CHAPTER 20

NERVOUS SYSTEM
20.1 Nervous system
20.2 Mechanism of muscular
contraction
20.3 Hormones in mammals
20.4 Hormones in plants
 1st Hour
20.1 NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Learning outcomes

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to :

Describe the organisation of nervous system

Explain the general role of the sympathetic and

parasympathetic nervous system

ORGANISATION OF
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Organization of the nervous system
Central Nervous System
The part of the
nervous
system that
coordinate all
neural
functions
Consists of
brain and
spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System
All part of the nervous
system accept the
CNS
Consists of
- somatic nervous
system
- autonomic nervous

system
Somatic Nervous System
Transmit impulse to and from skeletal muscle
Mainly response to external stimuli

Autonomic Nervous System

Regulates the internal environment by controlling
smooth and cardiac muscles etc.
Generally involuntary
Consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic
SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (SNS)

Consist afferent/ sensory nerves

transmit signal from receptor to CNS.
Information transmitted from CNS via
efferent/ motor nerves to effector:
skeletal muscles and glands
 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS)

A part of peripheral
nervous system
that help maintain
homeostasis in the
internal
environment
eg: heart rate,
peristalsis,
sweating
Consist of afferent /
sensory nerves
transmit signal from
receptor to in
internal organ to
CNS.
Information
transmitted from
CNS via efferent
nerves to effectors:
smooth muscle ,
cardiac muscle and
glands.
ANS composed 2 types of neurons :

Preganglionic neuron (mylienated) (cell

body and dendrites )within the CNS and
axon is emerge from CNS

Postganglionic neuron (non mylienated)

cell body and dendrites outside the CNS,
axon leading to effector
 Role of the
Sympathetic and
Parasympathetic
Nervous System
 The afferent portion of the ANS is
subdivided into :
Symphathetic nervous system
Parasymphathetic nervous
system

Exp:
The heart rate is speeding by
impulse from sympathetic
nerves tissues and slowed by
impulse from
parasympathetic nerves
tissues
 SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

Neurons are
originated from
spinal cord (the
thoracic + lumbar
region)

Ganglia close to
spinal cord
Neurotransmiter released by preganglionic
neurons: acetylcholine (ACh)

Neurotransmiter released by postganglionic

neurons: norepinephrine (NE) or acetylcholine
(ACh)
 Neuron cell that release Ach known cholinergic
neurons and receptors that receive Ach is nicotinic
receptor and muscarinic receptor
Neurons cell that release NE known adrenergic
neurons and receptors that receive NE is alpha
receptors and beta receptors
The preganglionic fiber is short but the
postganglionic fiber that makes contact
with an organ is long
The effect is
spread to all part
of the body and
takes time to
decease
The symphathetic
nervous system
is especially
dominant under
stress or at time
danger
PARASYMPHATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

Neurons
originated from
the cranial and
the sacral region
of the CNS

The ganglia of
PNS situated
close to or within
the effector
organ
The preganglionic fiber is long and
postganglionic fiber is short because the ganglia
(sing., ganglion) lie near or within the organ
Neurotransmiter released by preganglionic and
postganglionic neurons: acetylcholine only

Because both preganglionic neuron and

postganglionic neurons release Acetylcholine,
both neurons known as cholinergic

Receptors that receive Acetycholine is nicotinic

receptor and muscarinic receptor
Its effect locally and short

controls the routine activitie of the body at rest ; a

compensation for the symphathetic effect
 Differences between Symphathetic &
Parasymphathetic Nervous System

Feature Symphatetic Parasymphatetic

Origin of neuron Emerges from thoracic Emerges from
and lumbar regions of cranial + sacral
CNS regions of CNS

Position of Close to spinal cord Close to effector

ganglion

Length of fibres Short preganglionic, Long

long postganglionic preganglionic
fibers fibers, short
postganglionic
fibers
 Feature Symphatetic Parasymphatetic

Neurotransmitter Preganglionic ACh Preganglionic &

involve Postganglionic- ACh Postganglionic -
and NE ACh
Name of neurons Preganglionic Preganglionic &
involve (based on cholinergic Postganglionic -
neurotransmitter) Postganglionic- cholinergic
adregenic @ cholinergic
 Feature Symphatetic Parasymphatetic
Condition when Dominant during Dominant during
active danger, stress + rest
activity Controls routine
body activities
 2nd Hour
20.1 NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Learning outcomes

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to :

Explain the generation of action potential,

transmission and characteristics of nerve
impulse along an axon.
 Introduction
Input from other neuron or stimuli cause
change in resting potential that act as signals,
transmitting and processing information
Changes in resting potential enable us to:
See a flower
Read a book
Climb a tree
 The basis of resting potential
The sodium-potassium pump generates and maintain
ionic gradients of Na+ and K+
Use ATP to transport
Na+ out of the cell
K+ into the cell
Outflow of many K+ result in a net negative charge
inside of the cell
Generation Action Potential
 1. Resting state/potential
When membrane of axon at resting potential
Most voltage-gated sodium channels closed
Some potassium channels open, but most voltage-
gated potassium channel closed
 2. Depolarization
When a stimulus depolarizes the membrane,
some gated sodium channels open, allowing
more Na+ to diffuse into the cell.
If the depolarization reaches at threshold, it
triggers an action potential.
 3. Rising of action potential
Depolarization open most sodium channel
Potassium ion channel remain closed
Inside of the membrane is more positive
 4. Falling phase of action potential/
Depolarization
Most of sodium channels closed
Most of potassium channels open and permit
K+ outflow
Inside of the cell become negative again
 5. Undershoot
The sodium channels close
But some potassium channels are still open
As potassium channels close and the
membrane potential returns to the resting
potential
TRANSMISSION OF NERVE IMPULSE
ALONG THE AXON

A nerve impulse is transmitted along a

neuron by the rapid movement of an action
potential from one end of the neuron to the
other

Nerve impulses themselves along an axon

 2 types of nerve cell that transmit impulse

Transmission in nonmyelinated neuron

Transmission in myelinated neuron

 Transmission in non-myelinated neuron

Also known continues conduction

Ions flow through voltage-gated channels in each adjacent

segment of the membrane
Transmission in non-myelinated neuron

1. An action potential
is generated as Na+
flows inward across
the membrane at
one location
2. The depolarization of the
action potential spreads to
the neighboring region of
the membrane, reinitiating
the action potential there.
To the left of this region,
the membrane is
repolarizing as K+ flows
outward.
3. The depolarization-
repolarization process is
repeated in the next region
of the membrane.
In this way, local currents of
ions across the plasma
membrane cause the action
potential to be propagated
along the length of the
axon.
 Transmission in myelinated neuron
Also known as saltatory conduction
At the myelin sheath there are a few voltage gated channel
But at node of Ranvier, has a lot of voltage gated channel
Current flows across the membrane mainly at nodes of
Ranvier only
 When nerve impulse propagates along myelinated axon,
current flows through the extracellular fluid surrounding the
myelin sheath
Through the cytosol from one node to the next node
 The impulse at the first node generates ionic current in the
cytosol and extracellular fluid that depolarize the membrane
to threshold
It opening voltage-gated Na+ channels at the second node
 The resulting ionic flow through the opened channels
constitutes a nerve impulse at the second node
 Transmission in
myelinated neuron
The nerve impulse at the
second node generates
an ionic current.
Now voltage gated Na+
channel at 3rd node open,
an so on
Each node repolarizes
after it depolarizes
 CHARACTERISTIC OF AN IMPULSE

The features of action potentials / impulse are :

1) stimulation
2) all-or-nothing event
3) refractory period
4) speed of conduction
Characteristic of an Impulse
STIMULATION
There are 2 kinds of stimulation that affect the nerves:

1) common stimulation
- involves the stimulation of the receptor organs
- e.g light, sound, taste, smell

2) situational stimulation
- all the stimulation that are capable of depolarizing
the axons.
- e.g mechanical, chemical, heat, pressure, electrical
stimulations.
Characteristic of an Impulse
ALL-OR-NOTHING EVENT
A nerve impulse is an
all or nothing signal
If the threshold is not
reached, action
potential does not
occur and no signal
can travel along the
axon.
Once this threshold
level of stimulation is
reached, an action
potential will occur.
The size of the action
potential produced remain
constant
Independent on the
intensity of the stimulus
All the action potential of
the same size
The size of the action
potential is not affected by
the size of the stimulus
Characteristic of an Impulse
REFRACTORY PERIOD
Impulse travels one-way along the axon from
the excitable region to the resting region next
to it.

The time delay between one action is the

refractory period.
 Characteristic of an Impulse
Two phases involved in this very
short period of about 5-10 ms:
REFRACTORY PERIOD

1. Absolute refractory period

- The axon membrane
cannot transmit another
action potential at the
same time
- This is because the
voltage-gate Na+
channels are activated

1. Relative refractory period

- During this period, the
axon can transmit
impulses
Characteristic of an Impulse
SPEED OF CONDUCTION
The speed at which a nerve impulse or action
potential travels is known as its conduction velocity

In general, conduction velocity depends on the

following factors:
1. Axon diameter: the larger the axon, the
faster it conduct
2. Myelination of neuron: Faster in a mylinated
nerve than in non mylinated nerve
3. Number of synapse involved: the greater the
number of synapse in a series of neuron,
the slower the conduction velocity
 3rd
Hour
20.1 NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Learning outcomes

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to :

Describe the structure of synapse and explain the

mechanism of synaptic transmission across synapse.
Compare the transmission of impulse at the synapse and
along the axon.
Explain the mechanism of actions of drugs on the
nervous system.
Signal Transmission
at Synapses
 Signal Transmission at Synapses
Synapse is a junction between two neuron or
between a neuron and an effector
(ex : neuromuscular junction between neuron
and a muscle)
 Signal Transmission at Synapses
Structure of synapse

Pre-synaptic
membrane

Synaptic Synaptic
Cleft Vesicle

Neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitter Post-
receptor synaptic
membrane
Signal Transmission at Synapses
Structure of synapse

Pre-synaptic membrane
membrane of the synaptic knob
facing the synapse

Post-synaptic membrane
membrane of dendrite or cell body
facing the presynaptic membrane

Synaptic cleft
narrow gap (wide: 20nm) between
the pre-synaptic and post-synaptic
membrane
Signal Transmission at Synapses
Structure of synapse

Synaptic Knob

knob-shaped like terminal at

the end of an axon with other
neuron

Expansion of a fine terminal

branch of axon of pre-
synaptic neuron

Cytoplasm contain many

mitochondria, synaptic
vesicles and microfilament
Signal Transmission at Synapses
Structure of synapse
Synaptic Vesicles
Vesicles that contain
neurotransmitter
Located at synaptic knob

Neurotransmitter
Chemical messengers that
conduct the neural signal
across the synapse
bind to chemically activated
ion channel at membrane of
post synaptic neuron
Signal Transmission at Synapses
Structure of synapse
Neurotransmitter Receptor
Receive neurotransmitter in
post-synaptic membrane
 Signal Transmission at Synapses
Structure of synapse

Main neurotransmitters:
Acetylcholine synapses in the brain and neuromuscular junction

Noradrenaline (norepinephrine) - areas in the brain that reacts to tension

Dopamine (good feeling neurotransmitter) pleasure and motivation

centers in the brain

Serotonin center of brain that controls mood, appetite, sleep and

nausea.

Endorphin & encephalin neurons that processes emotions, pain and

feeling
 Signal Transmission at Synapses

Transmission of Impulse
in Synapse
 1 An action
potential is
initiated
2 Action potential
reaches synaptic
terminal

Transmission
of Impulse in
Synapse
Synaptic vesicles
release
neurotransmitter

4 Receptor binds
neurotransmitter &
opens ion channel
Signal Transmission at Synapses
Transmission of Impulse in Synapse

Nerve impulse arrives at

a synaptic knob of
presynaptic axon

The depolarizing phase of

the nerve impulse opens
voltage gated Ca2+
channels at synaptic knob

Ca2+ in extracellular fluid

flows inward through that
opening channel
Signal Transmission at Synapses
Transmission of Impulse in Synapse

An increase of Ca2+ inside the

synaptic knob serve as a signal
that triggers exocytosis of the
synaptic vesicles

Synaptic vesicles membrane

merge with presynaptic
membrane and
neurotransmitter molecules
within the vesicles are released
into synaptic cleft
Signal Transmission at Synapses
Transmission of Impulse in Synapse

Neurotransmitter molecules
combine with their receptor
sites cause ligand-gated Na+
channels in the post synaptic
membrane to open.

Na+ diffuse into the cell and

causes depolarization at post
synaptic membrane (other
neuron)

When depolarization reach

treshold, action potential will
generated.
Signal Transmission at Synapses
Transmission of Impulse in Synapse

The effects are short-lives

Because the
neurotransmitter is quickly
destroyed by enzyme or
taken back up into the
presynaptic knob
Caused the Na+ channels
closed
And terminated the
synaptic response
Removal of neurotransmitter from the
Synaptic Cleft
If Neurotransmitter is Acetylcholine molecules bind to
Acetylcholine their receptors

Acetylcholine molecules unbind

from their receptors

Acetylcholinerase splits
acetylcholine into choline and
acetic acid which prevent
acetylcholine from again binding
to its receptors. Choline is taken
up by the presynaptic terminal

Choline is used to make new

acetylcholine molecules that are
packaged into synaptic vesicles
 Removal of neurotransmitter from the
Synaptic Cleft
Norepinephrine binds to its If Neurotransmitter is
receptor Norepinephrine
Norepinephrine unbinds from
its receptor
Norepinephrine is taken up by
the presynaptic terminal, which
prevent norepinephrine from
again binding to its receptor
Norepinephrine is repackaged
into synaptic vesicle or is
broken down by monoamine
oxidase (MAO)
 Signal Transmission at Synapses

Comparisons between
Transmission of Impulse
at the Synapse and
along The Axon
 Signal Transmission at Synapses
Comparison

Synapse Axon

Impulse is chemically Impulse is electrically

transmitted. transmitted.

Involves the No neurotransmitter

neurotransmitter substances are involved.
substances.
 Signal Transmission at Synapses
Comparison

Synapse Axon
Action potential travels Involves two adjacent
along one neurone neurons
Impulse transmission is Impulse transmission is
slower because : very fast.
- the neurotransmitter need
to diffuse across the
synaptic cleft
 Signal Transmission at Synapses
Comparison

Synapse Axon

Involves the diffusion of Ca+ Ca+ ions are not involved.

ions into the synaptic knob
to activate the vesicles.

The diffusion of Na+ across the membrane is needed.

MECHANISM OF ACTION OF
COCAINE AT THE SYNAPSE
 At normal synapse (absent of drug)
Transporters protein bind with the Dopamine
Carry the Dopamine back to the presynaptic knob and
the Dopamine will reabsorbed back
1. When the cocaine present in the synaptic cleft
2. The cocaine bind to transporters protein
3. Block the binding of Dopamine to transporters
protein
4. Dopamine stays in the synaptic cleft
5. Cause over stimulation of the postsynaptic
membrane
6. Depolarization of postsynaptic membrane occurs
repeatedly which result continuous impulse
transmission
7. This will cause:
Intense pleasure, increase energy levels
and feeling power
8. The repeating and continuous impulse
transmission will decreases the number of
receptors
9. Finally the synapses become less sensitive
when the drug is remove
When the drugs effect wear off and the
addicts begins to suffer depression

When the drug again introduced into the body,

the mood of depression swing to euphoria
(feeling pleasantly excited and happy)
 Hour
4th

20.2 Mechanism of Muscle

Contraction
 Learning outcomes

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to :

a) Describe the structure of neuromuscular junction

and explain the impulse transmission at the
junction
b) Describe the structure of sarcomere
c) Explain the mechanism of muscle contraction
based on the sliding filament theory.
Structure of Neuromuscular
Junction
 Structure of Neuromuscular Junction

Neuromuscular
junction -
Synapse between
terminal ends of
motor neuron
(nerve) with
skeletal muscle or
smooth muscle
 Structure of Neuromuscular Junction
At neuromuscular junction, the end of the axon
terminal branched into a cluster of synaptic end
bulb
 Structure of Neuromuscular Junction

All synaptic end bulbs consist synaptic vesicles

 Structure of Neuromuscular Junction

Neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine - in
skeletal muscle
Norepinephrine -
in smooth
muscles.
 Structure of Neuromuscular Junction

The region of sarcolemma opposite the

synaptic end bulbs, called the motor end plate
At the motor end plate consist of thousand
receptor
Structure of Sarcomere
Structure of Sarcomere
 Structure of Sarcomere
The muscle fiber is filled with specialized cytoplasm
known as sarcoplasm and contain many mitochondria
The plasma membrane that surrounds a muscle fiber
known as sarcolemma
Thousand of tiny invaginations of the sarcolemma, called
transverse tubule (T tubule) tunnel in from the center of
each muscle fiber.
A fluid-filled system of membranous sacs called the
sarcoplasmic reticulum encircles each myofibrils.
Structure of Sarcomere
 Structure of Sarcomere
Each muscle fiber
consists of hundreds of
myofibrils
Each myofibril is made
up of two types of
filaments
a. Thick filaments -
protein myosin
b. Thin filaments -
composed mainly with
actin and small amount
of proteins troponin and
tropomyosin
 Structure of Sarcomere

Thick filament:
Composed of many myosin protein molecule
2 globular myosin heads (site for ATPase) and
long tail
 Structure of Sarcomere
Thin filament
Consists of three types of
protein:
a. Actin- two helical strands
of actin molecules. Each
molecules consist of
myosin-binding site.
b. Tropomyosin two
threads of tropomyosin
molecules intertwined.
c. Troponin- is
intermittently attached to
the tropomyosin threads .
Site for Ca2+ bind.
 Structure of Sarcomere

Basic functional unit

of myofibrils
A sarcomere consists
all the thick and thin
filaments between the
two Z lines
The arrangement of
the filaments form
alternating dark and
light bands in the
myofibrils
 Structure of Sarcomere
A band (darkest) overlapping thick filaments
and thin filaments. The central dark line is M line
H zone (dark) only portions of the thick
filaments which do not overlap with the thin
filaments
I band (lightest) only thin filaments. The central
line is Z line
Structure of Sarcomere
 Impulse
transmission at
the junction
 Impulse transmission at the junction

Resting state:
outer layer of
sarcolemma +ve
inner layer of
sarcolemma -ve
 Impulse transmission at the junction

Arrival of the impulse at the synaptic

end bulb cause synaptic vesicles
undergo exocytosis
Acetylcholine release out to synaptic
cleft
 Impulse transmission at the junction
Acetylcholine bind to
receptor at motor
end plate
Ion channel now
open, Na+ flow cross
the membrane
Sarcolemma
depolarized, above
the treshold
The inflow of Na +
makes the inside
muscle fiber more
positively charge
 Impulse transmission at the junction

This change in
membrane
potential triggers a
muscle action
potential
 Impulse transmission at the junction

Muscle action potential then propagates along

the sarcolemma and spreads down into T
tubules system (in muscle fiber)
 Mechanism of Mascular Contraction
Based on Sliding Filament Theory

Impulse transmission Sliding Filament

at the junction Theory
 MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

1) Resting state:
outer layer of
sarcolemma +ve
inner layer of
sarcolemma -ve
2) Muscle stimulation:

Action potential
(nerve impulse) arrives
at the synaptic end bulb.
Ca2+ ions enter into the
synaptic end bulb
(motor neuron) cause
synaptic vesicles
undergo exocytosis.
Acetylcholine release
out to synaptic cleft
 Acetylcholine bind to
receptor at motor
end plate
Ion channel now
open, Na+ flow cross
the membrane
The inflow of Na +
makes the inside
muscle fiber more
positively charge
Sarcolemma
depolarized ,above
the treshold.
 This change in
membrane
potential triggers a
muscle action
potential
 Muscle action
potential then
propagates along the
sarcolemma and
spreads down into
T-tubules (in muscle
fiber)
 This results in the
release of Ca2+ from
sarcoplasmic
reticulum
3) Cross bridge formation:

Ca 2+ binds to troponin,
causing conformational
change ( tropomyosin
changes shape and
position, exposing the
actin active site/ myosin
binding sites)
Mechanism of Sliding Filament Theory

The myosin head is the centre of bioenergetic

reactions that power muscle contraction.

1) A molecule of ATP binds to the myosin head

( low-energy configuration)
 Mechanism of Sliding Filament Theory

2) The myosin head containing ATPase hydrolyses

the ATP to ADP and Pi.
The energy released is transferred to the myosin
head which changes shape to a high energy
configuration
Mechanism of Sliding Filament Theory

3) The myosin head binds to actin, forming an

actomyosin cross bridge
Mechanism of Sliding Filament Theory
4) ADP and inorganic phosphate are released.
The myosin head returns to its low energy
configuration.
Cross bridge flexes (the head bends) 45o
The bend propelling the actin filament toward
the centre of the sarcomere
 MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

During contraction,
the actin filament
move inwards
towards the centre of
the sarcomere
making the
sarcomere, H zone
and I band looks
shorter

No changing the
length of the A band
Mechanism of Sliding Filament Theory

After action potential

ends, Ca2+ are
pumped back into
sarcoplasmic
reticulum by active
transport
Troponin &
tropomysin move
back to original
position
 MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION

active site on actin Muscle contracted

filament are covered
again

actin filament slide

back to original Muscle contracting
position

muscle relaxes

Muscle relaxed (extended)

HORMONE
 Lecture 1
Objectives:
1. Hormone in human

a. Endocrine system

b. Types and characteristics of hormones

 Endocrine system
There are two types of
gland in the body
a. Exocrine glands
b. Endocrine glands

The endocrine system is

made up of glands called
endocrine glands
Endocrine glands are:
ductless,
secrete their
hormones directly
into
the bloodstream for
distribution throughout
the body
In what way does endocrine glands
different to exocrine glands
Exocrine glands have ducts and
secrete their products into these ducts
for transport to body cavities

Example: The salivary glands send saliva

into the mouth by way of salivary
ducts
 Hormone
Hormone is a chemical messenger
which is secreted by cells in one part of the
body
that is transported in the bloodstream to
other parts of the body
where it affects particular target cells
@13.2
 They control many of the functions
of organisms such as:

1) Metamorphosis of insects
2) Metamorphosis of a tadpole into an
adult frog
3) The singing of birds
 Interaction between the endocrine system and
the nervous system
The endocrine and nervous system interact with
one another in the regulation of body functions
(do not function separately)

Hypothalamus plays an important role in

integrating the endocrine and nervous systems.
It acts in response to information received from
the peripheral nerves about the condition of
the internal and external environments
Ways of interaction the endocrine and
nervous system

1. Through hypothalamus which is connected to

the pituitary gland. The major function of the
pituitary gland is to control most of other
endocrine glands
2. The level of all the different hormones in the blood
is detected by the hypothalamus through a negative
feedback control

When the level of a specific hormone in the blood is

low,
the hypothalamus detects it and stimulates
pituitary gland secretion
When hormone level in the blood rises,
rises
the hypothalamus acts to trigger the inhibitory
activity of the pituitary gland secretion
Properties of hormone

Travels in blood

A small soluble organic molecule

Effective in low concentration

Precisely into the receptor molecules

in the target (a key in a lock)

Specific for a particular target

 Hormones chemical classes
All vertebrate hormones belong to one of
three chemical groups:
a. Peptides and proteins
b. Derivates of amines such as tyrosine
c. Steroids

Majority of them are steroid hormones and

amino/peptide hormones
 Major Endocrine Glands
Hypothalamus and pituitary gland
Parathyroid and thyroid glands
Adrenal gland
Pancreas
Gonads
 TABLE 1
 The pituitary gland
Was formerly called master gland because it
regulates other endocrine functions

The signals from the hypothalamus directly

control the pituitary gland

In turn the pituitary secretes hormones that

activate target endocrine glands

It is divided into anterior and posterior

lobes/anterior and posterior pituitary
 Posterior pituitary
Two hormones secreted:
1. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
2. Oxytocin

1) ADH
acts inside the kidneys,
increasing water retention, and thus
decreasing urine volume. In this way it helps to
regulate the osmolality of the blood
 2) Oxytocin

Acts on the smooth muscles of the

uterus, inducing contraction of uterine
during childbirth

Causes the mammary glands to eject

milk during suckling
ANTERIOR PITUITARY
 Anterior pituitary
Secretes:
1. FSH (Follicle-stimulating hormone) and
LH (Luteinizing hormone)
hormone

glycoproteins
called gonadotropins,
because they stimulate the activities of
the male and female gonads
2.TRH (thyrotropin-releasing hormone)
glycoprotein
that stimulates the production of thyroids
hormone

3. ACTH (Adrenocorticotropin)
peptide hormone
that stimulates the production and secretion of
cortisol and other steroid hormones from adrenal
cortex
4. PRL (Prolactin)

A protein
which stimulates and sustains milk production
in mammals

5. GH (growth hormone)

A protein,
promotes growth in the young, and stimulates
the production of growth factors
The overproduction of
growth hormone
during development
leads to giantism

Defeciency- Affected
adults are much
smaller than
averaged-size
people (dwarfism)
Excessive production of growth hormone during
adulthood causes the abnormal growth of bones
in the hands, feet, and head acromegaly
6. Endorphins
also known as the bodys natural painkillers
(natural opiates).
They inhibit the perception of pain

7. (MSH) Melanocyte - stimulating hormone

peptide
that regulates the activity of
pigment
 10.4 HORMONES IN PLANTS
OBJECTIVES
Explain the roles of hormones in plants
i. Auxins
ii. Gibberellins
iii. Cytokinins
iv. Abscisic acid
v. Ethylene
 1) Auxin
Produced in
Embryo of seed, meristem of apical buds,
young leaves

Roles
Stimulates stem elongation (low concentration
only), root growth, cell differentiation and
branching
Regulates development of fruit
Enhances apical dominance
Functions in phototropism and gravitropism
Promotes xylem differentiation
Retards leaf abscission
Auxin is synthesized
in the shoot tip and
migrates down the
stem

Auxin stimulates cell

elongation causing
the shoot to grow
toward light
High concentration
of auxin will inhibit
shoot growth

A certain
concentration
causes shoot
growth is inhibiting
root growth
Phototropism
Gravitropism
Stem elongation
 2) Gibberellins

Produced in
Meristems of apical buds and roots,
Young leaves, embryo

Roles
Promotes seed and bud germination
Stem elongation and leaf growth
Stimulate flowering and development
of fruit
Affect root growth and differentiation
Seed Buds
Germination Germination
Flowering
 3) Cytokinins
Produced in
roots and transported to other
organs

Roles
Affect root growth and
differentiation
Stimulate cell division and growth
Stimulate germination
Delay senescence
 4) Abscisic acid

Produced in
Leaves, stems, roots and green fruit

Role
Inhibits growth
Closes stomata during water stress
Promotes seed dormancy
Seed dormancy
 5) Ethylene
Produced in
tissue of ripening fruit, nodes of
stems, aging leaves and flower

Role
Promotes fruit ripening, opposes some
auxin effects
Promotes or inhibits growth and
development of roots, leaves and
flowers, depending on species
Responsible for the falling of leaves
(leaves abscission)

Responsible for other ageing processes

in plant
Fruit ripening
10.4 : HORMONES IN PLANTS

Objectives

a) Describe the roles of phytochrome

and explain the mechanism of action

b) Explain photoperiodism and the role

of phytochrome in photoperiodism
and flowering
DEFINITION OF PHYTOCHROME
Phytochrome is a blue-green pigmen existing
in two intercovertible forms

PR because it absorbs red (R; 660 nm) light

PFR because it absorbs far red (FR; 730
nm) light

Absorption of light by one form converts it

rapidly and reversibly to the other form
 Roles of phytochrome
Phytochrome as photoreceptors, which
are regulate many of plants response to
light

Phytochrome exist in two photoreversible

states, with conversion of Pr to Pfr
triggering many development responses ;

Promotes flowering
Promotes seed germination growth
Inhibits stem elongation
 Mechanism of action : Phytochrome
alternates between two form
1. Absorption of red
light by PR converts it
into PFR

2. Absorption of far red

light by PFR converts
it into PR.

3. In the dark, PFR

spontaneously
converts back to PR.
 Mechanism of action : Phytochrome
alternates between two form (Pfr during the
day and Pr during the night)
Direct sunlight contains more
red light , therefore Pfr is
present in plant leaves during
the day

In the shade and at sunset,

there is more far red light,
therefore Pfr is converted to Pr
as night approaches

There is a slow metabolic

reversion of Pfr to Pr during the
night
Photoperiodism and the role of
phytochrome in photoperiodism
and flowering
PHOTOPERIODISM PHENOMENON
Definition
A physiological response to photoperiod, such as
flowering is called photoperiodism

Plants can be divided into three groups based on

photoperiod

1) Short day plant requires a light period shorter than a

critical length to flower
2) Long day plant will only flower when the light period
is longer than a critical number of hours
3) Day- neutral plants are not dependent on day length
for flowering , they will flower when they reach a
certain stage of maturity
 Shortday plant
Chrysanthemums
Poinsettias
Some soybean varieties
 Longday plant

Spinach
Iris
Many cereals
 Day-neutral plants
Tomato
Cucumber
Phytochrome and flowering

Pfr is an active form of phytochrome

Pfr stimulates flowering in LDP by activating

genes for the synthesis of enzymes to
produce a flowering hormone called florigen
from its precursor

Pfr inhibits flowering in SDP

If the concentration of Pfr and Pr , it will

induce flowering in SDP
Phytochrome and flowering in
Short-day plants

SDP flowered only if a

period of continuous
darkness was longer
than a critical dark
period

If the day length is

longer, SDP will not
flower because Pfr
inhibits flowering in SDP
A long dark night allow the
concentration of Pfr to fall
low enough (Pfr to Pr) and
SDP will flower

Broken of continuous
darkness by flash of light
will inhibits flowering

Because Pr is quickly
converted to Pfr
Phytochrome and flowering in Long-
day plants

LDP Flowered only if a Darkness

period of continuous Flash

of light
darkness was shorter
than a critical dark period

A long day contains more

phytochrome Pfr and
stimulate flowering in LDP
A long dark night allow the
concentration of Pfr to fall
Flash of
low enough (Pfr to Pr) and light
LDP will not flower

Broken of continuous
darkness by flash of light
will stimulates flowering

Because Pr is quickly
converted to Pfr
Short day plant Long day plant