DEVELOPMENTS 11\. GEOTCCHNJCAL BNGJNEERJNG VOL.

48

ROCK AND SOIL

MECHANICS
by

WODZIMIERZ DERSKr, RYSZARD JZBTCKJ, IGOR KJSlEL, ZI:NON MRZ

Itutitutc of Fundamental Tcd!Miaglcal R~tarrh

Palish Amdemy of Scfcnccs
Warsaw, PoltJJUJ

fust/lute a/ Gcateclmics
Ter/mical University
Wraclaw, Poland

ELSEVI ER
Amsterdam- Oxford - New Y ork- Tokyo
PWN- POLISH SCfBNTIFIC PUBLISHBRS
Warsaw
1989
Contents

PREFACE, V
LIST OF FREQUENTLY USED SYMBOLS, VIII

CHAPTER l. D EFINITION AND SUBJECT OFTRE DISCIPLI NE (l. Kisief), l

1.1 Nature of tbe disciplice and interdisciplinary connections,

l.l.l lntroduction, l
J.1.2 Problems o f rock and soi l mechanies, 2
1.1.3 Metbods used in rock and soil mechanics, 2
1.2 Discontinuity and granuJarity, 3
1.2.1 Genera concepts, 3
1.2.2 Element size and shape, 3
1.2.3 Specific surface, 4
J.2.4 Content of the material in an element of the medium, 5
1.3 Multicomponent structure, 6
1.3.1 Skeleton, pores, and filier, 6
1.3.2 Porosity, 6
1.3.3 Porosity of rocks, 7
1.3.4 Water and gas contents, 8
References, 9

CHAPTER 2. MECHANICAL MODELS OF ROCKS AND SOILS (l. Kisiel), lO

2.1 Description o f t he models, l O
2.2 The concepts of rheology of a continuum, 11
2.2.1 Space, time, configuration, l l
2.2.2 Deformation of a continuous body, 12
2.2.3 Infinitesirnal strains, 13
2.2.4 Mass and its co nservation, 14
2.2.5 The state of stress. Equatioos of motion, 15
2.2.6 Constitutive equations, 17
2.3 The model of an elastic body, 17
2.3.1 Tbe isotropie linearly elastic body, 17
2.3.2 The anisotropic elastic body, 19
CONTENTS xr
2.3.3 Transformalion of the coordinate system, 22
2.4 Linear rheological models, 23
2.4.1 Symbols and fundamental concepts, 23
2.4.2 Rules of joining the elements, 25
2.4.3 Viscoelastic twe-parameter modes, 26
2.4.4 Boltzmann's heredity principle, 29
2.5 Piccewise linear models, 30
2.5.1 Twe-parameter and three-parameter models, 30
2.5.2 The model of the M/V and the standard body, 33
2.5.3 The critical time of the M/ V model, 36
2.5.4 Flow regions in the M fV body, 37
2.6 Terzaghi's hydrodynamie model, 39
2.6.1 Introductory remarks, 39
2.6.2 Consolidation and compressibility of soiJs, 40
2.6.3 Water movement in soil. Darcy's Law, 43
2.6.4 NeutraJ and effective pressure, 46
2.6.5 Terzaghi's theory of consolidation, 47
2.6.6 The effect of confined gas, 49
2.7 Discrcte roodels for rocks and soils, 52
2.7.1 lntroduction, 52
2.7.2 Tbeoretical foundation s, 54
2.7.3 Distribution of vertical loads, 56
2.7.4 Tbe equations of equilibrium, 59
2.8 Shear resistance of sois, 61
2.8.1 Interna! friction and cohesion, 61
2.8.2 Limit shear resistance, 63
2.8.3 Relation between porosity and sbear resistance, 69
References, 73

CHAPTER 3. PROPERTIES OF ROCKS AND SOILS (/.Kisiel), 15

3.1 Physical properties of rocks, 75
3.l.l Minera composition, 75
3. 1.2 Microstructure of rocks, 76
3. 1.3 Tbermal properties of rocks, 80
3.l.4 Properties of rock strata, 83
3.2 Physical properties of soils, 84
3.2.1 Non-cohesive and cohesive so is, 84
3.2.2 Tbe effect of tbe liquid component, 86
3.2.3 Surface tension, 86
3.2.4 Adso.rbed water, 88
3.2.5 Unit weight and specific gravity, 89
3.3 Rheologica properties of rocks, 90
XII CONTENTS

3.3.J Rheological properties of rock strata, 90

3.3.2 Test mctl10ds for rocks, 90
3.3.3 Specimen sizc and mechanical featurcs, 94
3.3.4 Contact friction in rocks and rock strata, 98
3.3.5 Rhcological rclations, 104
3.3.6 Plasticity and strcngth, 120
3.3.7 Physical propertics and rheological parameters, 124
3.3.8 Water action in a rock stratum, 128
3.3.9 Permeabili ty of rock strata, 131
3.4 Rheological parametersof soils, 132
3.4. 1 Jntroduction, 132
3.4.2 Test methods, 133
3.4.3 Oedometcr test, 136
3.4.4 Methods of investigating shear resista nce, 141
3.4.5 Rheological phenomena in soils, 146
3.5 The properties of frozeo soils, 159
3.5.1 Pbysical phenomena in fiozeo soils, 159
3.5.2 Rheological properties of frozen soils, 163
Refereoces, 171

CHAPTER 4. VISCOELASTICITY IN SOIL AND ROCK MECHAN ICS

(J. Kisief), 174

4.1 Distributioo of stresses io a substratum, 174

4.1.1 Introduction, 174
4.1.2 Loading of an isotropie elastic substratum, 175
4.1.3 Loads over an inhomogeneous and anisetropie substratum, 189
4.1 .4 An elastic layer, 192
4.1.5 The problem of a heavy slope, 195
4.2 Deformations of the substraturn and s1opcs, 197
4.2.1 Introduction, 197
4.2.2 Rheo1ogica1 parameters of soils, 200
4.2.3 Settlement calculation for buildings, 202
4.2.4 Rheo1ogical dcformations of slopes, 206
4.3 The in situ state of a rock mass, 208
4.3.1 I n situ stresses, 208
4.3.2 Tectonic stresses, 210
4.3.3 Formation o f folds, 212
4.3.4 Local movements. Faults, 217
4.3.5 Effects associated with stress relensc, 225
4.4 Excavations in a rock stratum, 227
4.4.1 Introduction, 227
CONTENTS x ru
4.4.2 Pressure on the excavatioo support, 228
4.4.3 Drift within a stratum, 231
4.4.4 A vertical sbaft, 242
4.4.5 An excavatioo in a layered stratum, 250
4.4.6 Roofs of exteoded excavations, 254
4.5 Problems associated witb d riling, 256
4.5. I Iotroduction, 256
4.5.2 Stress concentrations at the borehole bottom, 257
4.5.3 Conditioos duri ng drilling, 259
4.6 Discrete models of rock strata, 260
4.6. 1 Introduction, 260
4.6.2 The geometry of a blocky stratum, 263
4.6.3 Distribution of a concentrated load, 265
References, 269

CHAPTER 5. GROUNDWATER FLOW (/.Kisiel), 272

5.1 Bquations of groundwater movement, 272

5.1.1 lntroductory remarks, 272
5.1.2 Displacements, stresses, and boundary conditioos, 274
5.1.3 Eq uation of c0ntinuity and equation of motion, 275
5.1.4 Potential fu.nction and stream function, 278
5.2 Two-dimensional groundwater flow problem, 280
5.2.1 Tbe essence of the two-dimensional problem, 280
5.2.2 Confined flow of water, 281
5.2.3 Unconfined ftow of water, 282
5.3 Some practical problems, 283
5.3.1 The stream lines and flow nets, 283
5.3.2 Seepage forces in a soil, 286
5.3.3 Seepage under an impervious dam, 290
5.4 Seepage in scarps and slopes, 293
5.4.1 Seepage tbrough a dam, 293
5.4.2 Additiona loading of the slope, 296
5.5 Drainage of the ground and excavations, 298
5.5.1 Introduction, 298
5.5.2 Water pumping from a confined aquiferous layer, 299
5.5.3 Pumping water out of an unconfined aquifer, 305
5.5.4 Weber's solution, 307
5.5.5 Calculation of tbe constant m in Weber's formua, 310
5.5.6 The limit discharge of a well, 312
5.5.7 Tbe partially penetrating well, 316
5.5.8 Supplementary remarks, 3J 8
 X IV CO~lENl S

5.6 Water fiow in rock strata. 319

5.6. 1 lotroduction, 3 19
5.6.2 Formulation of the problem of water Oow in rocks, 320
References, 322
~
7--. CHAPTER 6. THEORY OF CONSOLTDATJON (W. Derski), 324
6.1 Historical remarks, 324
6.2 Quasi-statiooary problcms, 331
6.2.1 Porosity, 331
6.2.2 Kinematics of the medium, 333
6.2.3 Forces, 334
6.2.4 Equations of interna! equilibrium and the equation of liquid mo-
tion, 336
6.2.5 Constitutive relations, 337
6.2.6 Collective equations of the theory of consolidation and their solution
by the displacement function, 338
6.2.7 One-dimensiooal problem, 341
6.2.8 Plane problem of tbe theory of consolidation for a balf-intinite
disk, 348
6.2.9 Axi-symmetric problem for a balf-space loaded on tbe surface with
a concentrated force, 356
6.2.10 Reciprocal theorem for displacements, 362
6.2.11 Singu1ar solutions, 365
6.2.12 Actioo of a forced source of liquid, 368
6.2.13 Survey of solutions of quasi-stationary problems, 370
6.3 Dynamie problems of tbe theory of consolidation, 371
6.3.1 Biot's equations of motion, 372
6.3.2 Equatioos of mass balance, 374
6.3.3 Principle of conservation of momenturn and equations of motion, 376
6.3.4 Kinemalie components and physical componeots of a medium, 379
6.3.5 Kinetic energy. Lagraoge equations. Equations of motion, 381
6.3.6 Purely clastic waves, 385
6.3.7 Atteouated waves, 388
6.3.8 Review of publisbed solutions of dynamie problems, 392
6.4 Thermoconsolidation, 398
6.4. 1 Previous tbermoconsolidation models, 399
6.4.2 First law of thermodynamics, 400
6.4.3 Second law of thermodynamics, 402
6.4.4 State functions and constitutive relations for tbe case of temperature
equaHty in tbe liquid and the skeleton, 405
6.4.5 System of equations of tbermoconsolidation under tbe assumption
of equaJ temperatu re for tbe skeleton and liquid. 407
CONTENTS XV

6.4.6 Stale functioos in the case of the temperature difTcrencc between the
components of thc medium. 409
Refercnccs, 4 l 2

CHAPTER 7. PLASTIClTY AND LIMIT STATES (R. J. lzbicki, Z. Mrz), 423

7. J Constitutivc relations for elastic-plastic modes o f rocJ.,s and soils, 423
7. 1.1 Introduction, 423
7.1.2 The model of an elastic-perfectly plastic materiaL 425
7. 1.3 Soil as an elastic-plastic hardening (softening) materia, 435
7. 1.4 Process of fai lu re in rocks represeoted by thc elastic-plastic model, 448
7.2 The limit state conditions, 453
7.2.1 Genera form of the limit state conditioo, 453
7.2.2 Mohr's condition, 456
7.2.3 Coulomb's condition, 461
7.2.4 Modified Coulomb's condition, 463
7.2.5 Otbcr lirnit state conditions, 464
7.2.6 The limit state conditions for anisotropic materials, 466
7.3 Limit analysis, 470
7.3. l Basic eoncep ts- The limjt s tate, 470
7.3.2 Exact and approximated solutions of lhe bearing capacity problem, 472
7.3.3 Limit theorems, 475
7.3.4 Stress and velocity discontinuity lines, 480
7.3.5 The dissipation functions for the Coulomb conditions, 484
7.4 Examples of application of approximate methods, 487
7.4.1 Application of the limit equilibrium methods, 487
7.4.2 Application of the limit analysis methods, 524
7.5 The metbod of cbaracteristics, 558
7.5.1 Introduction, 558
7.5.2 Plane plastic deformation, 561
7.5.3 Solutions for special cases of piane deformation, 584
7.5.4 Plane plastic deformation of an anisotropic body, 613
7.5.5 AxialJy-symmetric plastic deformation, 614
7.5.6 Solutions for special cases of axially-synunetric deforroation, 624
References, 630

CHAPTER 8. MECHANICS OF THE CLAY FRACTION (l. Kisie{), 639

8.1 Data and assumptions, 639

8.1.1 l ntroduction, 639
8.1.2 Sbape and size of clay particles, 639
8. l .3 Number and nature of interparticle contacts, 640
xvr CONTENTS

8.2 Pbysical fundamcntals, 641

8.2. 1 Basic concepts, 641
8.2.2 On the theory of rate processcs, 643
8.3 Clay particles and groundwater, 647
8.3. 1 Description of clay particles, 647
8.3.2 Water in clays, 648
8.3.3 Clay-water intcraction, 648
8.3.4 Viscosity of absorbed water, 650
8.3.5 The effect of ions contained in groundwater, 652
8.3.6 Thlxotropy, 652
8.4 The primary structurc of tbe clay-water fluid, 653
8.4.1 Kinds of structure of a clay-water fluid, 653
8.4.2 Orientarion degree, 655
8.4.3 Number of M-M contacts, 656
8.4.4 The direction of particie orieotation, 658
8.4.5 Cay structure, 659
8.5 Movements of a structure element, 661
8.5.1 Specification of a structure element, 661
8.5.2 Sbape changes of a structure element, 663
8.5.3 Immediate deforroation, 663
8.5.4 Energy distribution in the vicinity of a clay particie, 664
8.5.5 Assumptioo on the dimensions of clay particles, 666
8.6 Action of isotropie pressure (consolidation), 667
8.6.1 lntroduction, 667
8.6.2 Isotropie pressure, 667
8.6.3 Spontaneous breaking of M-M contacts, 669
8.6.4 Process of isotropie consolidation, 670
8.6.5 lnstantaneous deformation during consolidation, 671
8.7 Action of tbe stress deviator, 672
8.7.1 lntroduction, 672
8.7.2 Uniaxial instantaneous strain, 673
8.7.3 Friction in M-M contacts, 674
8.7.4 Flow of the W-M contacts, 675
8.7.5 Rheological relationsb.ips, 676
8.8 Rheological modes of primary cay, 677
8.8.1 lotroduction, 677
8.8.2 Previous experimental results, 677
8.8.3 Reversibe strain, 679
8.8.4 Transient creep, 679
8.8.5 Accelerating creep, 680
8.9 Structura changes of a clay- water fluid, 680
8.9.1 Introduction. 680
CONTENTS XVIf

8.9.2 Thc dcg rcc of orientation and the number of active particlcs, 681
8.9.3 Oegrcc of orientation and rbeological parameters, 682
8.9.4 Oegrce of orientation in rcspect to time, 683
8.9.5 Form of tbe function g,(t), 683
8. 1O T he oriented clay- water fluid, 684
8. 10.1 Introduction, 684
8.10.2 Determination of the preconsolidating stress, 685
8. 10.3 Reloading of an orieoted clay, 686
8.1 0.4 The effect of changes in water eonten t, 686
8. 11 Clayey soi!s, 687
8.11.1 Introduction, 687
8.1 1.2 Cohesive soils. Consistency, 688
8.1 l .3 Structure of clayey soils, 690
8.11.4 Creep process according to Ter-Stepanian, 692
8.1 1.5 Creep curve for clayey soils, 694
8. 12 Creep in clayey soils, 696
8.12.1 lntroduction, 696
8.U.2 Experimental determination oftbe parameters oftbeMfV model, 698
8.12.3 Variability of rheological parameters, 703
8.12.4 Fina remarks, 706
References, 707
INDEX, 711