamcra),
kkhan. da . Pun. dravardhana
. (Nii-
samcra,
. Kubjikmata), and Ekmra (Niisa mcra,
. Kubjikmata).
(c) Hill-top temple of Carcik established by Mahendrapla and renovated
by Nayapla (Siyn stone slab inscription).
(d) Carcik temple established near Kot.ivars. a by Saiddhntika Mrtiiva,
Rjaguru of Nayapla.
(e) e many temples and images detailed in the Siyn stone slab inscription
of Nayapla as the pious works of that king are overwhelmingly aiva and
kta aiva:
(f) Many images of Carcik have been found at sites in Bihar, West Bengal,
Bangladesh, and Orissa, dating from the ninth century to the fourteenth.
(g) Carciks prominence in the east-Indian kta Devpurna;
. see especially
Pat.alas and .
(h) Her presence with Bhairava beneath the feet of Cakrasamvara
. and Va-
jravrh.
. raddhkaravarman, *Yoganiruttaratantrrthvatrasamgraha,
. referring to the
Yogatantras as the Tantras of Method (Upyatantras) and to the Yogintantras
as the Tantras of Wisdom (Prajtantras) (rNal byor bla na med pai rgyud kyi
don la jugs pa bsdus pa, DT, vol. , pp. , l. , l. : . vr):
A Method Tantra is one in which the Man. dala . shows mainly male deities
in order to train (vin-) men and insiders (svaythya-), whereas a Wisdom
Tantra is one in which, in order to train women and non-Buddhist outsiders
(bhyatrthika-), the Man. dala
. shows mainly female deities, deities, that is, who
are appropriate for these. A Method Tantra is one that exhibits deities that
purify the outer and inner aggregates of personality (skandhh), . the elements

 (dhtavah),
. and the faculties and their objects (yatanni), whereas a Wisdom
Tantra is one that exhibits deities that purify the outer and inner channels of
the vital energy (nd)
. and the Bodhicitta [semen]. A Method Tantra is one
that exhibits deities [whose appearance and conduct are] in conformity with
the [norms of] the world, whereas a Wisdom Tantra is one that exhibits deities
[whose appearance is] contrary to [these norms of] the world.
. nandagarbha, gSang ba dus pai dka grel, f. r: If it is asked why he was
residing in their private parts, the answer is [that this is] in order to bring it
about that those devoted to the Tantras of Vis. nu . and the other [gods], who
have not yet abandoned [their attachment to] the objects of the senses, may
come through desire itself to delight in the abandoning of desire. For they seek
to attain the Siddhis of such [gods] as Vis. nu. by resorting to women, and using
such [oerings] as beef and urine. ose engaged in the quest for the Siddhis
taught by these [gods do indeed] copulate with women [for this purpose]. For
. is Bhagavn [the possessor of bhaga-] in that
[it is said in their texts]: Vis. nu
he resides in the genitals (bhaga-) of women. He is called Nryana . [for the
same reason,] because [by residing there] he gives pleasure to men.

B
S, Alexis. . e aiva Age: e Rise and Dominance of aivism during
the Early Medieval Period. In: Genesis and Development of Tantrism, edited by Shingo
Einoo (Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo. Institute of Oriental
Culture Special Series, ), pp. . Downloadable from alexissanderson.com.
T, Tru. . e extraction of mantra (mantroddhra) in the Sarva-
buddhasamyogatantra. In Pramnakrti
. h:
. Essays Dedicated to Ernst Steinkellner on the
Occasion of his th Birthday, edited by Birgit Kellner et al. (Vienna: Arbeitkreis fur
Buddhistische Studien Universitat Wien), pp. .