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0.5
1 Denition
A sigmoid function is a bounded dierentiable real func-
0 tion that is dened for all real input values and has a non-
6 4 2 0 2 4 6 negative derivative at each point.[1]
0.00
0.25
0.50
3 Examples
0.75
1.00
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
x
1
S(x) = . Logistic function
1 + ex
Other examples of similar shapes include the Gompertz
curve (used in modeling systems that saturate at large
values of x) and the ogee curve (used in the spillway of 1
f (x) =
some dams). Sigmoid functions have have domain of all 1 + ex
real numbers, with return value monotonically increasing
most often from 0 to 1 or alternatively from 1 to 1, de- hyperbolic tangent
pending on convention.
A wide variety of sigmoid functions have been used as
the activation function of articial neurons, including the ex ex
logistic and hyperbolic tangent functions. Sigmoid curves f (x) = tanh x =
ex + ex
1
2 5 REFERENCES
Logistic distribution
x Logistic function
1
f (x) = gd(x) = dt
0 cosh t Logistic regression
Softmax function
Generalised logistic function
Weibull distribution
Netoid function
f (x) = (1 + ex ) , >0
4 See also
Activation function
3
6.2 Images
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Tkgd2007
1
f (x) = .
1 + ex
0.5
In practice, due to the nature of the exponential function
ex , it is often sucient to compute the standard logistic
function for x over a small range of real numbers such as
a range contained in [6, +6].
0
6 4 2 0 2 4 6
1.1 Derivative
Standard logistic sigmoid function i.e. L = 1, k = 1, x0 = 0
The standard logistic function has an easily calculated
shape (sigmoid curve), with equation: derivative:
1 ex
f (x) = 1+ex = 1+ex
d ex (1+ex )ex ex
L dx f (x) = (1+ex )2
f (x) =
1 + ek(xx0 ) ex
d
dx f (x) = (1+ex )2 = f (x)(1 f (x))
where The logistic function also has the property that:
d d
For values of x in the range of real numbers from f (x) = f (x).
dx dx
to +, the S-curve shown on the right is obtained (with
the graph of f approaching L as x approaches + and
approaching zero as x approaches ). 1.2 Logistic dierential equation
The function was named in 18441845 by Pierre
The standard logistic function is the solution of the simple
Franois Verhulst, who studied it in relation to population
rst-order non-linear ordinary dierential equation
growth.[2] The initial stage of growth is approximately
exponential; then, as saturation begins, the growth slows,
and at maturity, growth stops. d
f (x) = f (x)(1 f (x))
The logistic function nds applications in a range of dx
elds, including articial neural networks, biology
(especially ecology), biomathematics, chemistry, with boundary condition f(0) = 1/2. This equation is the
demography, economics, geoscience, mathematical continuous version of the logistic map.
psychology, probability, sociology, political science, The qualitative behavior is easily understood in terms of
linguistics, and statistics. the phase line: the derivative is null when function is unit
1
2 2 APPLICATIONS
d
f (x) = f (x)(1 f (x)) d 1 ( )
dx f (x) = sech2 x2 ,
dx 4
dy
= y(1 y) which ties the logistic function into the logistic distribu-
dx
tion.
dy
= y y2
dx
dy
y = y 2
1.3 Rotational symmetry about (0, )
dx
Which is a special case of the Bernoulli dierential equa- The sum of the logistic function and its reection about
tion and has the following solution: the vertical axis, f (x) is
ex 1 1 (1 + ex ) + (1 + ex ) 2 + ex + ex
f (x) = + = =
ex + C 1 + ex 1 + e(x) (1 + ex )(1 + ex ) 1 + ex + ex + exx
Choosing the constant of integration C = 1 gives the The logistic function is thus rotationally symmetrical
other well-known form of the denition of the logistic about the point (0, 1/2).[4]
curve
ex 1
2 Applications
f (x) = =
x
e +1 1 + ex
2.1 In ecology: modeling population
More quantitatively, as can be seen from the analytical so-
growth
lution, the logistic curve shows early exponential growth
for negative argument, which slows to linear growth of
A typical application of the logistic equation is a common
slope 1/4 for an argument near zero, then approaches one
model of population growth (see also population dynam-
with an exponentially decaying gap.
ics), originally due to Pierre-Franois Verhulst in 1838,
The logistic function is the inverse of the natural logit where the rate of reproduction is proportional to both
function and so can be used to convert the logarithm of the existing population and the amount of available re-
odds into a probability. In mathematical notation the lo- sources, all else being equal. The Verhulst equation was
gistic function is sometimes written as expit [3] in the same published after Verhulst had read Thomas Malthus' An
form as logit. The conversion from the log-likelihood ra- Essay on the Principle of Population. Verhulst derived his
tio of two alternatives also takes the form of a logistic logistic equation to describe the self-limiting growth of
curve. a biological population. The equation was rediscovered
The logistic sigmoid function is related to the hyperbolic in 1911 by A. G. McKendrick for the growth of bacteria
tangent, A.p. by in broth and experimentally tested using a technique for
nonlinear parameter estimation.[5] The equation is also
sometimes called the Verhulst-Pearl equation following
(x) its rediscovery in 1920 by Raymond Pearl (18791940)
2 f (x) = 1 + tanh and Lowell Reed (18881966) of the Johns Hopkins Uni-
2
or versity.[6] Another scientist, Alfred J. Lotka derived the
equation again in 1925, calling it the law of population
growth.
tanh(x) = 2f (2x) 1 Letting P represent population size (N is often used in
ecology instead) and t represent time, this model is for-
The latter relationship follows from malized by the dierential equation:
2.2 In statistics and machine learning 3
lim P (t) = K
t
dn
= n(1 n)
d
( )
Pierre-Franois Verhulst (18041849) dP P
= rP 1
dt K(t)
A particularly important case is that of carrying capacity
that varies periodically with period T:
( )
dP P
= rP 1
dt K
K(t + T ) = K(t)
where the constant r denes the growth rate and K is the It can be shown that in such a case, independently from
carrying capacity. the initial value P(0) > 0, P(t) will tend to a unique peri-
In the equation, the early, unimpeded growth rate is mod- odic solution P*(t), whose period is T.
eled by the rst term +rP. The value of the rate r repre- A typical value of T is one year: In such case K(t) may
sents the proportional increase of the population P in one reect periodical variations of weather conditions.
unit of time. Later, as the population grows, the modulus
of the second term (which multiplied out is rP 2 /K) be- Another interesting generalization is to consider that the
comes almost as large as the rst, as some members of the carrying capacity K(t) is a function of the population at
population P interfere with each other by competing for an earlier time, capturing a delay in the way population
some critical resource, such as food or living space. This modies [7] its environment. This leads to a logistic delay
antagonistic eect is called the bottleneck, and is mod- equation, which has a very rich behavior, with bistabil-
eled by the value of the parameter K. The competition ity in some parameter range, as well as a monotonic decay
diminishes the combined growth rate, until the value of to zero, smooth exponential growth, punctuated unlim-
P ceases to grow (this is called maturity of the popula- ited growth (i.e., multiple S-shapes), punctuated growth
tion). The solution to the equation (with P0 being the or alternation to a stationary level, oscillatory approach
initial population) is to a stationary level, sustainable oscillations, nite-time
singularities as well as nite-time death.
tion of the logistic family of distributions, and they are, The logistic function is itself the derivative of another
a bit simplied, used to model the chance a chess player proposed activation function, the softplus.
has to beat his opponent in the Elo rating system. More
specic examples now follow.
2.3 In medicine: modeling of growth of tu-
mors
2.2.1 Logistic regression
See also: Gompertz curve Growth of tumors
Main article: Logistic regression
probabilities that each possible energy level is occupied frenzy, the rapid build out as synergy and the completion
by a fermion, according to FermiDirac statistics. as maturity.[15]
[6] Raymond Pearl and Lowell Reed (June 1920). On the Weisstein, Eric W. Sigmoid Function.
Rate of Growth of the Population of the United States MathWorld.
(PDF). Proc. of the National Academy of Sciences. 6 (6).
p. 275.
Online experiments with JSXGraph
[7] Yukalov, V. I.; Yukalova, E. P.; Sornette, D. (2009).
Punctuated evolution due to delayed carrying capac- Esses are everywhere.
ity. Physica D: Nonlinear Phenomena. 238 (17): 1752.
Seeing the s-curve is everything.
doi:10.1016/j.physd.2009.05.011.
[9] LeCun, Y.; Bottou, L.; Orr, G.; Muller, K. (1998). Orr,
G.; Muller, K., eds. Ecient BackProp (PDF). Neural Net-
works: Tricks of the trade. Springer. ISBN 3-540-65311-
2.
5 References
Jannedy, Stefanie; Bod, Rens; Hay, Jennifer
(2003). Probabilistic Linguistics. Cambridge, Mas-
sachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-52338-8.
Gershenfeld, Neil A. (1999). The Nature of Math-
ematical Modeling. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-57095-4.
Kingsland, Sharon E. (1995). Modeling na-
ture: episodes in the history of population ecology.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-
43728-0.
Weisstein, Eric W. Logistic Equation.
MathWorld.
6 External links
L.J. Linacre, Why logistic ogive and not autocat-
alytic curve?, accessed 2009-09-12.
http://luna.cas.usf.edu/~{}mbrannic/files/
regression/Logistic.html
7
7.2 Images
File:Logistic-curve.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/88/Logistic-curve.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Created from scratch with gnuplot Original artist: Qef (talk)
File:Pierre_Francois_Verhulst.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Pierre_Francois_Verhulst.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
Sech redirects here. For other uses, see Sech (disam- Hyperbolic functions occur in the solutions of many lin-
biguation). ear dierential equations, for example the equation den-
Sinh redirects here. For the garment, see sinh (cloth- ing a catenary, of some cubic equations, in calculations
ing). of angles and distances in hyperbolic geometry and of
Hyperbolic curve redirects here. For the geometric Laplaces equation in Cartesian coordinates. Laplaces
curve, see Hyperbola. equations are important in many areas of physics, includ-
ing electromagnetic theory, heat transfer, uid dynamics,
and special relativity.
Y In complex analysis, the hyperbolic functions arise as
the imaginary parts of sine and cosine. When consid-
cosh a ered dened by a complex variable, the hyperbolic func-
tions are rational functions of exponentials, and are hence
x y = 1 holomorphic.
sinh a
1 a/2 Hyperbolic functions were introduced in the 1760s in-
dependently by Vincenzo Riccati and Johann Heinrich
1 X Lambert.[9] Riccati used Sc. and Cc. ([co]sinus circulare)
to refer to circular functions and Sh. and Ch. ([co]sinus
hyperbolico) to refer to hyperbolic functions. Lambert
adopted the names but altered the abbreviations to what
they are today.[10] The abbreviations sh and ch are still
used in some other languages, like French and Russian.
1
2 1 STANDARD ANALYTIC EXPRESSIONS
Hyperbolic tangent:
sinh x ex ex
tanh x = = x =
cosh x e + ex
e2x 1 1 e2x
= =
2x
e +1 1 + e2x
Hyperbolic cotangent: x = 0
cosh x ex + ex
(a) cosh(x) is the average of ex and ex coth x = = x =
sinh x e ex
e2x + 1 1 + e2x
= =
e2x 1 1 e2x
ex ex e2x 1 1 e2x
sinh x = = = Hyperbolic secant:
2 2ex 2ex
Hyperbolic cosine:
1 2
sech x = = x =
cosh x e + ex
Hyperbolic cosine: 1
f = f3 f; f (0) = f () = 0
2
sinh(x) = sinh x
cosh(x) = cosh x
tanh x = i tan(ix)
Hence:
Hyperbolic cotangent:
tanh(x) = tanh x
coth(x) = coth x
coth x = i cot(ix) sech(x) = sech x
csch(x) = csch x
Hyperbolic secant:
It can be seen that cosh x and sech x are even functions;
the others are odd functions.
sech x = sec(ix) 1
arsech x = arcosh
x
Hyperbolic cosecant: 1
arcsch x = arsinh
x
1
arcoth x = artanh
x
csch x = i csc(ix) Hyperbolic sine and cosine satisfy:
(x) cosh(x)1
the last which is similar to the Pythagorean trigonometric tanh 2 = sinh(x) = coth(x) csch(x)
identity. [15]
sech2 x = 1 tanh2 x
4 Inverse functions as logarithms
csch2 x = coth2 x 1
Main article: Inverse hyperbolic function
for the other functions. ( )
arsinh(x) = ln x + x2 + 1
( )
3.1 Sums of arguments arcosh(x) = ln x + x2 1 ; x 1
( )
sinh(x + y) = sinh(x) cosh(y) + cosh(x) sinh(y) 1 1+x
artanh(x) = ln ; |x| < 1
cosh(x + y) = cosh(x) cosh(y) + sinh(x) sinh(y) 2 1x
( )
tanh x + tanh y 1 x+1
tanh(x + y) = arcoth(x) = ln ; |x| > 1
1 + tanh x tanh y 2 x1
( ) ( )
particularly 1 1 1 + 1 x2
arsech(x) = ln + 1 = ln ;0 < x 1
x x2 x
( ) ( )
cosh(2x) = sinh2 x + cosh2 x = 2 sinh2 x + 1 = 2 cosh2 x 1 1 1 1 + x2 + 1
arcsch(x) = ln + + 1 = ln ; x = 0
sinh(2x) = 2 sinh x cosh x x x2 x
Also:
5 Derivatives
x+y xy
sinh x + sinh y = 2 sinh cosh
2 2
x+y xy d
cosh x + cosh y = 2 cosh cosh sinh x = cosh x
2 2 dx
d
cosh x = sinh x
3.2 Subtraction formulas dx
d
sinh(x y) = sinh(x) cosh(y) cosh(x) sinh(y) tanh x = 1 tanh2 x = sech2 x = 1/ cosh2 x
dx
cosh(x y) = cosh(x) cosh(y) sinh(x) sinh(y)
Also: d
coth x = 1 coth2 x = csch2 x = 1/ sinh2 x
dx
x+y xy d
sinh x sinh y = 2 cosh sinh sech x = tanh x sech x
2 2 dx
x+y xy
cosh x cosh y = 2 sinh sinh d
2 2 csch x = coth x csch x
dx
Source.[14]
d 1
arsinh x =
dx x2 + 1
3.3 Half argument formulas
d 1
arcosh x =
(x) sinh(x) cosh(x) 1 dx x 1
2
sinh = = sgn(x)
2 2(cosh(x) + 1) 2 d 1
artanh x =
where sgn is the sign function. dx 1 x2
d 1
arcoth x =
(x) cosh(x) + 1 dx 1 x2
cosh =
2 2 d 1
arsech x =
(x) sinh(x) cosh(x) 1 dx1
ex x 1 x2
tanh = = sgn(x) = x
2 cosh(x) + 1 cosh(x) + 1 e +d 1 1
arcsch x =
If x 0, then dx |x| 1 + x2
5
6 Second derivatives
x3 x5 x7 x2n+1
Sinh and cosh are both equal to their second derivative, sinh x = x + + + + =
3! 5! 7! (2n + 1)!
that is: n=0
d2 x2 x4 x6
x2n
cosh x = cosh x . cosh x = 1 + + + + =
dx2 2! 4! 6! (2n)!
n=0
All functions with this property are linear combinations
of sinh and cosh, in particular the exponential functions The function cosh x has a Taylor series expression with
ex and ex , and the zero function f (x) = 0 . only even exponents for x. Thus it is an even function,
that is, symmetric with respect to the y-axis. The sum of
the sinh and cosh series is the innite series expression of
the exponential function.
7 Standard integrals
For a full list, see list of integrals of hyperbolic functions.
x3 2x5 17x7 22n (22n 1)B2n x2n1
tanh x = x + + = ,
3 15 315 n=1
(2n)!
sinh(ax) dx = a1 cosh(ax) + C x x3 2x5
22n B2n x2n1
coth x = x1 + + + = x1 + ,0 <
3 45 945 (2n)!
cosh(ax) dx = a1 sinh(ax) + C n=1
x2 5x4 61x6 E2n x2n
sech x = 1 + + = , |x| <
tanh(ax) dx = a1 ln(cosh(ax)) + C 2 24 720 n=0
(2n)! 2
x 7x3 31x5 2(1 22n1 )B
coth(ax) dx = a1 ln(sinh(ax)) + C csch x = x1 + + = x1 +
6 360 15120 (2n)!
n=1
y
y=1/x
sinh(2x) = 2 sinh x cosh x
y=x
cosh(2x) = cosh2 x + sinh2 x = 2 cosh2 x 1 = 2 sinh2 x + 1
2 tanh x
tanh(2x) =
1 + tanh2 x
2 tanh x
x2+y2=2 u) sinh(2x) =
h(
1 tanh2 x
2
os
si
c
y=ax: a<1
nh
2
1 + tanh2 x
)
2
(u
(u
si
cosh(2x) =
os
)
c
n(
1 tanh2 x
2
u)
u
x and the half-argument formulas[17]
sinh x2 = 2 (cosh x 1) Note: This is
1
ex = cosh x + sinh x
and
sinh(x + y) = sinh(x) cosh(y) + cosh(x) sinh(y)
cosh(x + y) = cosh(x) cosh(y) + sinh(x) sinh(y)
tanh(x) + tanh(y) ex = cosh x sinh x
tanh(x + y) =
1 + tanh(x) tanh(y)
These expressions are analogous to the expressions for
sine and cosine, based on Eulers formula, as sums of
the double argument formulas complex exponentials.
7
eix = cos x + i sin x [9] Robert E. Bradley, Lawrence A. D'Antonio, Charles Ed-
ix ward Sandifer. Euler at 300: an appreciation. Mathemat-
e = cos x i sin x
ical Association of America, 2007. Page 100.
so:
[10] Georg F. Becker. Hyperbolic functions. Read Books,
1931. Page xlviii.
16.2 Images
File:Circular_and_hyperbolic_angle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Circular_and_hyperbolic_
angle.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Original: Maschen
1
2 2 BASIC PROPERTIES
arccos(x) = arcsin(x)
2
arccot(x) = arctan(x)
2
arccsc(x) = arcsec(x)
2
Negative arguments:
arcsin(x) = arcsin(x)
arccos(x) = arccos(x)
arctan(x) = arctan(x)
arccot(x) = arccot(x)
arcsec(x) = arcsec(x)
arccsc(x) = arccsc(x)
The usual principal values of the arcsin(x) (red) and arccos(x)
(blue) functions graphed on the cartesian plane. Reciprocal arguments:
( )
1
arccos = arcsec(x)
x
( )
1
arcsin = arccsc(x)
x
( )
1
arctan = arctan(x) = arccot(x) , if x > 0
x 2
( )
1
arctan = arctan(x) = arccot(x) , if x < 0
x 2
( )
1
arccot = arccot(x) = arctan(x) , if x > 0
x 2
The usual principal values of the arctan(x) and arccot(x) func- ( )
tions graphed on the cartesian plane. 1 3
arccot = arccot(x) = + arctan(x) , if x < 0
x 2
( )
1
arcsec = arccos(x)
2.3 Relationships among the inverse x
( )
trigonometric functions arccsc
1
= arcsin(x)
x
Complementary angles: If you only have a fragment of a sine table:
3.2 Expression as denite integrals 3
( ) d 1
arcsin(z) = ; z = 1, +1
arccos(x) = arcsin 1 x2 , if 0 x 1 dz 1 z2
1 ( ) d 1
arccos(x) = arccos 2x2 1 , if 0 x 1 arccos(z) = ; z = 1, +1
2 dz 1 z2
1 ( ) d 1
arcsin(x) = arccos 1 2x2 , if 0 x 1 arctan(z) = ; z = i, +i
2 ( ) dz 1 + z2
x d 1
arctan(x) = arcsin arccot(z) = ; z = i, +i
x2 + 1 dz 1 + z2
d 1
Whenever the square root of a complex number is used arcsec(z) = ; z = 1, 0, +1
dz z2 1 1
here, we choose the root with the positive real part (or z2
positive imaginary part if the square was negative real). d 1
( ) arccsc(z) = ; z = 1, 0, +1
From the half-angle formula, tan 2 = 1+cossin dz z2 1 1
, we get: z2
tan() + tan() x
tan( + ) = , 1
1 tan() tan()
arcsin(x) = dz , |x| 1
0 1 z2
1
by letting 1
arccos(x) = dz , |x| 1
1 z2
xx
1
arctan(x) = 2+1
dz ,
z
= arctan(u) , = arctan(v) .
0
1
arccot(x) = dz ,
x z2 + 1
x 1
1 1
3 In calculus arcsec(x) = dz = + dz , x1
z z 21 z z 21
1 x
x
1 1
arccsc(x) = dz = dz , x1
3.1 Derivatives of inverse trigonometric x z z2 1 z z 1
2
follows. For arcsine, the series can be derived by expand- numbers running from 1 to 1. The partial denominators
1
ing its derivative, 1z 2
, as a binomial series, and in- are the odd natural numbers, and the partial numerators
tegrating term by term (using the integral denition as (after the rst) are just (nz)2 , with each perfect square ap-
above). The series for arctangent can similarly be derived pearing once. The rst was developed by Leonhard Euler;
by expanding its derivative 1+z 1
2 in a geometric series
the second by Carl Friedrich Gauss utilizing the Gaussian
and applying the integral denition above (see Leibniz hypergeometric series.
series).
z3 z5 z7 (1)n z 2n+1
arctan(z) = z + + = ; |z| 1 z = i, i
3 5 7 2n + 1
n=0
arcsin(z) dz = z arcsin(z) + 1 z 2 + C
Series for the other inverse trigonometric functions can
be given in terms of these according to the relationships arccos(z) dz = z arccos(z) 1 z 2 + C
given above. For example, arccos x = /2 arcsin x
, arccsc x = arcsin(1/x) , and so on. Another series is 1 ( )
arctan(z) dz = z arctan(z) ln 1 + z 2 + C
given by: 2
1 ( )
( )2 x2n [7]
arccot(z) dz = z arccot(z) + ln 1 + z 2 + C
2 arcsin x2 = n=1 2
n2 (2n
n) [ ( )]
z2 1
arcsec(z) dz = z arcsec(z) ln z 1 + +C
Leonhard Euler found a more ecient series for the arc- z2
tangent, which is: [ ( )]
z2 1
arccsc(z) dz = z arccsc(z) + ln z 1 + +C
z2
n
z 2kz 2
arctan(z) = . For real x 1:
1 + z 2 n=0 (2k + 1)(1 + z 2 )
k=1
22n (n!)2 z 2n+1 For all real x not between 1 and 1:
arctan z =
n=0
(2n + 1)! (1 + z 2 )n+1
( )
arcsec(x) dx = x arcsec(x) sgn(x) ln x + x2 1 + C
3.3.1 Variant: Continued fractions for arctangent
( )
Two alternatives to the power series for arctangent are arccsc(x) dx = x arccsc(x) + sgn(x) ln x + x2 1 + C
these generalized continued fractions:
The absolute value is necessary to compensate for both
negative and positive values of the arcsecant and arccose-
z cant functions. z function is also necessary due
The signum
arctan(z) = =
(1z)2 the 2derivatives of the two func-
to the absolute values in(1z)
1+ 1 +
tions, which create two dierent
(3z)2 (2z)2 solutions for positive and
3 1z 2 + negative values 3
of +
x. These can be further simplied us-
(5z)2 (3z)2
5 3z 2 + ing2 the logarithmic denitions
5+ of the inverse hyperbolic
(7z)
functions: (4z)2
7 5z +
2 7+
. .
9 7z 2 + . . 9 + ..
The second of these is valid in the cut complex plane.
arcsec(x) dx = x arcsec(x) arcosh(|x|) + C
There are two cuts, from i to the point at innity, go-
ing down the imaginary axis, and from i to the point at
innity, going up the same axis. It works best for real arccsc(x) dx = x arccsc(x) + arcosh(|x|) + C
4.1 Logarithmic forms 5
u = arcsin(x) dv = dx ( )
1
du =
dx
v=x arccsc(z) = arcsin z = 1, 0, +1
z
1 x2
which has the same cut as arcsec.
Then
( )
arcsin(x) dx = x arcsin(x) + 1 x2 + C
arcsin(z) = i ln iz + 1 z 2
( ) ( )
4 Extension to complex plane arccos(z) = i ln z + z 2 1 = + i ln iz + 1 z 2 =
2 2
Since the inverse trigonometric functions are analytic
functions, they can be extended from the real line to the arctan(z) = 21 i [ln (1 iz) ln (1 + iz)]
complex plane. This results in functions with multiple
sheets and branch points. One possible way of dening [ ( ) ( )]
the extensions is: i i
arccot(z) = 1
2i ln 1 ln 1 +
z z
z ( ) ( )
dx 1 1 1 i
arctan(z) = z = i, +i arcsec(z) = i ln 1+ = i ln 1 2 + + =
0 1 + x2 z2 z z z 2 2
where the part of the imaginary axis which does not lie ( )
strictly between i and +i is the cut between the principal 1 i
sheet and other sheets; arccsc(z) = i ln 1 2 +
z z
= ei
Solving for
1
z=
2i
1
2iz =
1
2iz = 0
2 2iz 1 = 0
= iz 1 z 2 = ei
( )
i = ln iz 1 z 2
( )
= i ln iz 1 z 2
(the positive branch is chosen)
A right triangle.
( )
= arcsin(z) = i ln iz + 1 z 2 Inverse trigonometric functions are useful when trying to
determine the remaining two angles of a right triangle
when the lengths of the sides of the triangle are known.
5 Applications Recalling the right-triangle denitions of sine, for exam-
ple, it follows that
The two-argument atan2 function computes the arctan- computer implementation (due to the limited number of
gent of y / x given y and x, but with a range of (, ]. In digits).[8] Similarly, arcsine is inaccurate for angles near
other words, atan2(y, x) is the angle between the positive /2 and /2.
x-axis of a plane and the point (x, y) on it, with posi-
tive sign for counter-clockwise angles (upper half-plane,
y > 0), and negative sign for clockwise angles (lower half-
plane, y < 0). It was rst introduced in many computer
6 See also
programming languages, but it is now also common in
other elds of science and engineering. Inverse exsecant
In terms of the standard arctan function, that is with
Inverse versine
range of (/2, /2), it can be expressed as follows:
Inverse hyperbolic function
arctan( xy ) x>0 List of integrals of inverse trigonometric functions
arctan( xy ) + y0, x<0
arctan( y ) y<0, x<0 List of trigonometric identities
atan2(y, x) = x
y>0, x=0
2 Trigonometric function
2
y<0, x=0
undened y=0, x=0
provided that either x > 0 or y 0. However this fails if [3] Cajori, Florian (1919). A History of Mathematics (2 ed.).
New York, USA: The Macmillan Company. p. 272.
given x 0 and y = 0 so the expression is unsuitable for
computational use. [4] Herschel, John Frederick William (1813). On a re-
The above argument order (y, x) seems to be the most markable Application of Cotess Theorem. Philosophical
common, and in particular is used in ISO standards such Transactions. Royal Society, London. 103 (1): 8.
as the C programming language, but a few authors may
use the opposite convention (x, y) so some caution is war- [5] Korn, Grandino Arthur; Korn, Theresa M. (2000) [1961].
21.2.4. Inverse Trigonometric Functions. Mathemati-
ranted. These variations are detailed at atan2.
cal handbook for scientists and engineers: Denitions, the-
orems, and formulars for reference and review (3 ed.).
5.2.2 Arctangent function with location parameter Mineola, New York, USA: Dover Publications, Inc. p.
811. ISBN 978-0-486-41147-7.
In many applications the solution y of the equation x =
[6] Bhatti, Sanaullah; Nawab-ud-Din; Ahmed, Bashir;
tan y is to come as close as possible to a given value Yousuf, S. M.; Taheem, Allah Bukhsh (1999). Dier-
< < . The adequate solution is produced entiation of Trigonometric, Logarithmic and Exponential
by the parameter modied arctangent function Functions. In Ellahi, Mohammad Maqbool; Dar, Kara-
mat Hussain; Hussain, Faheem. Calculus and Analytic Ge-
ometry (1 ed.). Lahore: Punjab Textbook Board. p. 140.
arctan(x)
y = arctan (x) := arctan(x) + rni . [7] Borwein, Jonathan; Bailey, David; Gingersohn, Roland
(2004). Experimentation in Mathematics: Computational
The function rni rounds to the nearest integer. Paths to Discovery (1 ed.). Wellesley, MA:A K Peters. p.
51. ISBN 1-56881-136-5.
5.2.3 Numerical accuracy [8] Gade, Kenneth (2010). A non-singular horizontal po-
sition representation (PDF). The Journal of Naviga-
For angles near 0 and , arccosine is ill-conditioned and tion. Cambridge University Press. 63 (3): 395417.
will thus calculate the angle with reduced accuracy in a doi:10.1017/S0373463309990415.
8 8 EXTERNAL LINKS
8 External links
Weisstein, Eric W. Inverse Trigonometric Func-
tions. MathWorld.
9.2 Images
File:Arcsecant_Arccosecant.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Arcsecant_Arccosecant.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Geek3
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SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Geek3
File:Arctangent_Arccotangent.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Arctangent_Arccotangent.svg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Geek3
File:Complex_ArcCot.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Complex_ArcCot.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Eigenes Werk (own work) made with mathematica Original artist: Jan Homann
File:Complex_ArcCsc.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Complex_ArcCsc.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Eigenes Werk (own work) made with mathematica Original artist: Jan Homann
File:Complex_ArcSec.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Complex_ArcSec.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: Eigenes Werk (own work) made with mathematica Original artist: Jan Homann
File:Complex_arccos.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Complex_arccos.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: made with mathematica, own work Original artist: Jan Homann
File:Complex_arcsin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Complex_arcsin.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: made with mathematica, own work Original artist: Jan Homann
File:Complex_arctan.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Complex_arctan.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: made with mathematica, own work Original artist: Jan Homann
File:Sinus_und_Kosinus_am_Einheitskreis_1.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Sinus_und_
Kosinus_am_Einheitskreis_1.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Stephan Kulla (User:Stephan Kulla)
File:Trigonometric_functions_and_inverse.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Trigonometric_
functions_and_inverse.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Maschen
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functions_and_inverse2.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Maschen
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functions_and_inverse4.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Maschen
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functions_and_inverse5.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Maschen
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CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was Tarquin at English
Wikipedia Later versions were uploaded by Limaner at en.wikipedia.
= artanh(sin x) = arsinh(tan x)
= arcoth(csc x) = arcsch(cot x)
1 Properties
= sgn(x) arcosh(sec x) = sgn(x) arsech(cos x)
= i gd(ix)
1.1 Alternative denitions
(See inverse hyperbolic functions.)
1
2 5 REFERENCES
1
2 gd x
4 See also
Hyperbolic secant distribution
Mercator projection
Tractrix
Trigonometric identity
3
6.2 Images
File:Lock-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg License: CC0 Contributors: en:File:
Free-to-read_lock_75.svg Original artist: User:Trappist the monk
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piaxis.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Geek3
File:Mplwp_gudermann_piaxis.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/95/Mplwp_gudermann_piaxis.svg Li-
cense: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Geek3
( N
2
0.00
able) ) (0, ) , evaluating the error function at
0.25
erf x
1
2
describes the probability of falling in the
0.50
[3]
range [x, x]. This is used in statistics to predict behav-
0.75
ior of any sample with respect to the population mean.
1.00 This usage is similar to the Q-function, which in fact can
3 2 1 0
x
1 2 3
be written in terms of the error function.
x
1 erfc(x) = 1 erf(x)
et dt
2
erf(x) =
x
x =
2
et dt
2
2
et dt.
2
= x
0
= ex erfcx(x),
2
( )
1 The name 'error function' erfc(x | x 0) =
2 /2
exp 2
x2
d.
0 sin
The error function is used in measurement theory (using
probability and statistics), and its use in other branches of 2.2 Imaginary error function
mathematics is typically unrelated to the characterization
of measurement errors. The imaginary error function, denoted er, is dened
In statistics, it is common to have a variable Y and its as
unbiased estimator Y . The error is then dened as
= Y Y . This makes the error a normally dis-
tributed random variable with mean 0 (because the esti- erfi(x) = i erf(ix)
mator is unbiased) and some variance 2 ; this is written x
2 2
as N (0, 2 ) . For the case where 2 = 21 , i.e. an = et dt
unbiased error variable N (0, 21 ) , erf(x) describes 0
the probability of the error falling in the range [x, x]; 2 2
1
2 3 PROPERTIES
erf(z)
(
2 (1)n z 2n+1 2 z3 z5 z7 z9
erf(z) = = z + +
n=0 n!(2n + 1) 3 10 42 216
For iterative calculation of the above series, the following 3.3 Brmann series
alternative formulation may be useful:
An expansion,[8] which converges more rapidly for all real
values of x than a Taylor expansion, is obtained by using
( n ) [9]
2 (2k 1)z 2
2 zHans
nHeinrich
z 2 Brmann's theorem:
erf(z) = z =
n=0 k(2k + 1) n=0 2n + 1 k
k=1 k=1
erf(x)
because (2k1)z
2
dz
d 2 2
erfi(z) = ez .
dz
ez
2
An antiderivative of the imaginary error function, also ob- Given complex number z, there is not a unique complex
tainable by integration by parts, is number w satisfying erf(w) = z , so a true inverse func-
tion would be multivalued. However, for 1 < x < 1,
1
there
( is 1
a unique
) real number denoted erf (x) satisfying
2 erf erf (x) = x .
ez
z erfi(z) . The inverse error function is usually dened with do-
main (1,1), and it is restricted to this domain in many
Higher order derivatives are given by computer algebra systems. However, it can be extended
to the disk |z| < 1 of the complex plane, using the Maclau-
rin series
k1 k1 ( )
2(1) 2 d
Hk1 (z)ez = z
2 2
erf(k) (z) = e , k = 1, 2, . . .
dz k1 ( )2k+1
1 ck
[7]
erf (z) = z ,
where H are the physicists Hermite polynomials. 2k + 1 2
k=0
4 4 APPROXIMATION WITH ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS
( )
RN (x) = O x12N ex as x .
2
where c0 = 1 and
k1 { Indeed,}the exact value of the remainder is
cm ck1m 7 127 4369 34807
ck = = 1, 1, , , , ,... .
m=0
(m + 1)(2m + 1) 6 90 2520 16200
So we have the series expansion (note that common fac- (1)N 12N (2N )! 2N t2
2
tors have been canceled from numerators and denomina- RN (x) := N! x
t e dt,
tors):
by induction, writing et =
2
which follows
( 2 )easily
( 4 1 et
)
1 3 7 2 5 127 3 7 (2t)
4369 34807 and5 integrating by parts.
1
erf (z) = 2 z + z + z + z + 9
z + z + .
11
12 480 40320 5806080 182476800
For large enough values of x, only the rst few terms of
(After cancellation the numerator/denominator fractions this asymptotic expansion are needed to obtain a good
are entries A092676/ A132467 in the OEIS; with- approximation of erfc(x) (while for not too large values
out cancellation the numerator terms are given in entry of x note that the above Taylor expansion at 0 provides a
A002067.) Note that the error functions value at is very fast convergence).
equal to 1.
( )
For |z| < 1, we have erf erf1 (z) = z . 3.6 Continued fraction expansion
The inverse complementary error function is dened
as A continued fraction expansion of the complementary er-
ror function is:[11]
n=5
7 Related functions 3
n=4
n=3
En (x)
0
named norm(x) by software languages, as they dier only
by scaling and translation. Indeed, 1
x [ ( )] (3 )
1 t2 1 x 1 x
(x) = e 2 dt = 1 + erf = erfc
2 2 2 2 3 2 2 1 0 1 2 3
x
or rearranged for erf and erfc:
Graph of generalised error functions En(x):
grey curve: E1 (x) = (1 e x )/
( )
red curve: E2 (x) = erf(x)
erf(x) = 2 x 2 1
green curve: E3 (x)
( ) ( ( ))
blue curve: E4 (x)
erfc(x) = 2 x 2 = 2 1 x 2 .
gold curve: E5 (x).
After division by n!, all the En for odd n look similar (but
not identical) to each other. Similarly, the En for even n
probit(p) = 1 (p) = 2 erf1 (2p1) = 2 erfc1 (2p).
look similar (but not identical) to each other after a simple
The standard normal cdf is used more often in probability division by n!. All generalised error functions for n > 0
and statistics, and the error function is used more often in look similar on the positive x side of the graph.
other branches of mathematics. These generalised functions can equivalently be ex-
The error function is a special case of the Mittag-Leer pressed for x > 0 using the Gamma function and
function, and can also be expressed as a conuent hyper- incomplete Gamma function:
geometric function (Kummers function):
( ( ) ( ))
1 1 1 n
En (x) = (n) ,x , x > 0.
( ) n n
2x 1 3
erf(x) = F1 , , x2 . Therefore, we can dene the error function in terms of
1 2 2
the incomplete Gamma function:
It has a simple expression in terms of the Fresnel integral.
( )
In terms of the regularized Gamma function P and the 1 1 2
incomplete gamma function, erf(x) = 1 ,x .
2
7
7.2 Iterated integrals of the complemen- Go: Provides math.Erf() and math.Erfc() for oat64
tary error function arguments.
The iterated integrals of the complementary error func- Google search: Googles search also acts as a cal-
tion are dened by culator and will evaluate erf(...)" and erfc(...)" for
real arguments.
Haskell: An erf package[18] exists that provides a
in erfc(z) = in1 erfc() d. typeclass for the error function and implementations
z
for the native (real) oating point types.
They have the power series
IDL: provides both erf and erfc for real and complex
arguments.
(z)j
in erfc(z) = ( ),
2nj j! 1+ nj Java: Apache commons-math[19] provides imple-
j=0 2
mentations of erf and erfc for real arguments.
from which follow the symmetry properties
Julia: Includes erf and erfc for real and complex ar-
guments. Also has er for calculating i erf(ix)
m
z 2q
i2m erfc(z) = i2m erfc(z)+
q=0
22(mq)1 (2q)!(m q)! Maple: Maple implements both erf and erfc for real
and complex arguments.
and
MathCAD provides both erf(x) and erfc(x) for real
arguments.
m
z 2q+1
i2m+1 erfc(z) = i2m+1 erfc(z)+ Mathematica:
. erf is implemented as Erf and Erfc in
22(mq)1 (2q + 1)!(m q)!
q=0 Mathematica for real and complex arguments, which
are also available in Wolfram Alpha.
8 Implementations Matlab provides both erf and erfc for real argu-
ments, also via W. J. Codys algorithm.[20]
C: C99 provides the functions double erf(double x)
and double erfc(double x) in the header math.h. The Maxima provides both erf and erfc for real and com-
pairs of functions {er(),erfcf()} and {er(),erfcl()} plex arguments.
take and return values of type oat and long dou-
ble respectively. For complex double arguments, the PARI/GP: provides erfc for real and complex argu-
function names cerf and cerfc are reserved for fu- ments, via tanh-sinh quadrature plus special cases.
ture use"; the missing implementation is provided
by the open-source project libcerf, which is based Perl: erf (for real arguments, using Codys
on the Faddeeva package. algorithm[20] ) is implemented in the Perl module
Math::SpecFun
C++: C++11 provides erf() and erfc() in the header
cmath. Both functions are overloaded to accept ar- Python: Included since version 2.7 as math.erf()
guments of type oat, double, and long double. For and math.erfc() for real arguments. For previ-
complex<double>, the Faddeeva package provides ous versions or for complex arguments, SciPy
a C++ complex<double> implementation. includes implementations of erf, erfc, er, and
related functions for complex arguments in
D: A D package[16] exists providing ecient and ac- scipy.special.[21] A complex-argument erf is also in
curate implementations of complex error functions, the arbitrary-precision arithmetic mpmath library
along with Dawson, Faddeeva, and Voigt functions. as mpmath.erf()
Excel: Microsoft Excel provides the erf, and the erfc
functions, nonetheless both inverse functions are not R: The so-called 'error function'"[22] is not provided
in the current library.[17] directly, but is detailed as an example of the normal
cumulative distribution function (?pnorm), which is
Fortran: The Fortran 2008 standard provides the based on W. J. Codys rational Chebyshev approxi-
ERF, ERFC and ERFC_SCALED functions to cal- mation algorithm.[20]
culate the error function and its complement for real
arguments. Fortran 77 implementations are avail- Ruby: Provides Math.erf() and Math.erfc() for real
able in SLATEC. arguments.
8 11 FURTHER READING
[6] John W. Craig, A new, simple and exact result for calculat- 11 Further reading
ing the probability of error for two-dimensional signal con-
stellations, Proc. 1991 IEEE Military Commun. Conf., Abramowitz, Milton; Stegun, Irene Ann, eds.
vol. 2, pp. 571575. (1983) [June 1964]. Chapter 7. Handbook of
[7] Wolfram MathWorld Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and
Mathematical Tables. Applied Mathematics Se-
[8] H. M. Schpf and P. H. Supancic, On Brmanns Theo- ries. 55 (Ninth reprint with additional corrections
rem and Its Application to Problems of Linear and Non- of tenth original printing with corrections (Decem-
linear Heat Transfer and Diusion, The Mathematica ber 1972); rst ed.). Washington D.C.; New York:
Journal, 2014. doi:10.3888/tmj.1611.Schpf, Supancic United States Department of Commerce, National
[9] E. W. Weisstein. Brmanns Theorem from Wolfram Bureau of Standards; Dover Publications. p. 297.
MathWorldA Wolfram Web Resource./ E. W. Weis- ISBN 978-0-486-61272-0. LCCN 64-60036. MR
stein 0167642. LCCN 65-12253.
9
12 External links
MathWorld Erf
A Table of Integrals of the Error Functions
10 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
13.2 Images
File:ComplexErf.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/ComplexErf.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors:
This mathematical image was created with Mathematica Original artist: Domitori
File:ComplexEx2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/ComplexEx2.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con-
tributors: This mathematical image was created with Mathematica Original artist: Domitori
File:Error_Function.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Error_Function.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: self-made, Inkscape Original artist: Inductiveload
File:Error_Function_Generalised.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Error_Function_Generalised.
svg License: Public domain Contributors: self-made, Inkscape and Mathematica Original artist: Inductiveload
File:Mplwp_erf_inv.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ec/Mplwp_erf_inv.svg License: CC BY 3.0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Geek3
File:OEISicon_light.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/OEISicon_light.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Watchduck.svg' class='image'><img
alt='Watchduck.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Watchduck.svg/40px-Watchduck.svg.png'
width='40' height='46' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Watchduck.svg/60px-Watchduck.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Watchduck.svg/80px-Watchduck.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='703'
data-le-height='806' /></a> Watchduck (a.k.a. Tilman Piesk)
1
2 1 GENERALISED LOGISTIC DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
Eect of varying parameter K. A = 0, all other parameters are Eect of varying parameter . A = 0, all other parameters are
1. 1.
K
Y (t) =
(1 + Qe(tt0 ) )1/
which is the solution of the so-called Richards dierential
equation (RDE):
Eect of varying parameter Q. A = 0, all other parameters are
1.
( ( ) )
Y
Y (t) = 1 Y
Q : is related to the value Y (0) K
C : typically takes a value of 1. with initial condition
Y
= 1 (1 + QeB(tM ) )1/
A
Y
= (1 + QeB(tM ) )1/
K
Y (K A)(t M )QeB(tM )
= 1
B (1 + QeB(tM ) ) +1
Y (K A) ln(1 + QeB(tM ) )
= 1
2 (1 + QeB(tM ) )
Y (K A)eB(tM )
= 1
Q (1 + QeB(tM ) ) +1
Y (K A)QBeB(tM )
= 1
M (1 + QeB(tM ) ) +1
3 See also
Logistic function
Gompertz curve
Ludwig von Bertalany
4 Footnotes
[1] Fekedulegn, Desta; Mairitin P. Mac Siurtain; Jim J. Col-
bert (1999). Parameter Estimation of Nonlinear Growth
Models in Forestry (PDF). Silva Fennica. 33 (4): 327
336. Retrieved 2011-05-31.
4 7 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
7.2 Images
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1
2 2 ORIGIN
Applying the desired values for the rst derivative of the a0 = 0, a1 = 0, a2 = 0, a3 = 10, a4 = 15, a5 = 6
function at both endpoints we get:
Introducing these coecients back into the rst equation
gives the fth order smootherstep function:
f (0) = 0 0 + 0 + a1 = 0
f (1) = 0 3a3 + 2a2 + a1 = 0
f (x) = 6x5 15x4 + 10x3
Solving the system of 4 unknowns formed by the last 4
equations we obtain the values of the polynomial coe-
cients: 2.3 7th order equation
where N determines the order of the resulting polyno- [6] kcimc (25 March 2015).
mial function, which is 2N+1. The rst seven Smoothstep smootheststep(t)=20*t^7+70*t^6-84*t^5+35*t^4
polynomials, with 0x1, are expressed as: // when smoothersteps second derivative isn't enough
(Tweet) via Twitter.
where
SN (x) = 1
2 RN (2x 1) + 1
2
3 References
[1] Smoothstep at Microsoft Developer Network
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This article is about algebraic functions in calculus, An algebraic function in m variables is similarly de-
mathematical analysis, and abstract algebra. For func- ned as a function y which solves a polynomial equation
tions in elementary algebra, see function (mathematics). in m + 1 variables:
functions, sometimes also called branches. Consider for an algebraic function, solving the equation
example the equation of the unit circle: y 2 + x2 = 1.
This determines y, except only up to an overall sign; ac-
cordingly, it has two branches: y = 1 x2 . y n p(x) = 0.
1
2 1 ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS IN ONE VARIABLE
an (x)y n + + a0 (x) = 0,
108 + 12 81 12x3
3
2x
for each value of x, then x is also a solution of this equa- y = + .
tion for each value of y. Indeed, interchanging the roles
3
108 + 12 81 12x3 6
of x and y and gathering terms,
For x 3
3 , the square root is real and the cubic root
4
is thus well dened, providing the unique real root. On
3
the other hand, for x > 3 , the square root is not real,
bm (y)xm + bm1 (y)xm1 + + b0 (y) = 0. 4
and one has to choose, for the square root, either non-
Writing x as a function of y gives the inverse function, real square root. Thus the cubic root has to be chosen
also an algebraic function. among three non-real numbers. If the same choices are
done in the two terms of the formula, the three choices
However, not every function has an inverse. For example, for the cubic root provide the three branches shown, in
y = x2 fails the horizontal line test: it fails to be one-to- the accompanying image.
one. The inverse is the algebraic function x = y .
Another way to understand this, is that the set of branches It may be proven that there is no way to express this func-
of the polynomial equation dening our algebraic func- tion in terms of nth roots using real numbers only, even
tion is the graph of an algebraic curve. though the resulting function is real-valued on the domain
of the graph shown.
On a more signicant theoretical level, using complex
1.2 The role of complex numbers numbers allows one to use the powerful techniques of
complex analysis to discuss algebraic functions. In par-
From an algebraic perspective, complex numbers enter ticular, the argument principle can be used to show that
quite naturally into the study of algebraic functions. First any algebraic function is in fact an analytic function, at
of all, by the fundamental theorem of algebra, the com- least in the multiple-valued sense.
plex numbers are an algebraically closed eld. Hence any
Formally, let p(x, y) be a complex polynomial in the com-
polynomial relation p(y, x) = 0 is guaranteed to have at
plex variables x and y. Suppose that x0 C is such that
least one solution (and in general a number of solutions
the polynomial p(x0 ,y) of y has n distinct zeros. We shall
not exceeding the degree of p in x) for y at each point x,
show that the algebraic function is analytic in a neighbor-
provided we allow y to assume complex as well as real
hood of x0 . Choose a system of n non-overlapping discs
values. Thus, problems to do with the domain of an alge-
i containing each of these zeros. Then by the argument
braic function can safely be minimized.
principle
I
1 py (x0 , y)
dy = 1.
2i i p(x0 , y)
I
1 py (x, y)
fi (x) = y dy
2i i p(x, y)
3
A graph of three branches of the algebraic function y, where y which is an analytic function.
xy + 1 = 0, over the domain 3/22/3 < x < 50.
zeros is smaller than the degree of p, and this occurs only Rational function
where the highest degree term of p vanishes, and where
the discriminant vanishes. Hence there are only nitely Special functions
many such points c1 , ..., cm. Transcendental function
A close analysis of the properties of the function elements
fi near the critical points can be used to show that the
monodromy cover is ramied over the critical points (and 4 References
possibly the point at innity). Thus the holomorphic ex-
tension of the fi has at worst algebraic poles and ordinary Ahlfors, Lars (1979). Complex Analysis. McGraw
algebraic branchings over the critical points. Hill.
Note that, away from the critical points, we have
van der Waerden, B.L. (1931). Modern Algebra,
Volume II. Springer.
p(x, y) = an (x)(y f1 (x))(y f2 (x)) (y fn (x))
since the fi are by denition the distinct zeros of p. The 5 External links
monodromy group acts by permuting the factors, and
thus forms the monodromy representation of the Galois Denition of Algebraic function in the Encyclo-
group of p. (The monodromy action on the universal cov- pedia of Math
ering space is related but dierent notion in the theory of
Riemann surfaces.) Weisstein, Eric W. Algebraic Function.
MathWorld.
3 See also
Algebraic expression
Analytic function
Complex function
Elementary function
Function (mathematics)
Generalized function
Polynomial
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