NOISE IN POWER SYSTEMS

In the context of power-system design, noise commonly called

electromagnetic interference (EMI) or radio frequency interference (RFI)
appears as electrical currents. These currents degrade the performance of
susceptible devices. Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) is the ability of the
source and the receptor to operate properly in a given electromagnetic
environment.

Noise currents can flow both to and from the power supplys input, along the
wiring that connects the converter to the energizing source (the ac line or a
battery, usually). Currents exiting the supply are called conducted emissions.
Radiation from this path can cause interference with other devices, which is
why power cables are often routed through ferrite chokes.

Currents entering the supply are called conducted susceptibilities.

Susceptibilities arent necessarily swallowed up by the converter, and they
can make their way into the device being powered. Specifications for
conducted susceptibility are most often required for military equipment, not
so often for industrial or consumer products.
 FIG.1

1. In a typical electronic package, current flow from the input of the power
supply to the voltage source is referred to as conducted emissions.

The current flow can be common mode or differential mode. In common

mode, the emission has the same polarity on both conductors and travels to
and from ground. In differential mode, the emission has opposite polarity on
the conductors, without any reference to ground

FIG.2

2. In the same basic package, conducted emissions form at the ac or dc input

and generate both differential- and common-mode noise.

Radiated EMI is electromagnetic radiation leaving or entering the product

enclosure. Waves leaving are radiated emissions. Unwanted waves entering
are the source ofradiated susceptibility.

Ripple Current

A not-necessarily obvious source of conducted EMI is ripple in the converters

output. The ripple generally appears at harmonics of the ac line frequency or
switching-converter rate. As ripple is most likely to affect components within
the power system, its up to the designer to determine how much is
acceptable. There are no third-party standards.
Switching, Capacitance, And Inductance

Electrical devices switching on and off create almost all electrical noise. (A
steady dc current doesnt generate noise.)

Even a passive device such as a rectifier can generate noise. Rectifiers dont
turn on and off (that is, conduct and stop conducting) instantaneously.
Common rectifiers have a response time of about 1 s, generating harmonics
not only at multiples of the ac frequency being rectified, but also in the
megahertz region. These harmonics can find their way to both the input and
output of the power supply.

The active devices in a switching power supply (commonly MOSFETs) switch

more rapidly (~20 ns), generating higher frequencies, up to 30 MHz, which is
the highest frequency specified in commercial standards for measuring
conducted interference. (This doesnt mean higher frequencies that could
cause interference should be ignored.)

If the front end includes power factor correction (PFC) circuitry, there will be
additional EMI from the PFCs MOSFETs and diodes.

Multiple conduction paths created by parasitic capacitances within the power

supply and the system itself permit high-frequency EMI currents to enter
almost any part of the system. These stray capacitances appear not only
between parallel wires, but also between conductive surfaces. The parasitic
inductance of wiring and board traces contributes to voltage kicks that can
propagate through the parasitic capacitances.

Grounding

Proper grounding reduces the effects of all noise sources, both emissions and
susceptibilities, by providing a low-impedance path to ground for EMI
currents. There are four significant ground points in a power system .

Noise can be generated from within the system itself (internal noise) or from
an outside source (external noise). Examples of these types of noise are:

Internal noise

Thermal noise (due to electron movement within the electrical circuits)

 Imperfections (in the electrical design).

External noise

Natural origins (electrostatic interference and electrical storms)

Electromagnetic interference (EMI) - from currents in cables

Radio frequency interference (RFI) - from radio systems radiating

signals

Cross talk (from other cables separated by a small distance).

FIG.3

3. Good grounding minimizes all noise sources by presenting noise currents a

low-impedance path to earth. The four places in a power system that are of
concern are the front end input and output (points 1 and 2), which present
 different potentials, and the dc-dc converter input and output (points 2 and
3).

Whether the input is ac or dc, points 1 through 4 are not guaranteed to be at

the same potential. The front-end input and output (1 and 2) are at different
potentials also, due to interconnect resistance and the inductive elements
used in filtering. The converters input and output (2 and 3) can be at
different potentials, due to the transformer floating, without a common
input-output ground.

Usually, only the chassis (4) is connected to ground (earth). Obviously, the
lower the value of Z for the EMI frequencies of interest, the more effective
the grounding. (Z is presumably a complex value that varies with frequency.)
It might be useful to look at a block diagram and decide which paths the
high-frequency noise currents are likely to take based on how these points
are selected and how their connections are implemented.

The ideal situation is for Z to be zero, with all chassis current passing to
earth. A non-ideal situation would be noise currents travelling from the front
end to the equipment being powered. During EMI qualification testing, its
important that all noise currents go to earth, and not to the measurement
equipment, as that would affect both common- and differential-mode
measurements.

Compliance

A third-party specification usually enforces compliance with standards for

conducted and radiated emissions. There are three applicable specifications
for conducted emissions

There are significant differences at low frequencies. FCC part 15 starts at 450
kHz.

EN 55022 starts at 150 kHz. MIL STD 461 (not shown) starts at 10 kHz for CE
102. The designer should check the revision level for the spec of interest and
state it in any specification.

Measurements
There are two commonly used measurement procedures for conducted
emissions: quasi-peak and average. The spec limits for each are given in the
EN 55022 specification. Both measurements may be required.

The FCC and EN specs have two acceptance levels. Level A is for business
and industrial equipment. Level B requires a lower emission level for
consumer products.

Output ripple is usually specified as a percentage of the output voltage and

given in millivolts, peak-to-peak. Ripple is usually measured with an
oscilloscope having a 20-MHz bandwidth.

Most EMI radiates from the input and/or output cables, which dont benefit
from any shielding the enclosure might provide. Their emission levels might
vary, depending on the location of the cables, and how they are dressed.