BLIOG RAPHY

'
I

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

IN THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

A BIBLIOGRAPHY

I-
a

E XE NETHERLANDS/1968
Agricultural extension in the developing countries

a bibliography

.. . . . . ..... . .. .. .... ~. . . . .. . . . ....

__". ~ ." I _II rcpI I.
i I.
AG RIC U LTURAL EXTENSION

IN THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

A BIBLIOGRAPHY

Compiled by:

C. A. de Vries

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR

L A N D RECLAMATION A N D IMPROVEMENT
WAGENINGEN / THE NETHERLANDS / 1968
International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement
Institut International pour l'Am6lioration et l a Mise en Valeur des T e r r e s

Internationales Institut fUr Landgewinnung und Kulturtechnik

Instituto Internacional de Recuperacion y Mejora t6cnica de T i e r r a s

P. O. Box 45 1 Wageningen 1 T h e Netherlands

CONTENTS

Page
7 Preface
8 General w o r k s on agricultural extension and community development
13 Diffusion of innovations and adoption by f a r m e r s
22 Change of behaviour
28 The r o l e of communication
34 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of peasants and f a r m e r s
39 Agricultural education of f a r m e r s
42 Extension personnel, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of agents, selection and training
50 Means and methods of agricultural extension
58 Demonstrations and pilot f a r m s
61 Pilot projects
64 Community development
69 The Package P r o g r a m m e
74 R e s e a r c h and planning in agricultural extension
79 Organization of extension s e r v i c e s
83 Description of extension s e r v i c e s :
83 General Europe and North America
85 Asia and t h e F a r East
89 Africa
91 Central and South America
95 Methods of evaluation
97 Results of evaluation
10 4 Related sciences:
104 R u r a l sociology and social psychology
110 Agricultural economy
112 Education
115 Agricultural r e s e a r c h and extension
118 Bibliographies
121 Abstracting journals
122 Periodicals
PREFACE

This bibliography is intended t o s e r v e in the f i r s t instance all those who a r e

charged with the training and guiding of agricultural extension personnel in t h e
developing countries in identifying s o u r c e s of information that would help them
in t h e i r job. An attempt h a s been made t o include t h e most relevant publications
f o r this purpose, but experiences with agricultural extension have been discussed
s o frequently that it was not possible t o include a l l publications. A choice of
the l i t e r a t u r e of r e l a t e d sciences, dealing with subjects on agricultural extension,
is included.

In general, only l i t e r a t u r e in English, F r e n c h and German, mostly published

during t h e l a s t decade, has been mentioned.

A s e r i o u s effort has been made t o classify t h e publications under the appropriate

headings, but the r e a d e r will understand that classifying often is a r b i t r a r y ,
because many publications a r e covering two o r m o r e topics.

In making the annotations, u s e has been made of the valuable knowledge gathered
in "Tropical Abstracts'' and in "World Agricultural Economics and R u r a l
Sociology Abstracts" (WAERSA).
Due acknowledgements in t h i s r e s p e c t a r e paid t o the Editors of both abstracting
journals, viz. the Royal Tropical Institute a t Amsterdam, and the Common-
wealth Bureau of Agricultural Economics, Oxford, U. K.

T h e author f e e l s indebted t o D r . ir. A . W . van den Ban, P r o f e s s o r in Extension

Education at the Agricultural University in Wageningen (Netherlands) f o r his
advice during t h e preparation of this paper.

7
GENERAL WORKS ON AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION
A N D COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

A d v i s o r y work i n fa;m management. OECD, Documentation in agriculture

and food no. 77, P a r i s , 1 9 6 6 . 195 pp.

A R E N S B E R G , C . M . a n d A . H . N I E H O F F / Introducingsocialchange.
A manual f o r Americans o v e r s e a s . Aldine Publishing Co, Chicago, 1964. 214 pp.
The w r i t e r s present many aspects of the subject and give numerous examples
of projects leading t o failures o r t o satisfaction.

A u s t r a l i a n Agricultural Extension Conference. Melbourne, 1962. 363 pp.

BIDD L E , W .W. / The community development p r o c e s s ; the discovery of

local initiative. New York, 1965. 334 pp.
A comprehensive textbook on community development.

CHANG, C .W. / Extension education f o r agricultural and r u r a l development.

F A O , Bangkok, 1963. 186 pp.
The book gives t h e experience of the author particularly in S.E . Asia.
Only extension principles applicable in Asia and the F a r E a s t a r e described,
illustrated with practical examples.

Id. / Increasing food production through education, r e s e a r c h

and extension. F r e e d o m f r o m Hunger Campaign, Basic study 9, FAO, Rome,
1 9 6 2 . 78 pp.
T h i s study, based on known facts and agreed conclusions of experts, briefly
reviews agricultural education, r e s e a r c h and extension in t h e developing
countries. A good coordination of t h e s e t h r e e closely i n t e r r e l a t e d s e r v i c e s
is essential, and can best be obtained when the t h r e e functions a r e under
one administration. In most countries, however, agricultural schools and
colleges a r e under a ministry of education, while r e s e a r c h and extension
a r e under a ministry of agriculture. Secondary schools of Agriculture have
not been successful. The development of agricultural r e s e a r c h , education
and extension in developing countries is a m a t t e r of vital importance in the
movement f o r increasing food production (Tropical Abstracts 1963-1969).

C o m m u n i t y development, a handbook. H. M. S . O . , Colonial Office, London,

1958. 84 pp.

8
 A c l e a r view of the methods which appeared t o be useful t o stimulate
development in t h e l e s s developed countries.

ENSMINGER, D. / A guide t o community development. Rev.ed.,

New Delhi, 1957.205 pp.
A textbook on community development adapted t o t h e circumstances in India.

E x p e r i m e n t in extension. The Gaon Sabhi. Oxford Univ.Press, 1956. 240 pp.

A textbook grown out of actual extension experience in India, a s practised
in the extension project, c a r r i e d on at t h e Allahabad Agricultural Institute.
T h i s project is divided in t h r e e parts: a pilot extension project in s o m e
400 villages, a training p r o g r a m m e f o r extension w o r k e r s and a programme
f o r t h e production of extension m a t e r i a l s . The Gaon Sabhi is the extension
agent in the Allahabad Extension P r o j e c t .

F a r m management manual, f o r the u s e of agricultural extension w o r k e r s in

Asia and t h e F a r E a s t . FAO Reg. Off. Asia, Far E a s t , Bangkok, 1965. 131 pp.
This manual was drawn up a s a model for m e m b e r countries by a committee
s e t up at t h e f i r s t s e s s i o n of the FAO regional working party on F a r m
Management f o r Asia and the F a r E a s t in Japan, 1961, and was approved
in 1964. It is written f o r agricultural advisory w o r k e r s with sufficient
schooling and a i m s t o provide a n s w e r s t o t h r e e main questions: 1. Why is
such a manual needed. 2 . What a r e f a r m management p r o g r a m m e s under
extension. 3 . How should extension w o r k e r s help f a r m e r s ? The main part
of the book is devoted t o question 3.

FAY, I. G . / Notes on extension i n agriculture. A s i a Publ. House, London,

1 9 6 2 . 204 pp.
A presentation of the m a j o r phases of extension education with which all
extension w o r k e r s should be f a m i l i a r . T h r e e chapters a r e devoted to the
organization and t h e county unit in extension in the United States. A s the
author feels, India can modify t h e successful f e a t u r e s i n t h e U. S . extension
s c h e m e t o meet l o c a l conditions, and avoid weak and cumbersome f e a t u r e s .
The e a r l y movements of agricultural extension in India and the launching
of t h e Community Development Plan in 1952 a r e outlined. S t r e s s is laid on
t h e importance of personal meeting, the group discussion method, visual
and audio-visual aids and youth clubs. The responsibilities of the village
teacher, the l o c a l l e a d e r and the gramsevak a r e covered. Each of the 28
chapters is followed by questions f o r study and discussion and by a l i s t of
r e f e r e n c e s f o r f u r t h e r reading (WAERSA 1963 -2520).

9
F R A N C O , J . d i / Aspects of extension work. Inter -American Inst. of
Agr. Sciences. Turrialba, 1963. 91 pp.
Compilation of ten previously mimeographed papers, used in extension at
the Graduate School of the Inter -American Institute of Agricultural Sciences.
Subject m a t t e r s t r e a t e d are extension, education, philosophy, evaluation
in extension work, specialists in extension, extension organization, local
l e a d e r s i n extension, principles and guidelines, prerequisites t o p r o g r e s s
in agriculture, coordination and the United States Cooperative Service
(WAERSA 1964 - 1035).

G O O D E N O U G H , W . H . / Cooperation in change. Russell Sage Foundation,

New York, 1963. 523 pp.
A textbook on agricultural extension cooperation.

A g u i d e t o community development. Min. of Commun. Dev. and Coop., Govt.

of India, New Delhi, 1959. 205 pp.

K E L S E Y , L . D . and C . C . H E A R N E / Cooperativeextensionwork.
3 r d . ed. Comstock Publ. Co., New York, 1963.
A well known U. S. textbook on agricultural extension. Explains what
extension is, how it works and what i t s programmes a r e . Chapters on
methods and programme preparation and development. Mainly drawn f r o m
United States experience. A chapter is included on the application of
extension principles t o other countries.

Id. / Traboja de extensi6n agricola.

Translated into Spanish by Humberto Rosado. Editorial Revert6 S . A . , Mexico,
1961. 471 pp.
A translation of "cooperative extension work".

K I N G , C . 1 Working with people in community action; an international c a s e -

book for trained community workers and volunteer community l e a d e r s .
New York, 1965. 192 pp.

.
L A I D L A W , A . F 1 Training and extension i n the cooperative movement.
A guide f o r fieldmen and extension workers. FAO, Rome, 1962. 78 pp.

.
L A L , R 1 Community development principles, practices and problems.
Bookland Private Ltd., Calcutta, 1963. 439 pp.

10
OLOKA, T., H.L. D U S E N B E R R Y and D.W. P E T T / Ahandbook
f o r extension w o r k e r s . University College Ibadan, 196 1.

PENDERS, J .M. A . (Ed. ) / R u r a l extension a t t h e c r o s s r o a d s . Inter -

national Agricultural Centre, Wageningen, 1963. 249 pp.
The book is published on the occasion of the tenth international extension
s u m m e r school at Wageningen. It contains a r t i c l e s by many authors.
Most of the a r t i c l e s deal with c e r t a i n c r i t i c a l a s p e c t s of extension work.
Subjects included a r e : the r o l e of r u r a l extension in developing countries,
comparative extension studies in Asia, extension and community develop-
ment, social aspect of rural extension, evaluating of r u r a l extension,
a g r i c u l t u r a l cooperatives in m o r e and less developed countries, e t c .
(WAERSA 1964 - 1943).

R H E I NW A L D I H . and G . P R E U S C H E N / Landwirtschaftliche Beratung.

B a y e r i s c h e r Landwirtschaftsverlag, Bonn, 1956. 145 pp.
A textbook, divided into two p a r t s : 1. extension principles and methods.
2 . extension p r a c t i c e .

ROGERS, F . E . and A . G . O L M S T E A D / Supervision in t h e Cooperative

Extension Service. National Agricultural Extension Center f o r Advanced Study,
Madison, W i s . , 1957. 162 pp.
A textbook on supervision in a g r i c u h r a l extension.

.
S A V I L E , A H . / Extension in r u r a l communities. A manual f o r agricultural
and home extension w o r k e r s . Oxford University Press, London, 1965. 148 pp.
A p r a c t i c a l guide t o t h o s e who have t h e t a s k of training advisory and
extension w o r k e r s and l o c a l l e a d e r s i n a g r i c u l t u r e and community develop-
ment. It a i m s t o help field w o r k e r s t o improve t h e i r methods of s e c u r i n g
t h e cooperation of f a r m e r s i n t h e i r efforts t o t r a n s f o r m land u s e and f a r m
management p r a c t i c e s .

SHANNON, Th. J. and C . A . SCHOENFELD/ Universityextension.

The L i b r a r y of Education, New York, 1965. 115 pp.
A review of the vast range of activities c a r r i e d on under t h e n a m e of
extension s e r v i c e s . The authors d e s c r i b e the scope of t h e s e activities and
evaluate t h e m critically. They indicate possible l i n e s of development in
t h e n e a r future. The authors give s e p a r a t e t r e a t m e n t t o each of t h e two
main kinds of university extension that have developed in the United States,
the so-called g e n e r a l extension, and the a g r i c u l t u r a l extension c a r r i e d on
under the auspices of the Cooperative Extension Service.

11
 They point out that, i n virtually every university, the two s e r v i c e s a r e
under completely s e p a r a t e jurisdictions. The advantages and disadvantages
of this separation a r e set forth, and the possibilities of a unified s e r v i c e
a r e discussed.

12
DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS A N D ADOPTION
BY FARMERS

AG A R W A L A , A. N. / Village people and the plans. Only 1 of 3 villagers

know our plans exist. Yojana, 10 (1966) 2 4 : 2-5.
A survey conducted by the Agro-Economic Research Centre of Allahabad
University (India) in a village only 37 km away from Allahabad revealed
that l e s s than one -third of the villagers knew of the existence of 5 -year
plans. Among students and cultivators only 40% had this knowledge. A l l
media of m a s s communication should be used in order t o create plan-
awareness in village people. On the basis of the present survey it is ex-
pected that the spoken word will have the greatest impact. Teachers,
students and other educated people should form the spearhead of a movement
to spread information on the development plan in villages.

B O H L E N, J. M. / The adoption and diffusion of ideas in agriculture. In:

James H. Copp (Ed.). Our changing r u r a l society: perspectives and trends.
Iowa State University P r e s s , Ames, Iowa, 1964. 354 pp.
A summary of the empirical findings from f a r m practice adoption research.

.
B O S E , S P . / The diffusion of a f a r m practice in Indian villages. R u r .
Sociol., 29 (1964): 53-66.
In this study the same f a r m practice was studied in seven different villages
in West Bengal. Each village is a social system and is different from the
other villages. They vary in such factors a s religion, caste structure,
education, land tenure, urban contact, etc. It is reasonable t o assume
that a new practice w i l l meet with different kinds of reception in different
villages. In fact, this has happened, a s is evident from the data. While
the logistic curve has been fitted t o the data of all villages, you can read
from the curves different slopes. Nevertheless the same result has been
obtained. It is noted that similar curves of diffusion have been found in
both India and the U. S. A.

CHAWDHARI, T . P . S . , S.L. C H O W D U R Y and B . M . SHARMA/

F a r m e r s ' perception of constraints influencing choice of crops and adoption of
certain recommended practices. Agric. Situ. India, 20 (1965): 555-566.
To examine the nature and interplay of the various factors governing choice
of crops and techniques being adopted by cultivators, data were collected
from four to seven holdings in each of 14 randomly selected villages in the
Delhi territory. The need for family food, and fodder and feed for cattle

13
 are shown t o be t h e principal determinants of the cropping pattern in t h e
a r e a . Production credit was most needed to buy improved s e e d s and
f e r t i l i z e r s . High i n t e r e s t r a t e s , high cost of membership of cooperatives
and low credit -worthiness under existing s y s t e m s w e r e the most mentioned
difficulties in obtaining c r e d i t (WAERSA 1966 -1970).

C H O U D H A R Y , K . M . / F a c t o r s affecting acceptance of improved a g r i -

cultural practices. Study in an I. A. D. P. District in Rajasthan. Vallabh
Vidyanagar, Gujarat. Agro-Econ. R e s . Centre, R e s . Stud. No. 9, 1965. 101 pp.
Data w e r e obtained f r o m f a r m e r s by interview and questionnaire while
secondary s o u r c e s are a l s o used extensively. Traditional and improved
p r a c t i c e s in wheat cultivation a r e examined and s t a g e s of adoption a r e
identified. The findings indicate that among t h e various practices, the
r e s p o n s e s a r e very positive t o f e r t i l i z e r s , insecticides and pesticides.
The r e a s o n s identified f o r non-adoption of improved s e e d bring out the
superiority of t h e local s e e d over the improved seed. The lack of irri-
gation o r unsuitability of water is considered t o b e the m a j o r factor f o r
non-adoption of f e r t i l i z e r s (WAERSA 1 9 6 6 -1971),

CHOUDHARY, K . M . and M . M A H A R A J A / Acceptance of improved

p r a c t i c e s and t h e i r diffusion among wheat -growers in the P a l i -district of
Rajasthan. Ind. J . Agr. Econ., Bombay, 21 (1966) 1 : 161-165.
A description of adoption of innovations.

DESAI, D . K . and B . M . S H A R M A / Technological change and r a t e of

diffusion. Ind. J. Agr. Econ., Bombay, 21 ( 1 9 6 6 ) 1 : 141-154.
A c a s e study on the u s e of f e r t i l i z e r was c a r r i e d out in 1962 in a village in
t h e Delhi t e r r i t o r y . The average r a t e of application of nitrogeneous f e r t -
i l i z e r s was only 16 Ibs. of nitrogen p e r a c r e of i r r i g a t e d wheat, compared
t o the recommended 40 Ibs. The observed gap appeared t o be r e l a t e d t o
t h e s i z e of the f a r m , literacy, and irrigation facility. It is concluded that
unless the technological change is of a particular magnitude, it does not
have a significant impact on the f a r m economy. T h e r e is a long gestation
period between the knowledge of a technological change, such a s t h e u s e of
f e r t i l i z e r , and its adoption (WAERSA 1 9 6 6 -4124).

F L I E G E L, F . C . and E , K IV L I N / Differences among improved f a r m

p r a c t i c e s a s related t o r a t e s of adoption. Bull. 691, Agr. Exp. S t a . , Pennsyl-
vania State University college of agriculture, 1962. 18 pp.

14
FLIEGEL, F.C,; P. R O Y ; L .K. S E N and J . E . KIVLIN/
Innovation in India. T h e s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e of a g r i c u l t u r a l development p r o -
g r a m m e s in 108 Indian villages. R e s e a r c h Report no. 9. P r o j e c t on the diffusion
of innovations in r u r a l s o c i e t i e s . National Institute of Community Development,
Hyderabad, India, 1967. 213 pp.
A r e s e a r c h r e p o r t concerned with t h e human f a c t o r s involved in the diffusion
and adoption of improved a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s i n Indian villages. It is a
p a r t of a l a r g e r study c a r r i e d out in t h r e e countries: Brazil, Nigeria and
India. T h e project consisted of t h r e e phases. In t h e f i r s t phase, the village
was taken as the unit of study; f a c t o r s that facilitate o r inhibit the s u c c e s s
of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o g r a m m e s f o r the whole village w e r e studied. The present
r e p o r t provides r e s u l t s f r o m the f i r s t phase. In the second phase, the focus
of t h e study will be on the individual f a r m e r . T h e t h i r d phase of t h e project
will be devoted t o a follow-up study of a n experiment in m a s s communication.

H A V E N S , A . E . / Testing a s o c i a l psychological model f o r predicting the

adoption of innovations. Washington, 1962. 23 pp.

J ONE S , G.E ./ T h e adoption and diffusion of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s .

WAERSA 9, (1967) 3: 1-34.
A review a r t i c l e mentioning 468 r e f e r e n c e s .

Id. / T h e diffusion of a g r i c u l t u r a l innovations. J. Agr. E c o n . ,

Reading, 1 5 (1963) 3 : 387-403.
T h e a r t i c l e deals with innovational activity at t h e l e v e l of individual a d o p t e r s .
T h r e e groups of f a c t o r s are involved: 1. c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the innovations;
2 . communications media; 3. personal and sociological c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
potential u s e r s . E m p h a s i s is on t h e human factor, too often neglected by
a g r i c u l t u r a l advisory s e r v i c e s . Adoption and diffusion of appropriate s o c i a l
organizations and individual patterns of behaviour are e s s e n t i a l complements
t o technological p r o g r e s s (WAERSA 1963 -2581).

J U N G HA R E , Y . N. / F a c t o r s influencing t h e adoption of f a r m p r a c t i c e s .
Ind. J. Soc. Wk.,Andheri, 23 (1962) 2 : 291-296.
A study t o determine t h e effect of s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s influencing t h e adoption
of recommendable f a r m p r a c t i c e s in the r u r a l community of Nagpur. A
random s a m p l e of 129 f a r m e r s was interviewed on t h e following variables:
1. adoption of practices, 2. extension contacts, 3. f o r m a l s o c i a l p a r t i c i p a -
tion, 4. socio-economic status, 5. education, 6. age, 7. s o c i a l status, and
8. economic s t a t u s (WAERSA 1964-1997).

15
KATZ, E. and P . F . L A Z A R S F E L D / Personalinfluence. Free Press,
Glencoe, 111, 1955. 400 pp.
The book p r e s e n t s a comprehensive and c l e a r view of t h e f a c t o r s influencing
human behaviour. Opinions of friends and neighbours appear t o be of d e t e r m -
ining importance.

KO L B E , F .F .H. / Die aanvaarding van verbeterde akkerboupraktijke in die

s e t t l e r s -grondbewaringsdistrik soos beinvloed deur s e k e r s sosio-ekonomiese
faktore. Thesis, Univ. P r e t o r i a , 1965. 161 pp.
The most important f a c t o r s associated with t h e adoption of improved a g r i c u l -
t u r a l practices w e r e found to be f a c t o r s concerned with the f a r m e r ' s financial
position, education, contact with extension, l e a d e r s h i p functions, attitudes,
degree of progressiveness, knowledge of practices, a i m s and efficiency of
production. The r e s u l t s of this study in a Bantu farming community a g r e e
in g e n e r a l with o v e r s e a s findings within the Western cultural pattern.

L I ND S T R O NI, D E . ./ Diffusion of agricultural and home -economics

practices in a J a p a n e s e r u r a l community. R u r . Soc., 23 (1958) 2 .

L I O N BE R GE R I H F . ./ Adoption of new ideas and p r a c t i c e s . Iowa State

University P r e s s , Ames. 1 9 6 1.

LIONBERGER, H. F . and H . C . C H A N G / Comparative c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

of special functionaries in the acceptance of agricultural innovations in two
Missouri communities, Ozark and P r a i r i e . Agric. Exp. S t a . , Columbia, Bull.
No. 885, 1965. 59 pp.
Data w e r e received f r o m 457 f a r m e r s on recently introduced f a r m practices
and changes made in kinds o r brands of f a r m supplies purchased. Analyzed
w e r e t h e questions where the f a r m e r f i r s t l e a r n e d about t h e new practice,
where he got additional information about it, and the information s o u r c e
most influential in h i s decision t o adopt o r u s e it (WAERSA 1966-4130).

MOULIK, T . K. and U . P A R E E K / Group f a c t o r s i n participation.

Ind. J . Soc. Wk. 2 4 (1963) 2 : 79-84.
Participation in agricultural p r o g r a m m e s among c a s t e -groups in North India.

O PPEN F E LD, H. von / Results of a study of adoption of b e t t e r f a r m

p r a c t i c e s in the Philippines. Ind. J. Agr. Econ. 1 7 (1963) 4 : 23-32.
Generally the f a r m e r s a r e willing t o participate in agricultural development
by changing f a r m practices, provided suitable technical information is
presented t o them in an acceptable manner (WAERSA 1963-968).

16
PANSE, V . G. and D . S I N G H I Promotion and a s s e s s m e n t of technolo-
gical changes in Indian agriculture. Ind. J . Agr. Econ., 21 ( 1 9 6 6 ) 1 : 121-131.
Studies undertaken t o a s s e s s technological change in Indian agriculture a r e
critically examined. Most of the investigations on technological change and
i t s impact a r e confined to the "Package programme". It is concluded that
f a r m e r s with l a r g e r holdings m o r e readily adopt technological change, which
then gradually s e e p s down t o f a r m e r s with s m a l l e r holdings; secondly,
f a r m e r s who accept one type of improved practice a l s o readily accept other
s i m i l a r types of practice. If extension efforts a r e concentrated on t h e most
important improved practice, namely f e r t i l i z e r s , which a very l a r g e prop-
ortion of f a r m e r s can adopt profitably under t h e i r present methods of cultivat
ion, then they will a l s o be induced t o adopt other improved p r a c t i c e s l i k e
plant protection, improved implements, e t c . (WAERSA 1966 -4126).

P A T I L, N. P. / Effects of adoption of improved practices on the yield of

ragi. Ind. J . Agr. Econ. 20 (1965) 2 : 65-68.
98 f a r m e r s w e r e included in a f a r m management study in Mysore s t a t e ,
where r a g i f o r m s an important food crop, w e r e interviewed t o a s s e s s how
f a r improved p r a c t i c e s had been adopted, and t h e i r impact on yields. The
r e s u l t s showed that 20 percent of the f a r m e r s had adopted no improved
practices, and nearly 70 percent only one o r two. The introduction of such
practices, especially in combination, could possibly double c u r r e n t yields
(WAERSA 1 9 6 5 -21 10).

PE RK, A .1 Some aspects of agricultural extension work in development

countries. Neth. J . Agric. Sci., 12 (1964) 4 : 249-259.
The author d i s c u s s e s various types of projects which hold pride of place in
most agricultural extension p r o g r a m m e s of developing countries. They
include: 1. the introduction of b e t t e r v a r i e t i e s of food crops, 2. t h e introd-
uction of better agricultural techniques, 3. the u s e of f e r t i l i z e r s , 4. the u s e
of g r e e n manure, 5. soil conservation, and 6 . the control of pests and
diseases. The r e a s o n s why t h e m e a s u r e s mentioned under 1. and 2 . w e r e
generally successful, whereas those under 3, 4, 5, and 6 had only a modest
success, a r e explained. It is considered that the acceptance of agricultural
methods depends not only on technical and economical f a c t o r s but that the
social background is of vital importance (Tropical Abstracts 1965 -940).

RA H I M , S A . .1 Diffusion and adoption of agricultural practices: a study in

a village i n E a s t Pakistan. Pakistan Academy f o r Village Development, Techn.
Publ. 7, Comilla, Pakistan, 1961. 76 pp.
The study is based u p o ~
interviews with 63 land owners in an agricultural

17
 village. The adoption of four newly introduced p r a c t i c e s and the patterns
of informal communication among the villagers provide an interesting com -
parison t o other studies on the diffusion of ideas and adoption of practices.
The four practices studied include: l i n e sowing of r i c e , u s e of insecticides,
u s e of c h e m i c d f e r t i l i z e r , and growing wheat. Impersonal s o u r c e s of
information w e r e much m o r e important in t h e "awareness" and in the
"information" stage, while f o r m a l personal s o u r c e s (agency, personnel)
w e r e most important in t h e "trial" stage (WAERSA 1961-1516).

R A H UD K A R , W .B . / Testing a culturally bound model f o r acceptance of

agricultural practices. Ind. J. Soc. Wk., 24 (1964) 4 : 265-269.
A s a m p l e of 339 f a r m e r s was selected at random and interviewed. Results
show that f a r m e r s with l a r g e f a r m s increasingly made u s e of information
media and addpted m o r e f a r m practices. Contact with agricultural extension
officers was convincing t o f a r m e r s . On the other hand, f a r m e r s who con-
sulted t h e village headmen, who a r e fast losing administrative control, w e r e
likely t o have r e a c t e d negatively (WAERSA 1964 -2873).

ROGERS, E . M. / Diffusion of innovations. Free P r e s s , New York, 1 9 6 2

366 pp.
An extensive review of a l a r g e number of studies on the diffusion and
adoption of agricultural innovations.

ROGERS, E . M. and A . W . v a n d e n B A N / R e s e a r c h o n t h e diffusion

of agricultural innovations in the United States and the Netherlands. Soc. R u r .
3 (1963) 1 : 38-51.
Through improved "diffusion" between t h e U. S . and the Netherlands of
findings and methods, the quality of r e s e a r c h on t h e diffusion of innovations
in both countries can be r a i s e d . In t h e Netherlands, m o r e attention could
be given t o building a theoretical model of the adoption of innovations and t o
analysing t h e relationship between f a r m e r s ' goals and t h e i r cultural values.
In the United States (and elsewhere) investigations of the relationship between
the diffusion of new f a r m ideas and cultural n o r m s will be fruitfull (WAERSA
1963-1816).

SA V A L E , R . S. / Technological change in agriculture: Study of s o u r c e s of

i t s diffusion, efficiency of t h e s e s o u r c e s and the economic f a c t o r s affecting t h e
adoption of improved practices. Ind. J. Agr. Econ., 2 1 (1966) 1 : 199-208.
Information s o u r c e s and t h e r e a s o n s f o r non -adoption a r e discussed. Among
t h e economic f a c t o r s affecting adoption a r e : uncertainty, capital r e q u i r e -
ments, income level o r economic status of f a r m e r s , expectation of net

18
 marginal r e t u r n s , suitability of the p r a c t i c e t o a particular locality, distance
of locality f r o m marketing and educational c e n t r e s , and s i z e of holding and
tenancy. The investigation r e v e a l s that a l a r g e number of f a r m e r s could
not adopt new technology because they could not be contacted by any agency,
and because demonstrations a r r a n g e d w e r e out of t h e i r reach. A large
number of recommended p r a c t i c e s did not p r o m i s e attractive r e t u r n s over
local p r a c t i c e s . The problem of supplies is of g r e a t importance and proper
technical guidance is a l s o required at the village level (WAERSA 1966 -4127).

S E NG U P T A , A .K . / Innovations in agriculture; problems of acceptance.

Kurukshetra, 14 (1966) 10 : 8-10.
The author presents 3 c a s e s of rejection of agricultural innovations in the
Indian States of O r i s s a , Madhya P r a d e s h and Andhra P r a d e s h a s a consequence
of insufficient recognition of economic and socio -psycho -cultural f a c t o r s .
T h e introduction of the improved m a i z e hybrid Ganga-10 failed mainly b e -
cause the new variety was difficult t o digest, and because it matured l a t e
and hence hampered t h e cultivation of t h e subsequent c a s h crop, m u s t a r d .
The introduction of the J a p a n e s e method of r i c e cultivation failed because
transplantation in l i n e s and application of f e r t i l i z e r s w e r e not accompanied
by intercultivation o r weeding in accordance with the traditional method
(Tropical Abstracts 1966 -2683).

S H E T T Y , N . S . / Inter - f a r m r a t e s of technological diffusion in Indian

agriculture. Ind. J. Agr. E c o n . , 21 (1966) 1 : 189-198.

S I N G H , H . / Uncertainty and adoption of new practices in agriculture.

Econ. Weekly, Bombay, 16 (1964) 22 : 925-927.
T h e author studied this problem i n a field survey, conducted in two villages
in Uttar P r a d e s h State (India). T h e study r e v e a l s that the relative importance
of different c a m a l factors, which give r i s e t o uncertainty in agriculture and
consequently prevent adoption of improved practices, are different f o r
different f a r m e r s cultivating holdings of different s i z e s (WAERSA 1964 -2362).

.
S T UR T , D W . / F a r m operations and expenditure patterns in four villages
in West Pakistan. Background Pap. S e r . , Econ. Agric. Dev. I n s t . , Mich. St.
Univ., No. 1, 1965. 70 pp.
A random s a m p l e of 200 cultivators was interviewed in 1962, covering two
villages in t h e Punjab and two on the frontier, in each c a s e one was i r r i g a t e d
and one not. Basic data w e r e collected on acreage, labour, crops grown,
equipment and marketing, and information obtained on the changes made in
any of t h e s e in t h e previous y e a r , and changes that f a r m e r s would like t o

19
 have made and motives. About 34 percent had made changes, mainly in the
c r o p s grown, the type of seed, o r the increased application of f e r t i l i z e r s ,
mainly manure. Some 93 percent would have liked t o make changes, p a r t i c -
ularly acquiring m o r e livestock, better f a r m implements, m o r e f e r t i l i z e r s
o r b e t t e r seed. The motive in most c a s e s was economic. Sometimes t h e r e
was a physical lack of f e r t i l i z e r o r other m a t e r i a l s wanted. No one consid-
e r e d making changes i n the t i m e o r method of planting o r harvesting, despite
governmental recommendations f o r improvements and the fact that this
r e q u i r e d no additional credit, and no one considered altering methods of
storage o r marketing, though t h e r e was considerable scope for improve -
ments (WAERSA 1966-1975).

ST URT , D .W. / P r o d u c e r s response t o technological change in West Pakistan.

J . F m . Econ., Menasha, Wisc., 47 (1965) 3.
A study was made t o determine the extent and types of changes in f a r m
practices occurring on f a r m s in N. W. Pakistan, and the r e a s o n s f o r such
changes. The g r e a t e s t number of changes o c c u r r e d where f a r m e r s w e r e
made able t o b e a r the r i s k s involved. The major motivation appeared to be
the d e s i r e for m o r e food f o r family consumption (WAERSA 1965-2111).

W E L S C H, D .E. / Response t o economic incentive by Abakaliki r i c e f a r m e r s

in E a s t e r n Nigeria. J . F m . Econ., Menasha, Wis., 47 (1965) 4 : 900 -914.
The introduction and subsequent expansion of a new crop, r i c e , into the
Abakaliki a r e a is described. F o r centuries y a m s w e r e the chief crop. The
r e s u l t s of the project accord with the hypothesis that the s m a l l f a r m e r s
affected respond t o economic incentives by allocating very efficiently the
f a c t o r s of production at t h e i r disposal, and that t h e i r investment decisions
tend t o maximize r e t u r n s t o s c a r c e r e s o u r c e s . The economics of rotations
explain the rapid adoption and expansion of r i c e production. However, the
initial development impact of r i c e appears exhausted, and only the introduc -
tion of a bundle of new, profitable f a c t o r s of production will give f u r t h e r
impetus t o development (WAERSA 1965 -3143).

W ILD E, J .C . de, et al. / Experiences with agricultural development

in tropical Africa. Vol. I . The synthesis. Vol. 2 . The c a s e studies.
The John Hopkins P r e s s , Baltimore, 1967.
A g r e a t part of vol. I is devoted t o factors affecting receptivity and incen-
tives t o change (p. 45-70), and t o agricultural extension (p. 157-197).
Vol. I1 presents the c a s e studies on which this evaluation is based.

20
W ILKENING, E. A. and D . E . JOHNSON/ Goals in f a r m decision-
making as related t o practice adoption. Agr. Exp. Sta. Wis. R e s e a r c h Bull. 2 2 5 ,
1 9 6 1 . 36 pp.
The present study is an attempt t o determine the extent t o which the goals of
"profit", "quality of the product", ' ' c a s e and convenience", the d e s i r e to
"keep up with the best f a r m e r s " and "maintaining good relationships with
others" enter into making different types of f a r m decision. The study
s a m p l e is 139 dairy f a r m e r s of Rock Couty, Wisconsin, and the five goals
mentioned above a r e considered in relation t o 14 types of f a r m decisions
relevant t o dairy farming. The analysis deals with: 1. "the variation in
goals" considered by type of decision, 2 . "the effect of status and r o l e of
the f a r m e r s upon goal orientation". .. and 3. "the influence of the priority
of goals on adoption of specific f a r m practices": "Profit" emerged a s the
most frequently recognized goal in the 14 decisions, followed by ' ' c a s e and
convenience" and "quality o r standard" (WAERSA 1 9 6 1 -2721).

21
CHANGE OF BEHAVIOUR

BA N , A .W. van den / Cultural change: t h e b a s i s f o r increasing a g r i c u l -

t u r a l productivity. Int. R . Commun. Dev., 12 (1963): 67-88.

BENNIS, W. G . , K. D. B E N N E and R . CHIN / The planning of

change. Readings in the applied behavioural sciences. Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, New York, 1961. 781 pp.
An extensive treatment of approaches f o r changing behaviour. Within t h e
social psychological theory t h e group dynamics approach gives many valuable
ideas.

B E NV E N U T I , B. / F a r m i n g in cultural change. Humanities P r e s s ,

New York, 1961. 469 pp.

BERELSON, B. and G . A . STEINER / Human behaviour, an inventory

of findings. Harcour B r a c e and World, New York, 1964.

B OSE R U P , E ./ The conditions of agricultural growth. T h e economics of

a g r a r i a n change under population p r e s s u r e . Allen and Unwin, London, 1965.
124 pp.
Based mainly on the experience of Asian countries, the book s e e k s t o analyze
t h e problem of agricultural p r o g r e s s i n primitive societies, using a new
approach, in which population growth is regarded a s the autonomous f a c t o r
making f o r a steady intensification in agriculture, which i n t u r n brings many
economic and social changes in i t s wake. This approach contradicts the
neo- Malthusian view that at any given time t h e r e is in any community a
warranted r a t e of population i n c r e a s e with which the actual growth of pop-
ulation tends t o conform, f o r it is based on the assumption that t h e main
l i n e of causation is in the opposite direction: population growth is r e g a r d e d
as t h e independent variable which in i t s t u r n is the m a j o r factor determining
agricultural development. Thus, the following c h a p t e r s deal with t h e effects
of population changes on agriculture and not with the c a u s e s of t h e s e changes:
1 . t h e dynamics of land utilization; 2. the interdependence of land u s e and
technical change; 3. labour productivity under long fallow and s h o r t fallow
s y s t e m s ; 4. c a r r y i n g capacity of land and productivity under intensive
agriculture; 5. population growth and working hours; 6. the coexistence of
cultivation s y s t e m s ; 7. diminishing r e t u r n s t o labour and technical inertia;
8. the vicious circle of s p a r s e population and primitive techniques; 9. s y s t e m s

22
 of land use as a determinant of land tenure; 10. investment and tenure in
tribal communities; 11. r u r a l investment under landlord tenure; 1 2 . r u r a l
investment under modern tenure; 13. the use of industrial input in primitive
agriculture; and 14. some perspectives and implications. It is contended
that the information presented h e r e lends no support to the conception of an
agrarian surplus population emerging a s the result of population growth
(WAERSA 1965-1295).

B R A U S C H , G . / Change and continuity in the Gezira region of the Sudan.

Int. Social Science J . , 16(1964) 3 : 341-356.
The population of the Gezira region of the Sudan has been able to adopt
relatively smoothly t o the impact of the great irrigation scheme. Certain
traditional features of life have helped the transition along. Other features
have emerged again in a different form, especially the values and habits
of the old landlords, largely taken over - not always to their economic
advantage - by tenant cotton f a r m e r s now constituting the new elite
(WAERSA 1964 -2845).

COLIN, R. / De la tradition a 1'Bvolution consciente v e r s l e developpement

authentique en milieu r u r a l . Developpement et Civilisations, 28 (1966) : 50 -56.
A prerequisite for r u r a l development is that the f a r m e r s understand, wish
and a r e able to implement innovations. This requires honest and compre -
hensive information. Extension should not be directed to a few selected
f a r m e r s but the problems should be introduced for discussion in the total
group of f a r m e r s concerned. This method, which is at present followed in
the Niger Republic, has led t o the creation of naturally cooperation structures
.
(maganic) This cooperative movement which is developing from below,
reveals that it is possible to r a i s e traditional communities t o auto-activity.

D EZ , J. / Un des probl5mes du developpement r u r a l : l'evolution des com-

portements. Bull. Madagascar, 230 (1965) : 589-641.
An outline is given of the behaviour of Madagascar peasants confronted by
certain aspects of development, such as mechanization of agriculture, i m -
provement of r u r a l techniques, and the adoption of land-improvement
measures.

D U B E , S . Ch. / Cultural factors in r u r a l community development. The

Journal of Asian Studies, 16 (1956) : 19-30.

Id. / India's changing villages. Human factors in community

development. Cornell University P r e s s , Ithaca. Routledge and Kegan Paul,

23
London, 1958. 230 pp.
A study of the r e s u l t s of the community development programme in two
selected villages.

E T Z I ON E , A . E . 1 Social changes, s o u r c e s , patterns and consequences.

Basic Books, New York, London, 1964.

F OST E R , G . M. / Traditional cultures and the impact of technological change.

H a r p e r and Row, New York, 1962. 292 pp.
The author d i s c u s s e s t h e social and psychological aspects of cultural
stability and r e s i s t a n c e t o change a s they affect both t h e giver and the
r e c e i v e r of foreign aid. Using many tradition -bound peasant communities
t o illustrate the problems, the author explains the nature of cultural change,
and the r o l e and problems of American specialists working i n newly develop-
ing countries. Associated with every technical and m a t e r i a l change, is a
corresponding change in the attitudes, thoughts, values, beliefs and behaviour
of the people affected by the m a t e r i a l change. Such changes a r e m o r e subtle
and often overlooked (WAERSA 1963-1002).

FOSTER, G. M., M.L. B A R N E T T and A . L . HOLMBERG/

Behaviour science r e s e a r c h and i t s potential r o l e in agricultural development
In: Policies f o r promoting agricultural development. Cambridge, Cent. Inst.
Stud,, Mass. Inst. Technol., M a s s . , 1965: 285-293.
It is c l e a r that t h e following motivations a r e of special importance in
changing behaviour: perception of economic gain, a significant part of which
r e m a i n s with the p r o g r e s s i v e individual (i. e . it is not drained off in f u l -
fillment of traditional obligations); the d e s i r e t o achieve prestige and status;
and the d e s i r e t o please t h e change agent who, by t h e m e r e fact of being in
a community f o r s o m e time, becomes involved in patterns of r e c i p r o c a l
friendship that entitle him t o cooperation f r o m his new f r i e n d s . T h e s e
motivations appear universal and not m e r e l y culture -bound. The behav-
ioural scientist, especially t h e anthropologist, is well placed t o act a s an
effective communicator between f a r m e r and bureaucracy in underdeveloped
economies where t h e r e is no effective feedback mechanism between peasants
and bureaucrats. His r o l e as a link between t h e highest and the lowest
elements in development p r o g r a m m e s is thus very important. The paper
d i s c u s s e s the r o l e of behavioural science r e s e a r c h (i.e. into socia1,cultural
and psychological f a c t o r s in agricultural development) in a . finding ways t o
i n c r e a s e agricultural production and b. contributing the basic theoretical
and p r a c t i c a l knowledge on individual and group behaviour that is part of t h e
scientific i n f r a s t r u c t u r e of every modern society (WAERSA 1966 -858).

24
G E R MA N I , G ./ Secularizaci6n y Desarollo Economico. Resistencias B
Mudanca, Rio de J a n e i r o , 1960: 261 -279.
The different a s p e c t s of t h e p r o g r e s s of "secularization" with r e g a r d t o
economic development are discussed: 1. The type of s o c i a l action changes
f r o m p r e s c r i b e d action t o chosen action; 2. f r o m institutionalizing of
traditions one a r r i v e s t o institutionalizing of changing and 3 . out of a mostly
undifferentiated complex of institutions grows a differentiation and special -
ization of institutions.

HO L M B E RG, A. R. / C a s e s t u d i e s of subsistence and transition: Vicos,

P e r u . Agric. Dev. Coun., Honolulu, 1965. 39 pp.
An analysis was made of a c a s e of transition by a population of Indian
f a r m e r s f r o m a position below subsistence t o one of f a i r l y l a r g e s c a l e
c o m m e r c i a l production. The r e s u l t s of the closely coordinated p r o g r a m m e s
of education, training, advice and a s s i s t a n c e already show that s u c h a
transition is possible in v e r y few y e a r s by enlightening the peasant f a r m e r s
themselves, by providing the l a n d l e s s "peones" with i n c r e a s e d incentives t o
produce in t h e i r own i n t e r e s t , through land-tenure r e f o r m s which convert
t h e m into peasants, but without venturing into expensive i r r i g a t i o n projects,
and problematical resettlement s c h e m e s , n o r forcing many f a r m e r s off the
land before they a r e ready f o r industrial employment and urban life
(WAERSA 1966 -2984):

HO L MB E R G , A .R./ Changing community attitudes and values in P e r u :

a c a s e study in guided change. In: HARPER and BROS, Social change in Latin
A m e r i c a today, New York, 1960.

HUSAIN, S. Z . / Social f o r c e s and economic change. A . I . C . C . Econ. Rev.

New Delhi, 15 (1964) 14/15: 157-161.
T h e a r t i c l e deals with social b a r r i e r s t o economic development in develop-
ing countries, particularly India. T h e s e a r e the s o c i a l milieu, s o c i a l
institutions, cultural pattern, value s y s t e m , customs modes and traditions
etc. A frontal attack on the s o c i a l b a r r i e r s will a c c e l e r a t e t h e r a t e of
economic growth.

LINTON, R. / T h e study of man. Appleton Century Co., New York, 1936

A c l a s s i c f o r insight into motives and attitudes of men.

LIPPITT, R., J . W A T S O N and B . WESTLY / Thedynamicsof

planned change. Harcourt B r a c e and C o . , New York, 1958.
Deals with t h e group dynamics approach as a valuable m e a n s for changing

25
 behaviour .
MU E L L E R I J . O. / Beobachtungen z u r Reaktion kleiner Landwirtschaft -
l e r in Togo auf B e r a t e r und Beratung. Z . AuslPndische Landwirtschaft, 6
(1967) 3 : 278-292.
T h e way in which s m a l l Togolese f a r m e r s r e a c t t o agricultural extension
w o r k e r s and extension methods was studied on 40 peasant holdings situated
in different a r e a s , viz. : 1. the c a s s a v a - m a i z e a r e a of the Ouatchi tribe;
2. t h e coffee-cassava-rice a r e a of t h e Ewe t r i b e on the highlands of Dayes;
3. t h e cotton-yam-rice a r e a of the Kabre and Loss0 peoples in c e n t r a l Togo;
and 4. t h e cotton-groundnut -sorghum a r e a in t h e dry, northern p a r t of t h e
country. It is concluded that in the initial s t a g e s of agricultural develop-
ment the intensive advisory method is particularly effective and economical.
Extensive advisory methods without demonstrations and practice in the field
have very little effect and should t h e r e f o r e be given up. English s u m m a r y .

N I E H O F F, A . H . / A casebook of social change. C r i t i c a l evaluations of

attempts t o introduce change in t h e five m a j o r developing a r e a s of the world.
Aldine, Chicago, 2nd ed., 1967. 312 pp.
This book presents nineteen h i s t o r i e s of actual efforts at innovation i n Latin
America, Africa, t h e Middle East, and Asia, illustrating the specific prob-
l e m s faced by change agents. F r o m many c a s e histories, the author selected
those that most c l e a r l y exemplify the technique of t h e innovator, the motiva-
tions of potential recipients and the reactions of t h e s e recipients due t o local
cultural patterns and values. T h i s volume may be s e e n as a companion t o
"Introducing social change'' by t h e s a m e author.

S A C H C H I D A N A N D A / Leadership and culture change in Kullu. Man in

India 44 (1964) 2 : 116-131.

S A NW A L , R . D . / Agricultural extension i n a Kumaonese village. J. Dev.

Stud., London, l ( 1 9 6 5 ) 4 : 384-398.
An account is given of how innovations initiated by s t a t e -sponsored community
development s c h e m e s may be blocked or f a i l f o r r e a s o n s other than the
peasant's i r r a t i o n a l and apathic aversion t o anything new, o r the usual socio-
cultural f a c t o r s . T h i s c a s e study revealed that r e s i s t a n c e was due to the
failure of the novelty t o provide t h e peasant with an adequate economic
incentive t o r e p l a c e t h e traditional pattern. The historical development
and the natural and social conditions of the village of H a r s i l a in t h e Kumaon
a r e a , India, a r e outlined, and t h e effects of the community evaluated. The
development p r o g r a m m e failed because t h e s e innovations did not appear

26
 economically feasible t o peasants. Though t h e new methods increased t h e
yield of food grains significantly, they made t h r e e h a r v e s t s impossible.
The peasants saw the solution of t h e i r problems not in t h e adoption of the
suggested innovations but in "open" f o r e s t s , m o r e land f o r pasturage and
agriculture or, alternatively, in t h e provision of opportunities t o e a r n cash,
preferably in t h e village itself (WAERSA 1966 -910).

SC H L I P PE, P . d e / L e relevement r u r a l en fonction de notre connais -

s a n c e de l a coutume agricole. International Institute of Differing Civilizations.
Record of t h e 28th meeting, 7-10 September 1953, at The Hague, Bruxelles,
1953: 76-81.
The author s t r e s s e s the necessity of taking native agricultural practice into
account when planning development projects, basing h i s view on experiences
with the Zande scheme in the Southern Sudan.

.
S P I C E R I E ( Ed. ) / Human problems in technological change; a c a s e book
Russell Sage Foundation, New York, 1952. 301 pp.
F r o m t h e viewpoint of agricultural extension, the most known situations give
a good opportunity t o l e a r n the effect of c e r t a i n methods of instruction and
information on peoples' way of life.

27
T H E ROLE OF COMMUNICATION

A R E S V I K , O . / The Mymensingh and the Comilla approach in agricultural

extension. Saertrykk Inst. D r i f t s l a e r e Landbr. $kon. Vallebekk, n r . 86, 1966
26 PP.
In E a s t Pakistan 2 new approaches t o agricultural extension a r e being
investigated:
1. the pilot r u r a l development p r o g r a m m e of the Pakistan Academy for
R u r a l Development, Comilla;
2 . the pilot project sponsored by the U. S. Agency f o r International
Devel opment in Mymensingh.
The two approaches have s o m e principles in common but the methods of
implementation a r e di€ferent. The f i r s t approach leads t o collective
management of the land relying on collective decisions, while the second
approach r e l i e s on private initiative of f a r m e r s .

B A C HMA N , J. W. / How t o u s e audio-visual m a t e r i a l s , 4th p r . New York,

1 9 6 2 . 60 pp.

BA N, A .W . van den / Boer en landbouwvoorlichting: de communicatie

van nieuwe landbouwmethoden. Van Gorcum Comp., Assen, T h e Netherlands.
1963. 279 pp. T h e s i s Agric. Univ. Wageningen (Engl. s u m m a r y ) .
Analysis of the communication p r o c e s s e s by which Dutch f a r m e r s get inform -
ation about new f a r m p r a c t i c e s . P a r t I of this publication is a review of the
l i t e r a t u r e f r o m which hypotheses regarding t h e s e communication p r o c e s s e s
w e r e derived.

C O W I N G , A . / Writing words that work; a guide f o r extension w o r k e r s .

F e d e r a l extension service, U. S . D. A . , no. 466, Washington, 1 9 6 1 . 20 pp.

DA SG U P T A , S. / Communication and innovation in Indian villages. Social

F o r c e s , 4 3 (1965) 3 : 330 -337.
246 F a r m e r s in W. Bengal (India) w e r e interviewed about t h e i r s o u r c e s of
information f o r nine improved agricultural p r a c t i c e s . It appeared that the
s o u r c e s of information vary with the f a r m e r ' s socio-economic status and
type of p r a c t i c e for which information is sought. When t h e f a r m e r s a r e
divided in innovators, e a r l y adopters and l a t e adopters, according t o
immediacy of response t o an innovation, the innovators a r e found t o utilize
institutionalized s o u r c e s , while l a t e adopters r e l y m o r e upon non-institut -

28
 ionalized s o u r c e s . The position of e a r l y adopters is intermediate (WAERSA
1965-2109).

EBR IGHT, D. F . ( E d . ) / Audio-visual handbook f o r India. Madras, 1955.

335 pp.

G E OR G E , M . V . / Intensity of information in diffusion of technology in

agriculture. A note. Econ. Affairs, Calcutta, 11 (1966) 4 : 183-187.
A field study t o t e s t the hypothesis that the intensity of knowledge about
f a r m technology depends on t h e number and quality of the information media
serving an a r e a , and t o examine t h e significance of information on the
adoption of improved f a r m practices, was c a r r i e d out in 1962 -I63 in two
groups of villages, one inside the Agricultural Package P r o g r a m m e Area
and the other outside. Eight villages w e r e selected, four each f r o m Alleppey
and Quilan d i s t r i c t s in K e r a l a State, including altogether 320 f a r m households.

F a r m e r s w e r e asked about the adoption of 1 2 different f a r m practices.

Some 53 percent adopted the u s e of chemical f e r t i l i z e r and the next highest
response was f o r livestock improvement. Technological changes, s u c h a s
soil -conservation practices and improved implements had t h e lowest r a t e of
response. Inter-district variations in the r a t e of response t o different
practices a r e significant. The advisory s e r v i c e of the agricultural extension
agency was concluded t o be of low effectiveness compared t o informed s o u r c e s .
In planning advisory work the different methods of communication should be
chosen so a s t o maximize the intensity of information among cultivators'
(WAERSA 1966-4053).

HALL, E. T. / Working with the p r e s s ; a handbook f o r home economics

extension agents. Extension publ., New York State College of Home Economics,
no. 12, Ithaca, 1 9 6 1 . 28 pp.

J O H NS O N , G .L. and C .B . HA V E R / Agricultural information as an

aspect of decision making. Techn. Bull. 273, Dept. of Agric. Economics,
Agr. Exp. S t a . , Michigan State University, E a s t Lansing, 1 9 6 0 . 56 pp.

KLAPPER, J. F . / The effects of m a s s communication. F r e e P r e s s of

Glencoe, Ill., 1960.

LERBINGER, O. and A . J . SULLIVAN / Information, influence and

communication; a r e a d e r in public relations. New York, 1965. 513 pp.

29
L E R C H, J r, D G. ./ Dissemination of f a r m information through newspapers,
magazines, r a d i o and television. Washington, 1959. 28 pp.

L E R N E R , D . and W . S C H R A M M ( E d s . ) . / Communication and change

in the developing countries. East -West Center Press, Univ. of Hawaii, Honolulu,
1 9 6 7 . 333 pp.
T h i s volume p r e s e n t s the work of m o r e than a dozen experts f r o m the United
States and Asia who attended t h e East-West Center s e m i n a r on "Communication
and Change" in August 1964. It r e p r e s e n t s the practical advantages of i n t e r n a -
tional cooperation in the solution of international problems. After an introd-
uction on general problems of using communication in the s e r v i c e of develop-
ment, p a r t 2 deals with s o m e problems of communication and change, and
part 3 gives c a s e studies of communication and change i n India, Communist
China and t h e Philippines. The book ends with a chapter on communication
and t h e prospects of innovative development.

MA L E T Z K E , G . / Psychologie d e r Massenkommunikation (Psychology of

m a s s -media). H. Bredow Institut, Hamburg, 1963.

MAS O N , R . G . / T h e u s e of information s o u r c e s in t h e p r o c e s s of adoption.

R u r . Soc. E a s t Lansing, Mich., 2 9 (1964) 1 : 40-52.
T h i s study r e l a t e s the u s e f a r m e r s make of information s o u r c e s t o t h e i r
stage of t h e adoption p r o c e s s and t o t h e s e f a r m e r ' s relative influence. Use
of a l l information s o u r c e s was found t o be r e l a t e d t o s t a g e s of the adoption
p r o c e s s . Rate of u s e differed among s o u r c e s . U s e of authoritative s o u r c e s
i n c r e a s e d rapidly a s f a r m e r s passed through t h e s u c c e s s i v e stages of t h e
adoption p r o c e s s . The r a t e of m a s s media used by stages of t h e adoption
p r o c e s s was less than that f o r authoritative and c o m m e r c i a l s o u r c e s
(WAERSA 1964-2009).

MERCA DO, C . M . et a l . / The relative effectiveness of four types of

extension publications. Philippine Agriculturist, 49 (1966) 10: 833 -843.
A study on t h e relative effectiveness of 4 types of extension publications,
conducted in the Philippines showed the preference of the respondents f o r
the presentation of the intended m e s s a g e in the f o r m of a coloured conic
s t r i p . However, the s i m p l e r black -white conic s t r i p m o r e effectively induced
the audience t o adopt c e r t a i n practices advocated in the leaflet. The respond-
ents consisted of extension workers, f a r m e r s , home-makers and m e m b e r s
of 4 -H clubs. T h e r e was a highly significant relationship between level of
education and degree of understanding. P r e f e r e n c e f o r specific types of
publications were not related with age, sex, civil status, education level,

30
 p r i o r knowledge about t h e subject, o r dialect. A s e m i - i l l u s t r a t e d and a non-
illustrated leaflet ranked 3rd and 4th in impact, respectively.

MYREN, D . T . (Ed.) / F i r s t i n t e r a m e r i c a n r e s e a r c h symposium on the r o l e

of communications in agricultural development. Mexico City, October 5 -13, 1964.
Imprenta Venecia, Mexico, 1965. 163 pp.
The symposium dealt only indirectly with techniques a s it was organized not
t o disseminate existing knowledge on how t o communicate m o r e effectively,
but r a t h e r t o t r y t o identify the lines of r e s e a r c h which offer most p r o m i s e
f o r obtaining guidelines f o r technicians in action p r o g r a m m e s . The papers
dealt with each of the m a j o r i s s u e s of agricultural development in which
knowledge dissemination plays a c e n t r a l p a r t . T h e r e a r e papers related t o
production information, information on p r i c e and market outlook, on
agricultural p r o g r a m m e s and policies, e t c .

OLIVER, R.T., H . P . Z E L K O and P . D . HOLZMAN / Communi-

cative speech, 3rd ed. New York, 1 9 6 6 . 418 pp.

R A H UD K A R , W . B ./ Communication of f a r m information in an Indian

community. Ind. J . Soc. Wk., 23 (1962) 1 : 99-103.
P r o g r e s s i v e f a r m e r s a r e reached f i r s t by the extension agencies and m a s s
media. Information is l a t e r transmitted t o t h e s m a l l f a r m e r s , who a r e
l a t e adopters of a new practice. Extension officers should t h e r e f o r e con-
centrate on convincing p r o g r e s s i v e w o r k e r s t o adopt new practices.

R O B I N S 0 N, E. J. / Communication and public relations. Columbus, Ohio,

1 9 6 6 . 618 pp.

S C HRA MM, W . (Ed.) / The p r o c e s s and effects of m a s s communication.

University of Illinois Press, Urbana, 1954. 586 pp.
An anthology with interesting chapters f r o m agricultural extension view -
point e . g . : SCHRAMM, How communication works ( 3 -27); KLAPPER, The
comparative effects of t h e various media ( 9 1 -106); KLAPPER, Mass media
and persuasion (289 -320); SCHRAMM, The importance of t h e group in the
communication chain (359 -362).

Id. / T h e s c i e n c e s of human communication. Basic

Books, New York, 1963. 151 pp.
Written by twelve leading s c i e n t i s t s in t h i s field. Good s u m m a r i e s of t h e
r e s e a r c h in communication.

SHEPPARD, D. / The importance of "other" f a r m e r s . Soc. R u r . 3(1963)

2 : 127-141.

31
SINGH, Y . P . and V . P A R E E K / Source of communication at different
s t a g e s of adoption of f a r m practices. Indian J. social Wk. 26 (1966) 4: 385-391.
T o identify the s t a g e s of innovation and t h e means of communication at each
of the various stages, data w e r e collected f r o m a l l the 94 agricultural
families in a medium-sized multi c a s t e village n e a r Delhi (India), who w e r e
asked t o r e p o r t t h e s o u r c e s they actually used at various stages of adoption
of t h r e e f a r m practices. Change agents and other f a r m e r s a r e important
s o u r c e s of awareness. Once a need was felt, people talked with the change
agent. Impact of m a s s media was l e s s at a l l stages (WAERSA 1 9 6 6 - 1 9 7 2 ) .

SMIT H, M. G ./ T h e communication of new techniques and ideas: s o m e

cultural and psychological f a c t o r s . In: Social r e s e a r c h and r u r a l life in Central
America, Mexico and the Caribbean region. UNESCO, P a r i s , 1966: 121 -130.
In Central America and t h e Caribbean, the relation between communicator
and audience m e r i t s special attention, since the communicator is typically
drawn f r o m an urban milieu and r e p r e s e n t s a social and cultural section
quite sharply distinguished f r o m t h e peasants. This relation is itself an
obstacle t o innovation and acceptance of change (WAERSA 1966 -1967).

W A LLMANN, S. / The communication of measurement i n Basutoland.

Human Organization 24 (1965) 3 : 236 -243.
T h e author discusses difficulties in r u r a l development work experienced by
agricultural extension officers, nutrition consultants and personnel of t r a c t o r
schemes in Basutoland, arising f r o m the fact that villagers have g r e a t
difficulty in visualizing land a r e a s i r r e s p e c t i v e of field shapes and in g r a s p -
ing m o r e or l e s s a b s t r a c t concepts such a s units of length, time, weight,
and fractions. T r a c t o r ploughing was not accepted because p r i c e s in t r a c t o r -
hours o r p e r a c r e c r e a t e d misunderstandings and a r e a s w e r e m e a s u r e d f r o m
a e r i a l photographs instead of in the fields; r e c i p e s containing items such as
"1/2 cup of milk costing 314 cent" w e r e unintelligible; different amounts paid
f o r identical s a c k s of g r a i n according t o t h e i r contents w e r e regarded with
suspicion, etc. More attention should b e paid t o the expression of quantities
in language within t h e conceptual framework of t h e African f a r m e r
(Tropical Abstracts 1966 -1195).

.
W A N G , I . K / Communication and adoption of c e r t a i n agricultural practices
recommended i n t h r e e Korean villages. Dept. Agr. E c . College of A g r . , Nat.
Univ., Seoul, 1965. 2 2 pp.
Two m a j o r conclusions were: 1. physical availability of m a s s media,
especially radios, s e e m e d in itself t o be of l e s s significant effect on t h e
adoption behaviour of f a r m operators; 2. personal o r interpersonal

32
 communication through agency-personnel and successful f a r m e r s seemed t o
be very much influential in the process of innovation adoption.

SPECTOR, P . , A . TORRES, S. LICHTENSTEIN, etal. /

Communication and motivation in community development; an experiment.
Report of phase I, submitted to the Agency f o r International Development Contract
AID / la-27. Institute for International Services, Washington, 1963. 114 pp.

33
CHARACTERISTICS OF PEASANTS A N D FARME,RS

A B U - L A BA N, B . 1 Social origins and occupational c a r r e e r patterns of

community l e a d e r s . Socio. Inquiry, 33 (1963) 2 : 131-140.
Selective recruitment of l e a d e r s in a Pacific community,

BAN, A. W. van den 1 R e s e a r c h in the field of advisory work. Neth.

J. Agr. Sci. 9 (1961) 2 : 122-133.
A s u m m a r y of sociological r e s e a r c h in the Netherlands on behalf of t h e
agricultural extension s e r v i c e . Two m a j o r problem a r e a s a r e discussed:
1. The difference in the way of thinking of the modern f a r m managers, who
a r e willing t o utilize the extension s e r v i c e whenever possible, and t h e
traditional peasants. 2 . The communication p r o c e s s e s through which the
f a r m e r s receive information about new practices, especially communication
with other f a r m e r s . The need f o r m o r e psychological r e s e a r c h in this field
is s t r e s s e d .

BEDI, I. S . and R . P . SAXE NA 1 Improved agricultural practices -

Behaviouristic pattern of f a r m e r s in Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. A. I. C . C .
Econ. Rev., New Delhi, 16 (1965) 21 : 27-33.
The f a c t o r s impeding t h e adoption of improved practices w e r e identified a s :
1. i r r e g u l a r supply of water and i t s maldistribution; 2. high water r a t e s ;
3. lack of village l e a d e r s h i p and joint action; 4. inadequate and untimely
supply of agricultural input; 5. no means of demonstrating improved
techniques; 6 . the inadequate and untimely provision of credit; 7 . unfavour-
able p r i c e s ; 8. the inertia, poverty and illiteracy of t h e f a r m e r s , and
9. the belief in traditional practices (WAERSA 1965 -2108).

B E SSE L L , J .E . 1 Measurement of l e a d e r s h i p among f a r m e r s . Statistician,

London, 14 (1964) 3 : 227-253.
The author constructs a "leadership" index. He argues that if it could be
shown that s o m e l e a d e r s with c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s have a g r e a t e r influence
in t h e i r communities than other l e a d e r s , the r a t e of diffusion of technological
change might be accelerated by using t h e i r influence (WAERSA 1965-527).

B L A NC K E N B UR G , P . v o n / Afrikanische Bauernwirtschaften auf dem

Weg in eine moderne Landwirtschaft. Z . f . ausl. Landwirtschaft, Sonderheft 3,
1965. 111 pp.
Based on a UNESCO r e s e a r c h object 196111962. Describes the felt needs of

34
 t h e African peasant. The extension officer s h a l l not be able t o improve
a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e without t h e help of the local l e a d e r s and without
knowing the economic behaviour pattern of t h e r u r a l people. Innovations
will be accepted most easily when they are not expensive and e a s y t o l e a r n ,
when t h e cost -benefit r a t i o is favourable, and when c u s t o m s are not violated.

BOHL EN, J . M . , et al. / Adopters of new f a r m ideas, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and

communications behaviour. North C e n t r a l Regional Extension Publ. no. 13,
Michigan State Univ., 1961. 12 pp.
A brief s u m m a r y on t h e diffusion of innovation, f r o m t h e viewpoint of the
adopter.

B O S E , S . P . / C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of f a r m e r s who adopt recommended agricul-

t u r a l p r a c t i c e s in s o m e s e l e c t e d villages in West-Bengal. R u r . Soc., 26 (1961):
138-145.

Id. / Peasant values and innovations. Am. J . of S o c . , 68 (1962):

552 -560.

C A ST I L L O , . ./
G T Some insights i n t h e human f a c t o r in overcoming
b a r r i e r s t o adequate food supply. Philippine J . N u t r . , Manila, 1 7 (1964) 2 :
134-147.
The author, a t e a c h e r of r u r a l sociology at the University of the Philippines,
expands on the t h e s i s that the r i c e problem lies not s o much in any shortage
of knowledge o r r e s o u r c e s as in t h e f a r m e r ' s lack of understanding and
r e s i s t a n c e t o change. T h e outstanding r e a s o n is considered t o be that
advocates of change have failed t o prove t o the f a r m e r that t h e new ways
will be s u p e r i o r t o the old on h i s own land (WAERSA 1965-3064).

DUBE, S . Ch. / Considerations of s o c i a l and political s t r u c t u r e s and

a g r i c u l t u r a l traditions i n influencing a g r i c u l t u r a l developments. Rehovoth,
1963. 8 pp.
When t h e benefits of improved methods a r e not c l e a r t o the f a r m e r s , they
will be anxious t o s e e k s e c u r i t y in traditional f a r m i n g .

F AR M E R , B . H . / P i o n e e r peasant colonization in Ceylon. Oxford Univ.

Press, London, 1957. 387 pp.
A study in Asian a g r a r i a n problems. People in underdeveloped s o c i e t i e s
have a different view of t h e things which a r e worthy of effort, and t h e s e
things do not n e c e s s a r i l y include technical change f o r i t s own sake, o r as a
sign of modernity, o r as a m e a n s t o m o r e efficient production. T h e modern

35
 Western attitude is s e e n t o be highly abnormal.

F INK E L , H. J ./ Attitudes toward work a s a factor in agricultural planning

in t h e West-Indies. Caribbean Stud., 4 (1964) 1 : 49-53.
People look down upon farming with contempt. Improvement can only be
expected on the long run by education.

FLIEGEL, F . C . and E . J . B R O W N / Lowincomefarmpeople.

J . Co-op. E x t . , 4 (1966) 1 : 44-50.
The very many local studies of poverty among f a r m e r s , although they s t r e s s
the diversity of causes, often show five main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : 1. a high
proportion of aged people; 2 . a high proportion of physical handicaps;
3. an orientation to off-farm work in that even among full-time f a r m e r s
t h e chances of economic improvement a r e looked on a s being off -farm;
4. c o m m e r c i a l orientation, without physical o r financial orientation; o r
5. subsistence orientation, where traditional attitudes, l i k e refusal t o get
Other f a c t o r s such a s lack of
into debt, may prevent t h e u s e of credit.
education, r a c e , and land tenure a r e a l s o frequently involved. A many-
sided extension p r o g r a m m e is necessary, a s that suitable f o r group 4 would
not appropriate t o 5. The maximum impact is achieved by coordinating a l l
agencies and education must help t h e whole family. The low-income families
would a l s o be helped by taking p a r t in community and development p r o g r a m m e s
(WAERSA 1966 -2250).

GALETTI, R., K.D.S. B A L D W I N and I.O. D I N A / Nigerian

cocoa f a r m e r s . Oxford University Press, 1959. 295 pp.
T h e family's labour could be m o r e fully mobilized but only at t h e cost of
sacrificing l e i s u r e and enjoyment, which the f a r m e r s and t h e i r families r a t e
m o r e highly than possible i n c r e a s e in t h e i r income.

M A DIGA N, F. C. / The f a r m e r s a i d no. A study of background f a c t o r s

associated with dispositions t o cooperate with o r be r e s i s t a n t t o community
development projects. Philippines, 1962. 359 pp.
A study of 23 variables believed t o be associated with respectivety to
community development innovations. Variables positively c o r r e l a t e d with
respectivety w e r e a high-school grade, income, occupation, literacy,
m e m b e r of a local committee, clique popularity, personal health and energy,
s o c i a l c l a s s position and s i z e of f a r m .

M A R E K , J . / The significance of the good f a r m e r . Soc. R u r . , Assen, 6

(1966) 2 : 144-155.

36
 8543 f a r m e r s in 79 r u r a l communities in e a s t e r n and c e n t r a l Poland w e r e
a s k e d t o select t h o s e farmers that w e r e i n t h e i r opinion "good f a r m e r s " i n
t h e i r own communities. The conclusion was that in the less advanced regions
of Poland non -economic and non -professional c r i t e r i a play a g r e a t e r p a r t
i n evaluating l e a d e r s . Although innovations rank high i n all regions, the
innovators chosen i n the less developed regions a r e usually not good p r o d -
u c e r s (WAERSA 1966-4129).

MARSH, C . P. and A . L . C O L E M A N / F a r m e r s practice-adoptionrates

in relation t o adoption r a t e s of l e a d e r s . R u r . Soc., 19 (1954) : 180-183.

R A H UD K A R , W . B ./ F a r m e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s associated with t h e adoption

and diffusion of improved f a r m p r a c t i c e s . Ind. J . Agr. Econ., 17 (1962)
2 : 82-85.
F r o m investigations it was found that education is an important f a c t o r in
the adoption of recommended f a r m p r a c t i c e s . T h e r e was no significant
relationship between the adoption of recommended f a r m p r a c t i c e s and age,
s o c i a l s t a t u s o r economic s t a t u s .

Id. / Impact of f e r t i l i z e r extension p r o g r a m m e on the

minds of f a r m e r s and t h e i r reactions t o different extension methods. Indian
J . of Agronomy, 3 (1958) : 128.

Id. f Local l e a d e r s and t h e adoption of f a r m p r a c t i c e s .

The Nagpur Agriculture College Magazine, 2 4 (1960) 1 : 1-13.
T h e author s t r e s s e s t h e important place of t h e l o c a l l e a d e r in improving
agriculture.

.
R E D F I E L D , R / Peasant society and culture. University of Chicago
Press, 1956. 163 pp.
A description of the motives, attitudes and way of life of t h e traditional
farmer.

.
R O G E R S , E M . / Motivations, values and attitudes of s u b s i s t e n c e f a r m e r s :
towards a subculture of peasantry (with discussions). Agric. Dev. C o m m . ,
Honolulu, 1965. 115 pp.

S 1N G H I .
G / T h e differential c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of e a r l y and l a t e adopters of
new f a r m practices, Punjab State, India. Diss. A b s t r . , Ann. Arbor, Mich.,
26 10, 6224. Diss. Cornel1 Univ.. 1965. 188 pp.
A s a m p l e s u r v e y of 260 f a r m e r s f r o m 26 villages showed that Punjabi

37
 f a r m e r s who adopt the use of commercial fertilizer early a s compared with
those who a r e late o r non-adopters; they have more y e a r s of schooling, own
l a r g e r farms, have higher incomes, have more contacts with extension
agents and a r e more self -confident in their ability to perform leadership
functions in the village. Early adopters tend to come from nuclear families
and late o r non-adopters from extended families. Early adopters have
travelled more than late adopters. The s i z e of village in which the f a r m
operators live does not have a significant relationship to their adoption
behaviour (WAERSA 1 9 6 6 -4118).

T A G U M PAY - CA S T ILLO, .
G / Toward understanding the Filipino f a r m e r .
Philippine Agriculturist, 49 (1965) 6 -7 : 423 -437.
Observations a r e presented about the Filipino f a r m e r : the f a r m e r and his
family, the f a r m e r and politics, the f a r m e r and h i s response to modern-
ization , and the f a r m e r ' s challenge t o the experiment station and the
extension service. F a r m e r s rejected o r failed to adopt improved practices
for the following reasons: 1. incompatibility of the practice with existing
conditions; 2 . high cost; 3. the practice failed t o prove i t s superiority;
4. anticipation of undesirable consequences; 5. non-availability of resources
such as fertilizers and sprays, and lack of skills needed to c a r r y out the
practices; 6 . difficulties in carrying out the practices in t e r m s of time and
labour needed. Agricultural r e s e a r c h should be oriented more to solving
the pressing problems of the f a r m e r .

YA NG, H. P. / The f a r m e r and the extension service. Extension in A s i a , 4

(1959) : 1-2.
Essential conditions of extension development, and social and cultural factors
affecting it. Description of the agricultural and home improvement phases,
the r u r a l youth activity, and the need f o r familiarity with local conditions.

38
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION OF FARMERS

A MIHER E , J . A . / Programme of courses: r u r a l training centres. Advance,

Accra, 1961. 3 1 : 1 6 - 2 8 .
An attempt to tabulate the syllabus of the various courses held at the Rural
Training Centres throughout Ghana (WAERSA 1962 -111).

C H A T E LA I N , R . / Main problems of agricultural training at village level.

Rehovoth, 1963. 10 pp.
The level of agricultural training should closely adjust t o the stage of
development of the r u r a l people.

D UMONT, R. / Le developpement agricole specialement tropical, exige une

enseignement totalement repens6. T i e r s Monde ( P a r i s ) , 5 (1964) 17 : 1 3 - 3 8 .
The best method f o r the agricultural extension service is t o t r a i n numerous
young f a r m e r s t o become village leaders with a new way of thinking.

MAT HUR, J.C. / F a r m e r ' s training is central to f a r m production. Yojana,

11 (1967) 12 : 1 5 - 1 8 .
In India, f a r m e r ' s training should be part of any production programme since
the f a r m e r s a r e becoming aware of the benefits of some new practices.
Coordinated programmes for training f a r m e r s should converge on the rapid
increase of agricultural production. Because f a r m e r s ' groups at the village
level do not yet exist, the author suggests t o promote such bodies. It should
be possible to work out integrated training programmes in the districts that
a r e to be covered by the "high yielding varieties programme". Adequate
training of the f a r m e r s could f i l l the existing communication gap that is
still noticed in the agricultural extension programmes.

MO O L A N I , M . K . / Changing patterns in agricultural education in India.

Indian Agriculturist, 7 ( 1 9 6 s ) : 1 - 6 .
Agricultural education in India is considered by the author completely in-
sufficient for a people s o much dependent on agriculture. Increase of
extension work in order to obtain a m o r e general application of existing
knowledge is of much more importance than further accumulation of knowl-
edge by a few. The establishment of 100 vocational agricultural schools
with essentially practical training is strongly recommended.

39
N A IK, K.C ./ Agricultural education in India. Indian Council of Agric.
Research, New Delhi, 1961.

P E ND E R S , J . M. A ./ Educating r u r a l people f o r regional development.

The Hague, 1963. 9 pp.

PERK, A . / Notes on agricultural training in r u r a l a r e a s of developing

countries. Neth. J. Agric. Sci. 14 (1966) 4 : 239-250.
Various s y s t e m s of agricultural training a r e discussed, including:
1. schools f o r agricultural training and farming practices; 2. village
f a r m e r ' s c o u r s e s ; 3 . training c o u r s e s f o r village agricultural instructors;
4 . the elementary agricultural school; 5. continued a s s i s t a n c e f o r graduates
of t h e agricultural schools and village f a r m e r s ' c o u r s e s ; and 6 . training
institutes a s c e n t r e s f o r local l e a d e r s . The possibility of l a r g e - s c a l e
organization is a prerequisite f o r t h e s u c c e s s of a l l r u r a l agricultural
training c o u r s e s .
Both s t r u c t u r e and content of agricultural training should be on the b a s i s of:
1. the general level of development of t h e r u r a l population; 2 . the regional
o r local agricultural situation; 3. the need f o r and the prospects of effecting
improvements in the local type of f a r m o r the local agricultural s y s t e m .

Q U DD U S, M. A ./ Extension l i t e r a t u r e . J. E a s t Pakistan Acad. Village

Dev. (Comilla) 6(1961) : 7-11.
The East Pakistan Academy besides conducting training c o u r s e s f o r village
people p r e p a r e s booklets of r u r a l i n t e r e s t t o s e r v e a s guide books f o r
f a r m e r s , w o r k e r s and non-technical village people. An account of the
extension l i t e r a t u r e is given by t h e author (WAERSA 1961 -1442).

R H E I N W A L D , H . / Die Aufgabengebiete von Ausbildung, Fortbildung und

Beratung bei d e r Forderung d e r Landwirtschaft. Kali Briefe, 12/13, 1959.
Agricultural improvements by way of m a t e r i a l aid and by l e g a l m e a s u r e s
cannot become effective unless preceded by intellectual a s s i s t a n c e by
education and advisory work. The most important and difficult task of the
f a r m advisor is the regulation of social interrelation of peasants.

R I E CK , R .E ./ An inventory and analysis of f a r m management extension

short courses, schools and workshops f o r f a r m people in the United States and
P u e r t o Rico 1963-1964. Madison, 1964. 113 pp.

R O W A T , R . / Report t o the F e d e r a l and Regional Governments of t h e F e d e r a l

Republic of Nigeria on the development of education and training in t h e field of

40
agriculture and related subjects. FAO, Rome, 1964. 109 pp.
The r e p o r t begins with a review of the existing agricultural education
s y s t e m in Nigeria at t h e University, intermediate and f a r m e r training
levels. After a s s e s s i n g the present and future needs of t r a i n e d manpower
f o r agriculture, t h e author attempts to a s s e m b l e in one single overall
comprehensive plan the education and training needs of Nigeria in t h e fields
of food and agriculture, both at the federal and the regional level. Special
attention is asked f o r the problem of t h e lack of practical knowledge of
farming and farming operations among agricultural students and staff
personnel.

SA S A K I , F ./ Agricultural education in Japan. Asian Affairs 5 (196 1) 2 :

1-138.

T r a i n i n g the school l e a v e r in agriculture: family agricultural training c e n t r e s .

Community Dev. J . , 1 (1966) 1 : 38-43.
Of t h e 156,000 f a r m boys and g i r l s reaching 14 y e a r s of age in 1960, 68,000
took agricultural c o u r s e s , 52,000 took other c o u r s e s and 36,000 received
no f u r t h e r training. In 1930 a group of f a r m e r s with children of 1 4 - 1 7 y e a r s
had already s t a r t e d to s e t up each y e a r F a m i l y Agricultural Training Centres;
they accept the m o r a l and financial responsibility of running them. By 1965
t h e r e w e r e almost 500 of such c e n t r e s in 7 1 F r e n c h departements. The
example was followed by Algeria (1958), s e v e r a l other French-speaking
countries in A f r i c a , Italy ( 1 9 6 2 ) and Spain (1965). P r o j e c t s f o r establishing
such c e n t r e s in Cambodia, Argentina and B r a z i l a r e underway. Details a r e
given of the working of t h e s e F a m i l y C e n t r e s .

WE S T E R MARC K, N . / The associability and effect of f a r m management

extension s e r v i c e . Ind. J . Agr. Econ., 1 9 (1964) 314 : 18-24.
It is shown f r o m experiences in Finland that the f a r m e r like other business
men, is not motivated by economic considerations alone but that his r e a s o n s
f o r action a r e often emotionally coloured and not based on l o g i c . It is
suggested that rational thinking is relatively common among f a r m e r s with
advanced vocational education, while emotional f a c t o r s play a m o r e important
r o l e among those with only p r i m a r y education (WAERSA 1966 -848).

W I L L NE R , D ./ T h e training of local l e a d e r s in I s r a e l . Int. R. Community

Dev. 3 (1959): 59-72.

Z E A L Y , Ph ./ Training local l e a d e r s for community development. Int.

R. Community Dev. 3 (1959) : 117-123.

41
EXTENSION PERSONNEL, CHARACTERISTICS OF
AGENTS, SELECTION A N D TRAINING

A g r i c u 1t u r a l extension training center in Hongkong. Dept. of Agric. and

F o r e s t r y , Hongkong, 1962. 139 pp.
P a r t 1 deals with subject-matter fields, part 2 describes extension
education f o r agricultural and r u r a l development, part 3 contains a village
survey and programme planning. In part 4 evaluation of t h e training c e n t r e
is discussed. It is concluded that the effectiveness of agricultural extension
largely depends upon the kind of people it can employ, the amount of backing
i t has f r o m r e s e a r c h stations, and the facilities with which it works.

BA R B I E R , Ch. H. / L a formation des c a d r e s i n t e r m e d i a i r e s dans l e s

pays en voie de developpement. Int. R. Community Dev., 12 (1963) : 21-52

B A T T E N , T . R . and M . B A T T E N / T h e h u m a n f a c t o r incommunity
work. Oxford Univ. Press, London, 1965. 184 pp.
Thirty -seven c a s e s of community work in developed and developing countries
a r e grouped into chapters according t o t h e i r problems. The information
given r e l a t e s t o how an agent t r i e d t o help a group of people, h i s purpose,
what he did t o achieve it, and t h e r e s u l t . In each c a s e the worker thought
h e had failed. The chapters end with s u m m a r i e s of conclusion and suggest -
ions f o r workers faced with s i m i l a r problems (WAERSA 1966 -846).

B A T T E N , T . R . / Training f o r community development. A c r i t i c a l study

of method. Oxford Univ. Press, London, 1 9 6 2 . 200 pp.
The author gives many stimulating ideas f o r a training p r o g r a m m e in a g r i -
cultural extension methods.

B O R T O N , R . E . ( E d . ) / Selected readings t o accompany "Getting a g r i c u l -

t u r e moving. E s s e n t i a l s f o r development and modernization", by A. T. Mosher,
New York, 1966. 2 vols.
An anthology of 136 short a r t i c l e s on subjects regarding agricultural develop-
ment written by authors f r o m s e v e r a l countries.

BRADFIELD, D. J. / Guide to extension training. FAO, Rome, 1966.

176 pp.
T h e purpose of this publication is t o provide a guide f o r t h e training of
agricultural extension personnel. Though t h e text frequently refers t o
aspects of agriculture, r u r a l organization and administrative s e r v i c e s of

42
 Malawi, i t s principles and p r a c t i c e s are applicable t o other developing
countries. Extension teaching methods a r e classified into individual
methods, group methods, and m a s s methods. T h e ways i n which the exten-
sion w o r k e r actually teaches and informs f a r m people a r e described. A
s e l e c t e d reading l i s t c o v e r s a wide r a n g e of publications on various a s p e c t s
of agricultural extension.

BURGE R , P h . .
J 1 T h e effect of a g r i c u l t u r a l training at t h e Grootfontein
college of a g r i c u l t u r e on t h e behaviour of f a r m e r s in the e a s t e r n Karoo region.
D i s s . P r e t o r i a , 1964. 262 pp.

.
B Y R N E S , F . C / Assignment t o ambiguity: Work performance in cross -
cultural technical a s s i s t a n c e . Human Organization, 23 (1964) 3 : 196 -209.
The work performance of 34 A m e r i c a n s who had been employed abroad as
technical a s s i s t a n t s .

C . E . E . M. A . T . Actions de formation visant 3 developper la mechanisation

de l ' a g r i c u l t u r e au Mali. Machinisme T r o p . 14 (1966) : 39-47.
In Mali, t h e u s e of draught animals f o r ploughing, initially in r i c e growing
and l a t e r i n d r y farming, steadily i n c r e a s e d f r o m 1925, w h e r e a s implements
complementary t o t h e plough became available m o r e recently. Under the
guidance of CEEMAT (Study and Experimental C e n t r e f o r Agricultural
Machinery in the T r o p i c s ) the training of f u t u r e extension w o r k e r s and of
t o o l - u s e r s was initiated in 1965. T h e organization and f i r s t r e s u l t s of t h e s e
activities a r e described. Demonstrations w e r e given t o s e v e r a l s e a s o n a l
t r a i n i n g c o u r s e s and t o f a r m e r s by 2 technicians, each of t h e m provided
with a l o r r y equipped f o r r e p a i r i n g and s e r v i c i n g a r g r i c u l t u r a l tools and
implements. English s u m m a r y .

.
C HA C I N M E D I N A , G 1 A n a i s i s comparativo del uso del t i e m p o por
algunos agentes a g r i c o l a s en Venezuela.Turialba, 13 (1963) 4 : 235-237.
A s a m p l e of six a g r i c u l t u r a l agents in Venezuela was taken t o d e t e r m i n e
how t i m e was used. T i m e consumed on non-educational activities (647'0) is
higher in relation t o t i m e spent on educational activities (36%)
(WAERSA 1964 -10 33).

C HANG, C. W. 1 How t o organize a national i n - s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g c o u r s e on

extension. Extension i n A s i a , (1960) : 5 -6.
This a r t i c l e s u r v e y s t h e national extension training c o u r s e held in Malaya
in 1960.

43
c HO PDE , S. R . and W . B . R A H U D KA R / C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s attributing
t o t h e s u c c e s s of village level workers. Ind. J. Soc. W k . , 2 1 (1960) 1 : 67-73
University graduates have on t h e whole not proved t o b e successful village
level workers. The essential quality needed f o r s u c c e s s a s a village level
worker is r e a l love f o r r u r a l life.

E x t e n s i o n education in community development. Ministry of Food and

Agriculture, New Delhi, 1 9 6 1 . 458 pp.
A textbook f o r the training of staff in the Community Development - National
Extension Service P r o g r a m m e . It is a collection of a r t i c l e s by 18 authors
with experience in community development, divided in four sections: 1. a i m s
and concepts of community development and agricultural extension in India;
2 . suggestions on programme development; 3. extension teaching methods
and techniques; and 4. related activities, a s home economics and youth
training.

E x t e n s i o n training round t h e world; A handbook. Washington, 1962. 31 pp,

GOR DON, J ./ Selection and training of agricultural students. World Crops,

1 9 (1963) 1 : 34-36.
Recent y e a r s have s e e n a g r e a t expansion in agricultural education at the
u.niversity l e v e l in developing countries. Under African conditions the
poverty of the f a r m e r s means that most students come f r o m the cities and
have no practical experience of agriculture. Lack of protracted periods of
f a r m work during vacations does not improve t h e situation. Further,
excessive emphasis on pure science tends t o make existing c o u r s e s most
suitable f o r r e s e a r c h w o r k e r s whereas extension workers, economists and
agricultural engineers a r e r e q u i r e d a s well. E a r l i e r specialization would
remove t h e need t o teach s o much that is academic in t h e final y e a r s before
leaving the university. The adoption of " c a r e courses" in tropical agriculture,
economics, field experimentation and statistics, sociology and human nutrition
is advocated.

HA I G H , . .
G V / Competing s t r a t e g i e s f o r the community development function
in the P e a c e Corps. Commun. Dev., 12 (1963) : 53-65.
T h e r e a r e two contrasting kinds of behaviour r e p o r t e d by P e a c e Corps
volunteers: t h e project -centered approach and t h e people -centered approach.
In the f i r s t c a s e t h e communication with the people is uni-directional and
persuasive; i n the second c a s e it is reciprocal, encouraging t h e m t o make
t h e i r own decisions.

44
HAW L E Y , J .B. / Recruitment: selection and training f o r international
community development. Int. R . Commun. Dev. 1 2 (1963) : 3-20.

H O OJ A, . .
G B . K / Role of a g r i c u l t u r a l universities in extension p r o g r a m -
ming. AICC, Econ. Rev., New Delhi, 15 (1963) 12 : 27-31.
Extension education in Indian universities is s o far not oriented t o make it
an applied s c i e n c e and is not able t o produce competent technicians who, in
turn, become effective contacts between extension w o r k e r s and f a r m e r s i n
t h e fields and by discussing t h e i r problems with t h e m at t h e field level, in
a g r i c u l t u r a l production committees of the panchayat s a m i t i s in panchayat
a s s e m b l i e s , can highlight maladies and suggest r e m e d i e s f o r lifting the
a g r i c u l t u r a l economy f r o m i t s present l e v e l of low productivity (WAERSA
1964 -115).

JOHNSON, A.C. and R . D . C A S S E L L / Appraisingpersonnelinthe

cooperative extension s e r v i c e ; a monograph i n t h e personnel management s e r i e s .
Nat. Agricultural Extension C e n t e r f o r Advanced Study and t h e Division of
Management Operations, F e d e r a l extension service, Publ. 17, Wisconsin, 1962.
109 pp.

. .
J U N G H A N S , K H v o n / Agricultural Training and Development C e n t r e
Khuntitoli / B i h a r - Ein Projekt d e r Aktion "Brot f u r die Welt" i n Indien. Z .
a u s l . Landw. F r a n k f u r t a. M., 5, 1966, 4, 337 -52. ( With English Summary).
The c e n t r e is financed by the G e r m a n Lutheran Church t o provide m u l t i -
purpose education t o t h e backward t r i b e s of t h e Chotanagpur Range of Bihar
and N. O r i s s a (Adivassis) and is divided in t h r e e departments: 1. A secondary
school with 150 children i n the middle school and 250 in t h e high school group,
and a hostel f o r 100 boys and 50 g i r l s . For pupils who cannot complete t h e
full matriculation course, a one y e a r t h e o r e t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l training in
mixed f a r m i n g is offered in t h e eight a c r e school f a r m ; 2. A fully mechanized
f a r m with 50 a c r e s of paddy and 25 acres of upland h a s been established t o
produce high quality s e e d and pedigree livestock; 3. As t h e s u c c e s s of t h e
extension p r o g r a m m e f o r minorities i n India depends mainly on anthropolo-
gical background, six Adivasis have been t r a i n e d i n extension work and have
s t a r t e d a poultry p r o g r a m m e successfully in villages w h e r e t r a i n e e s of t h e
a g r i c u l t u r a l school have s e t t l e d as f a r m e r s .

KOLBE, F. F . H. / T h e training of extension officers at university level.

Landbouwk. T i j d s c h r . , 76 (1964) 2 : 55-66.
T h e study is divided into 3 p a r t s . The f i r s t part, dealing with t h e p r e s e n t
situation, gives information on t h e number of universities which offer d e g r e e s

45
 i n extension education, and discusses the dissimilarity of training prog -
r a m m e s . Emphasis is laid on the educational aspects of extension and
training. The second part discusses the training requirements, while the
t h i r d part pays special attention t o some problems t o be overcome in the
most general training method, and in the selection of candidates for the
extension service.

.
L E A GA N S, J P . / Developing professional leadership in extension educat -
ion. Comparative Extension Publication Number, New York State College of
Agriculture at Cornell Univ., no. 3, Ithaca, 1958. 23 pp.

Id. / Guides t o extension teaching in developing countries.

Bull. Int. Agric. Dev., Cornell Univ., Ithaca, N.Y. No. 5, 1964. 27 pp.

Id. / India's experience with training in extension education

f o r community development. Cornell Univ.. Ithaca, New York, 1961. 24 pp.

MA I E R , N . R . F . / Problem-solving discussions and conferences. Leader -

ship methods and skills. New York, 1963. 261 pp.

.
M E L V I L L E , A R . / The training of extension workers - Kenya. Dept. of
Technical Cooperation Misc. 2, London, 1962 : 56 -59.
T h i s paper describes the training used i n o r d e r t o p r e p a r e extension workers
f o r the technical and human problems they will encounter (WAERSA 1963-2524).

MOSHER, A . T ./ Getting agriculture moving. Essentials f o r development

and modernization. F r e d e r i c k A. P r a e g e r , New York, 1966. 190 pp.
A review of the essential requirements f o r agricultural development in
developing countries. T o be used during training of personnel of agricultural
development agencies in Asia, Africa and Latin-America. See also:
BORTON, R . E .

M O S H E R , A . T . / Training manual f o r group study of "Getting agriculture

moving". The Agricultural Development Council, Inc., New York, 966. 128 pp.
This training manual is a companion volume t o "Getting agriculture moving",
written as a guide f o r l e a d e r s of in-service training groups of school-teachers
in o r d e r t o make the best use of the f o r m e r book. It suggests questions t o
put t o the t r a i n e e s f o r group discussion, gives l i s t s of publications for further
reading, and provides hints for the arrangement of the c l a s s r o o m and the
presentation of the subject. Chapters correspond t o those of the basic volume
while at the end of each chapter reference is made t o s o m e a r t i c l e s in 2

46
 f u r t h e r companion volumes which t h e t r a i n e e s should r e a d in connection
with the subject under discussion. (See above, BORTON, R. E . )

MOSHER, A . T . 1 A note on the evolutionary r o l e of extension w o r k e r s

Ld. E c o n . , Madison, W i s c . , 42 (1966) 3 : 387-389.

M O U G H A R B E L , S . K . / Improving agriculture in Syria through a

programme of extension education. Diss. Univ. of Georgia, 1963. 334 pp.
The changes i n the Syrian culture since independence in 1946, which w e r e
described in this study, have produced new demands upon the agricultural
population. Syria needs well trained agricultural extension educators t o
r e a c h t h e farming communities, if the f a r m family is t o make an adequate
adjustment t o t h e s e demands. A p r o g r a m m e of training agricultural
extension educators was proposed f o r implementation in t h e newly established
College of Agriculture in Aleppo (WAERSA 1964-2825).

MY R E N , D .T ./ Training for extension work i n Latin-America. America

Latina, 7 (1964) 2 : 75-85.
The author explores four contributions that r u r a l sociologists might make
t o training f o r extension in Latin America: 1. the training of Latin American
students in t h e United States; 2 . the training of Latin American students in
Latin America; 3. the preparation of an inventory of knowledge about social
change in Latin America; and 4. r e s e a r c h on key i s s u e s of change in Latin
America.

N a t i o n a l conference on extension training. Main recommendations and

proceedings. India's wheel of agricultural p r o g r e s s . Chandiarh, Punjab, 1964.

R A H UD KA R , W. B. / T h e relationship of c e r t a i n personal attributes t o the

s u c c e s s of village level w o r k e r s . Ind. J . Soc. Wk., 23 (1963) 4 : 319-326.

R e p o r t on community development p r o g r a m m e s in India, Iran, Egypt and the

Gold Coast, with s p e c i a l emphasis on training of personnel. U. S . International
Cooperation Administration, Commun. Dev. Div., Washington, 1955. 101 pp.

S C HULE R I E .A . / The origin and nature of the Pakistan academies f o r

village development. R u r . Soc., 2 9 (1964) 3 : 304-312.
The Pakistan Academies f o r Village Development a r e new experimental
educational and training agencies of t h e Government of Pakistan, designed
and c r e a t e d t o aid r u r a l development and planned change. They w e r e e s t a -
blished partly t o t r a i n Pakistan Government officers who w e r e t o administer

47
 the village development operations under the V -AID undertaking, and partly
t o t r a i n the supervisory and administrative personnel in t h e civil and other
nation building departments (WAERSA 1965 -1123).

S HAR MA, S .K .1 A comparative study of the training of agricultural advisory

personnel in t h e Netherlands and India. T h e s i s Agric. Univ. Wageningen, 1960.
183 pp.
T h e author begins with the history of the agricultural advisory s e r v i c e s in
both countries. In India m o r e emphasis is laid on production techniques
than on managerial aspects of agriculture. Individual and group methods of
agricultural extension a r e emphasized in India, whereas in t h e Netherlands
m o r e s t r e s s is laid on m a s s media. He deals shortly with t h e social s t r u c -
t u r e of the r u r a l community in each country f r o m the point of view of the
agricultural advisory s e r v i c e s and i t s personnel. The r e m a i n d e r of t h e
t h e s i s is devoted to the organization of t h e advisory s e r v i c e s in both countries,
methods of selection and training of personnel and t h e i r principal s h o r t -
comings (WAERSA 1961-815).

SMITANANDA, Ph. / Training p r o g r a m s for extension field w o r k e r s in

Thailand. D i s s . Cornel1 Univ., 1961. 224 pp.
The purpose of t h e study is t o present prospective p r o g r a m m e s f o r the
improvement of in-service training i n extension work f o r t h e Kingdom of
Thailand. Pertinent m a t e r i a l regarding t h e h i s t o r i c a l development of exten -
Sion work in Thailand a s well a s in c e r t a i n other countries of Asia, e s p e c -
ially those in Southeast Asia and t h e F a r E a s t is presented t o show the
b a s i s f o r prospective extension work in Thailand.
The present s t r u c t u r e of Thailand's extension administration is a l s o
presented. The study concludes that two types of f o r m a l professional i m -
provement opportunities as well as academic advancements a r e available:
1. graduate study in extension education at K a s e t s a r t University, Bangkok
f o r all extension personnel having a college education in technical agriculture;
2. college education, with emphasis on extension f o r persons who p o s s e s s
high school equivalent qualifications (WAERSA 1962 -1747).

The s o c i a l training f o r front -line r u r a l development w o r k e r s . New York,

1962. 77 pp.
A training t o equip r u r a l w o r k e r s to encourage and promote people's initiative
leadership and capacity f o r concerted action, and t o act a s links between the
people and the technical s e r v i c e s of the government concerned. Frontline
workers constitute the lowest level of s a l a r i e d personnel directly aiding and
advising the village community on its development. Examples f r o m India

48
 Thailand and Pakistan.

S OLOMONI .
D / An approach t o training for community development.
Int. R. Community Dev., 3 (1959) : 25-38.

S R E E K A N T IA H, K . N . / Training in community development, e a r l i e r

experiments. Kurukshetra, 12 (1964) 9 : 1 4 - 1 5 .
A brief historical review of the training of community development w o r k e r s
i n India is followed by s o m e information on the p r e s e n t t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m m e s .
A s many a s 310 institutions a r e training community development w o r k e r s
throughout t h e country. It is recommended t o improve t h e quality of this
training, and t o organize r e f r e s h e r training (Tropical Abstracts 1 9 6 4 - 2 9 2 2 ) .

49
MEANS A N D METHODS OF AGRICULTURAL
EXTENSION

A g r i c u 1t u r a 1 extension methods and community development p r o g r a m m e s

i n India. Department of Agriculture, Information Booklet no. 6, Mysore, 1959.

L ' a n i m a t i o n rurale. Bull. Madagascar 15 (1965) 231 : 703-714.

The t e r m "animation rurale", which is a t present much used in the F r e n c h
speaking p a r t s of Africa, is elucidated. R u r a l animation is not intended t o
r e p l a c e the provision of technical s e r v i c e s , nor is i t an activity in the field
of r u r a l extension; i t is a national movement which t r i e s t o impact a m o r e
dynamic attitude t o the r u r a l population through the intermediation of a
progressive f a r m e r who is elected by the village community. The develop-
ment of this movement in Madagascar is discussed.

BOSE, S . P. / Aims and methods of agricultural extension and t h e i r adaptation

t o the human factor in developing countries. Rehovoth Conference, 1963. 12 pp.
The a i m should be to change a folk society into an urban society. The method
of agricultural extension should c o m p r i s e a wide and comprehensive educa-
tional p r o g r a m m e designed t o bring out changes in the habits and mental
horizon of the r u r a l people (WAERSA 1964-1032).

BOTHA M, C . N. / Audio-visual aids f o r cooperative education and training.

FAO, Agricultural P a p e r no. 86, Rome, 1967. 98 pp.
The present study contains detailed information on a complete range of audio-
visual a i d s suitable f o r cooperative education and training, divided in:
1 . nonprojected aids (the chalkboard, p o s t e r s and c h a r t s , flannelgraph,
magnetic board and adhesive aids, and three-dimensional aids); 2 . projected
aids ( f i l m s t r i p and slide, projectors, s c r e e n s , overhead projector, episcope
and diascope, cine film and film projection); 3. tape r e c o r d e r s and r e c o r d -
ing; 4. m a s s media and r u r a l campaigns (television, r a d i o and exhibitions,
equipment f o r r u r a l campaigns).

.
B O T H E L H O N E I A , A J . / Introduction ?I l a m6thodologie du t r a v a i l en
vulgarisation agricole. FAO, Rome, 1 9 6 6 . 79 pp.
This booklet resulted f r o m the experience acquired at a c o u r s e of a g r i -
cultural extension conducted i n Madagaskar. Special attention h a s been paid
t o the r o l e of agricultural extension in the improvement of the nutritional
status of the r u r a l population. The main p r h c i p l e s and methods of a g r i -
cultural extension a r e discussed in a brief and popular way. The basic

50
 principles on which the programme of an extension worker should be based
a r e recorded.

COOK, J. / Extension methods i n the F a r E a s t . Dept. of Technical Cooper-

ation, London, Misc., 1962 : 59-68.
A description of extension methods employed in Japan, t h e Philippines and
India. In all t h e s e countries i t is now r e a l i z e d that successful extension
work must be an approach t o t h e family a s a whole, bringing both a g r i -
cultural and home improvements.

CRILE, L. / Educational television r e s e a r c h findings. Extension Service

C i r c u l a r 514, U.S.D.A., Washington, 1957. 83 pp.
A survey of investigations on the u s e of television a s a means of
information.

DALE, F. / Audio-visual methods in teaching. 15th p r . , Dryden P r e s s ,

New York, 1952. 516 pp.
A textbook.

DOR NIK, O. 1 Methoden d e r betriebswirtschaftlichen Gruppenberatung.

FOrderungsdienst. Wien, 10 (1962) 1 2 : 405-407.
The method of single f a r m advisory work is best suited f o r f a r m manage-
ment extension, but i t s limitations, on account of high demand on staff,
a r e obvious. Therefore, the need f o r group extension. Two methods a r e
suggested: 1. f a r m visits, provided the selected e n t e r p r i s e fulfills two
pre-conditions: a . it must be typical of the e n t i r e area, and thereby
comparable t o the e n t e r p r i s e s of t h e group of visitors, and b. it should
a l s o be in t h e p r o c e s s o r reorganization; 2. a f a r m managerial s h o r t
course, or what is often preferable; 3. on the spot comparison of two
f a r m e n t e r p r i s e s , operating under the s a m e economic production conditions,
illustrating t h e influence of different f a r m operation and organization on the
s u c c e s s of the e n t e r p r i s e (WAERSA 1963 -1735).

F A LLDING, H. / The group a s a medium of agricultural extension. A study

of the agricultural bureau of New South Wales. R e s e a r c h Bulletin no. 4, Dept.
of Agric. Economics, Univ. of Sydney, 1 9 6 2 . 48 pp.

H o w t o organize r i c e production competitions. Principles and procedures.

FAO, Rome, 1 9 6 6 . 16 pp.
Rice production competitions can play an important r o l e in agricultural
extension s i n c e in many developing countries a natural competitive s p i r i t

51
 e x i s t s among f a r m e r s . The types of competitions outlined in t h i s booklet
include: 1. community r i c e c r o p production competitions; 2 . r i c e s e e d
It is emphasized
production competitions; and 3 . "junior f a r m e r s " r i c e clubs.
that the t e r m s and arrangements f o r competitions of this kind should be c a r e -
fully related to the practical conditions of r i c e production within the a r e a .
T h e r e should a l s o be substantial evidence that this type of activity is a c -
ceptable t o the f a r m e r s and that the n e c e s s a r y administrative support will
be provided.

IGNATIEFF, V . and H . J . P A G E ( E d s . ) / Efficient u s e of f e r t i l i z e r s .

FAO, Rome, 1958. 355 pp.
This monograph deals with t h e subject especially f o r agricultural planners,
workers, a d v i s e r s and t e a c h e r s , who work with f a r m e r s and f a r m organiza-
tions. The book ends with a chapter on the f a r m e r and t h e agricultural
services.

J OE R G E S , B. / Animation r u r a l e in Afrika. Die Methoden d e r IRAM.

Ausl. Landw., 6 (1967) 3 : 293-309.
An explanation is presented of the concept "animation r u r a l e " a s defined by
t h e "Institut de Recherches et d' Application des Methodes de D6veloppement"
(IRAM). "Animation r u r a l e " is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by: 1. i t s heavy reliance on
a network of "animateurs ruraux"; 2 . the cooperative organization of the
village economy; 3. the mobilization of labour r e s o u r c e s f o r the development
of i n f r a s t r u c t u r e s and regroupment of s m a l l villages into l a r g e r units. A
typical training programme f o r "animateurs" is described, and the r o l e of
t h e foreign expert discussed. A comparison is made between "animation
r u r a l e " and community development.

JONES, A . / The agricultural economist and his tools. Extension work.

Proceedings of the 1l t h International Conference of Agricultural Economists
Cuernavava, 1961. Oxford Univ. P r e s s , London, 1963 : 135-155.
T h e author deals with f a r m management and t h e place i t h a s o r should have
i n agricultural extension o r advisory s e r v i c e s t o f a r m e r s and h o r t i c u l t u r i s t s .
Extension s e r v i c e s have been slow in appreciating t h e need f o r "overall"
advice, advice that e m b r a c e s both the technical improvement and economic
soundness. A s a country becomes m o r e highly developed industrially, it
inevitably moves further away f r o m subsistence farming; the f u r t h e r i t
moves, the m o r e important become the economic a s distinct f r o m the
technical aspects of farming. F a r m management is concerned with farming
as a business. Its tools and techniques differ i n countries where f a r m
management is well established and in those in t h e p r o c e s s of development.

52

.. . . . .. . ,. .
 The author s t r e s s e s that the family f a r m , t h e most numerous type of
production unit, demands s p e c i a l attention (WAERSA 1963 -1738).

JONES, E. (Ed.) / Metodologii d e e x t e n s i h . T u r r i a l b a , 1963 : 86 pp.

A description of 16 different extension methods: methods of individual
contact ( m s i t s , consultation, l e t t e r s ) , of group contacts (meetings, demon-
s t r a t i o n s , clubs, c o u r s e s ) , and of m a s s contacts (radio, c i r c u l a r s , magazines
exhibitions) (WAERSA 1963 -2525).

LINDSTROM, D . E . / An a g r i c u l t u r a l college in India f o r g e s links with

villagers. A p r o g r a m m e t o overcome s o c i a l b a r r i e r s and persuade f a r m e r s t o
accept new production p r a c t i c e s . Spec. P u b l . 5, Univ. of Illinois in coop. with
U. S . agency f o r Intern. Dev., Urbana, 1964. 27 PP.
T h e author gives four c a s e studies that i l l u s t r a t e s u c c e s s f u l and unsuccess -
ful attempts t o promote changes in a g r i c u l t u r a l techniques.

LONGEST, J . W. and I?. D. ALEXANDER / Designandmethodology.

Office Extension Studies. State College of Agriculture and Home Economics,
Cornel1 Univ., Report no. 9, Ithaca, 1961. 50 pp.

L E AG A N S, J . P. / Extension methods. How t o t e a c h effectivity. Extension

in A s i a , 7 (1961): 2-3.
A s h o r t description of the n e c e s s a r y i t e m s of a n effective extension
programme.

MATHUR, J.C. and P . N E U R A T H / An I n d i a n e x p e r i m e n t i n f a r m r a d i o

forums. UNESCO, Paris, 1959. 132 pp.
As a n agent of t r a n s m i s s i o n of knowledge t h e r a d i o f a r m f o r u m s have proved
t o be a g r e a t s u c c e s s . The account of t h e r a d i o f a r m f o r u m s pilot project
i n India is being p r e s e n t e d in t h e f o r m of two r e p o r t s put together i n t h i s
volume. The f i r s t r e p o r t s e e k s t o explain t h e background t o t h i s e n t e r p r i s e ,
t h e planning of t h e project and i t s implementation at various s t a g e s in r e s p e c t
of organization, p r o g r a m m e and field work. T h e second r e p o r t c o m p r i s e s
t h e evaluation of t h e s c h e m e . I n c r e a s e in knowledge i n t h e f o r u m villages
between p r e - and post-broadcasts was spectacular, whereas i n t h e non-
f o r u m villages i t was negligible.

ME ISSNER, G ./ Landfunk als F a k t o r i n d e r Beratung. D i s s . Stuttgart/

Hohenheim, 1955. 124 pp.

N E U R A T H, P . M. / Radio f a r m forum as a tool of change in Indian villages.

53
 Econ. Dev. Cult. Change, 10 (1962) 3 : 275-283.
T h e latest r e p o r t s by the director of A l l India Radio Station in Poona s a i d
that the radio f a r m forums a r e flourishing and functioning well. The author
gives a description of t h e experiment, the evaluation survey and the r e s u l t s
of this survey.

R a d i o broadcasting s e r v e s r u r a l development. Rep. P a p e r s Mass Commun.

4 8 (1965) : 1-51.
The f i r s t part (pp. 1-30) of this publication, contributed by B. P. BHATT
and P. V . KRISHNAMOORTHY t e l l s t h e s t o r y of t h e "Radio R u r a l F o r u m s "
i n India, t h e i r growth f r o m a pilot project in t h e region of Poona, based on
the methods and techniques of t h e "Rural F a r m F o r u m ' ' developed in Canada,
to a l a r g e -scale programme spreading throughout t h e country, which already
c o v e r s s o m e 10.000 villages. The second part (pp. 31-39), by R. MARATHEY
and M. BOURGEOIS, deals with UNESCO's efforts to introduce r u r a l broad-
casting in the African countries, and to provide systematic training in the
use of radio f o r r u r a l adult education (Tropical Abstracts 1966 -1739).

R A M IR E Z , A . and D.W . A DA M S / Una t6cnica p a r a introducir cambios

en una communidad r u r a l . Agricultura T r o p . , 2 2 (1966) 10 : 532 -537.
Because lack of funds and s c a r c i t y of extension personnel in Columbia does
not permit l a r g e -scale improvement of the agricultural situation, t h e only
effective s t r a t e g y is t o make s m a l l - s c a l e attempts at selected improve-
ments based on thorough local analysis. T h i s approach was used by a t e a m
working i n a poor smallholders' community in the Dept. of Narino, where
maize is the main subsistence c r o p . It was cdnsidered that the l e a s t
expensive, l e a s t risky, and e a s i e s t accepted method would be the f r e e
distribution of s m a l l quantities of s e e d of improved maize v a r i e t i e s among
Though
the f a r m e r s by the t e a m with the a s s i s t a n c e of the village p r i e s t .
the 2 v a r i e t i e s chosen proved t o be l e s s suitable f o r t h e cold climate of t h e
region, the validity of the approach was confirmed by i t s ready acceptance
by the f a r m e r s .

REYES, B . N . d e l o s , and L . P . de G U Z M A N / F a r m a n d h o m e
development p r o g r a m m e of the College of Agriculture, University of the
Philippines. F a r m Management Notes, on Asia and the Far East, Bangkok, 3
(1967) 1 : 16-25.
T h e f a r m and home development programme (FHD) a i m s to improve individ-
ual f a r m s and homes mainly through raising t h e managerial skill of the
f a r m e r . It grew out of a pilot study conducted f r o m 1958-'61 in four
villages to: 1. investigate management problems in adopting new methods;

54
 2 . determine effects of recommended p r a c t i c e s in f a r m incomes and t r a i n
subject specialists f o r extension work (WAERSA 1967 -3232).

R OUT L EDGE, D .A ./ Agricultural extension: learning and adoption.

S . Agr. Sugar J . , 51 ( 1 9 6 7 ) 4 : 319, 321, 323.
Agricultural extension in particular the work and difficulties of t h e extension
officer, is discussed. A continuous evaluation of the p r o g r a m m e and of
t h e people involved with it, is n e c e s s a r y f o r s u c c e s s of the extension officer
i n h i s task, i. e. t o bridge the gap between f a r m e r and r e s e a r c h w o r k e r .
The extension officer must u s e h i s knowledge of p r o c e s s e s involved in
communicating, learning, diffusion and adoption, s o a s t o motivate f a r m e r s
that they can s e e the benefits of the proposed new method. F i v e categories
of f a r m e r s can be distinguished, viz. innovators, e a r l y adopters, informal
l e a d e r s , the m e m b e r s of t h e majority and the non-adopters. The most
important man in the pattern of diffusion is the f o r m a l l e a d e r .

R u r a l television in Japan; a report on an experiment in adult education.

P a r i s , 1960. 198 pp.

S C H U MA N , H . / Economic development and individual change: a social

psychological study of the Comilla experiment in Pakistan. Center f o r Inter -
national A f f a i r s , Harvard Univ. Cambridge, M a s s . , 1967. 59 pp.
In this s m a l l monograph the author analyzes the r e s u l t s of the experiment
i n planned s o c i a l change of the Comilla Academy f o r R u r a l Development.
The outcome is very positive. T h e land in E a s t Pakistan is over -populated,
extraordinarily fragmented, heavily indebted and inefficiently f a r m e d .
During the 1950's a considerable effort was made t o attack t h e s e problems
through Western methods of agricultural extension met with very little
success. The main s t r u c t u r e of the Comilla p r o g r a m m e consists of p r i m a r y
cooperatives, organized at the village level. P e r h a p s the g r e a t e s t difference
with ordinary efforts at r u r a l development has been the emphasis on devel-
oping new local leadership. Instead of sending extension officers into t h e
villages, the village l e a d e r s , midwives, doctors and religious l e a d e r s a r e
encouraged t o come at r e g u l a r intervals t o t h e c e n t e r t o observe new m e t h -
ods, m a t e r i a l s , values and techniques. The r e s e a r c h findings a r e based
on detailed interviews with 51 cultivators f r o m 1 7 cooperative villages and
158 villagers f r o m 4 control a r e a s outside the Comilla experiment.

.
S I L V A M A R Q U E 2 , O / Estudio comparativo de m6thodos de extensi6n
utilizados en Costa Rica. Turrialba, 14 (1964) 2 : 93-95.
The study shows that the methods most frequently used and most effective

55
 a r e f a r m visits, demonstrations, and f a r m tours. Radio and f i l m a r e
severely limited in u s e . C i r c u l a r l e t t e r s and bulletins w e r e thought t o
have little educational value. In the opinion of the agents, direct contact
methods a r e m o r e effective than indirect ones. Agents recognized dis -
advantages of c e r t a i n methods in introducing f a r m practices (WAERSA
1964 -2828).

SOPER, J . / Extension work i n agriculture. Corona, 11 (1959) : 132-134.

Based on experience in Tanzania. The author p r e f e r s methods of p e r s u a d -
ing r a t h e r than compelling African peasants t o adopt new f a r m p r a c t i c e s .

T e l e v i s i o n in agricultural advisory work. O . E . E . C . , Paris, 1960. 64 pp.

This publication is a r e p o r t on a Workshop held in Birmingham, United
Kingdom, in F e b r u a r y 1959. T h e publication contains papers delivered by
television experts o r f a r m advisory workers f r o m s e v e r a l European countries,
the United Kingdom and Canada.

T I N D A L L , H . D . / Promoting onion growing: extension techniques applied

t o c r o p introduction. ( A c a s e study of a two-year p r o g r a m m e of extension work
in S i e r r a Leone). Commun. Dev. J., 1 (1966): 22 -28.
The r e s u l t s of field t r i a l s with about 30 v a r i e t i e s of onions revealed that only
one variety was satisfactory f o r growing i n S i e r r a Leone. Its introduction
into African farming made l i t t l e p r o g r e s s owing t o the new technique of
sowing and transplanting, the fact that although shallots can be produced
throughout the y e a r , onions should be sown at t h e end of the season, and
the long t i m e required t o r e a c h maximum size, viz. 3 . 5 ' - 4 . 5 months. The
experience of the extension staff has been that extension techniques should
be flexible, that t h e personality of extension staff m e m b e r s is a s important
a s t h e i r technical ability, and that the active support of local dignitaries
is indispensable.

WILLIAMS, M . S . and J . W . COUSTON / Crop productionlevels and

f e r t i l i z e r u s e . FAO, Rome, 1 9 6 2 . 48 pp.
An extensive description of techniques and methods t o initiate f a r m e r s in
developing countries t o u s e f e r t i l i z e r s . A s obstacles t o f a r m e r s ' accept -
ance of the i n c r e a s e d u s e of f e r t i l i z e r s , t h e authors mention: 1. lack of
information on the kinds and amounts of f e r t i l i z e r needed; 2 . lack of
adequate supplies of f e r t i l i z e r and inadequate distribution s y s t e m s ; 3 . un-
favourable relationships between value of agricultural products and t h e cost
of f e r t i l i z e r s ; 4. t h e r e s i s t a n c e of cultivators t o new ideas; 5. lack of
suitable plant varieties, d i s e a s e and insect control m e a s u r e s , and other

56
 practices needed for the potential f r o m fertilizer to be realized; 6 . f a r m
l e a s e arrangements that tend t o discourage the economic use of f e r t i l i z e r s .

.
W I L S O N , M . C . and G GA L L U P / Extension teaching methods.
F e d e r a l Extension Service, U. S . D. A . , Washington, 1955. 80 pp.
A review, particularly comprising the results of the investigations made
on this subject by the Department of Agriculture of the United States.

57
DEMONSTRATIONS AND PILOT FARpMS

ALBRECHT, H. The importance of demonstration f a r m s a s a f o r m of

agricultural development aid. Conditions of efficiency and problems in demonst -
ration. GBttingen, 1965. 34 pp.

A 1g u n o s resultados de l a a r e a demonstrative de San R a m b , Uruguay.

Inst. Interamericano de Ciencias Agr. de l a DEA Zona Sur 1 9 6 1 . 49 pp.
This r e s e a r c h study t r i e s t o determine t o what extent the a i m s have been
realized which underly the Inter -American Institute of Agricultural Science's
demonstration area of San Ram6n in Uruguay. The study includes the
evaluation of economic results obtained by the producers during the s i x
y e a r s since the establishment of the programme and a l s o describes a
methodology f o r economic evaluation of f a r m extension programmes. The
conclusions a r e summarized a s follows: 1. the economic conditions in the
a r e a during the period of study underwent changes reflected in an increased
production and rising income levels of the s e t t l e r s ; 2 . improved cultivation
practices were adopted and resulted in better economic returns; 3 . the
increase in production was g r e a t e r than the costs incurred in outlining and
developing the extension programme (WAERSA 1962 -1 10).

BAREISS, G., E . H R U S C H K A and H . RHEINWALD / Probleme

des Beispielbetriebes. Ullmer Verlag, Stuttgart, 1962. 133 pp.
The authors analyze the value of the pilot farm-in advisory work. The main
aim of the study is t o find out wliich factors of a pilot f a r m influence other
f a r m s . Three spheres of influence were taken into consideration: 1. objec-
tive factors (such a s objective difficulties in copying the model on other
f a r m s ) ; 2. social-psychological factors (problems of contact between the
f a r m managers); 3. individual psychological factors: the personality of
the f a r m manager - his age, his qualities of leadership, self confidence
and status within the village community (WAERSA 1962 -2539).

D E CK E N, H . von d e r / Wichtige Gesichtspunkte f u r die Entwicklung von

landwirtschaftlichen V ersuchsbetrieben in EntwicklungslBndern. Agrarwirtschaft,
15 (1966) 3 : 85-89.
Experimental f a r m s offer a decisive means of agricultural development aid
and their functions should include the improvement of production, super -
vision of pilot f a r m s in nearby villages, the improvement of the educational
standard, the promotion of villages craftmanship and the development of

58
 local markets. They should be established in four stages: 1. systematic
desk and field r e s e a r c h ; 2. detailed planning of f a r m location; 3. contrac-
tual arrangements defining the roles of donor and host countries in the
operations of the f a r m ; 4. estimates and final preparations f o r the setting-
UP (WAERSA 1966 -1864).

H I N E A L V A R A D O , D . / Demonstraciones de metodo en grupo versus in -

dividuales en s e c s communidades de Costa Rica. Turrialba, 15 (1965) 4 :
2 55 -357.
This abstract of a thesis presents results of an investigation into the attitude
of f a r m e r s in 2 regions of Costa Rica towards the extension service, and of
attempts t o introduce an improved method of coffee pruning. In each region
3 communities were chosen in which the new practice was introduced,
respectively by group demonstrations, individual demonstrations, o r not at
all. Instruction was found t o increase the acceptance of the pruning s y s t e m
but the data did not allow a c l e a r decision a s t o which method of i t s introduc-
tion was the better one. English summary (Tropical Abstracts, 1966 -970).

E f f e c t i v e n e s s of c r o p demonstrations. A study of wheat demonstrations in

Aligarh District. U. P. Intensive Agric. District Programme Studies, Agric.
Econ. Res. Centre, Univ. Delhi, No.1, 1964. 34 pp.
The aim of the programme on which the publication r e p o r t s was t o show that
production could be significantly expanded of a whole set of inputs, including
seeds, fertilizer, pesticides and irrigation water. They were made suitable
t o cultivators in one complete batch o r "package". In addition extension
efforts were intensified so that the necessary publicity and advisory facil-
ities were at hand t o support the u s e of the various inputs and recommended
agricultural practices. Some characteristics of the cultivators interviewed
a r e described and their reactions a r e analyzed (WAERSA 1965-1120).

.
H U Q , M . N / Setting up a poultry demonstration unit. J. East Pakistan
Acad. Village Dev., (1961) 6 : 21-25.
Briefly describes the s y s t e m of popular poultry raising in Pakistan and
the importance of setting up demonstration units f o r educating the f a r m
families in improved method of poultry raising. Mentions the importance
of m a s s training in this field. Demonstration Unit a s the East Pakistan
Academy is described in detail (WAERSA 1961 -2147).

K R I S H A N , R . / Agricultural demonstration and extension communication.

Asia Publishing House, London, 1965. 2 6 1 pp.
The book deals mainly with the inadequacies and pitfalls that a r e generally

59
 noticed in the programme of demonstrations, and shows how they could be
overcome by extension w o r k e r s . It a l s o deals with t h e manifold communicat -
ion media and t h e i r methods of u s e which could be profitably employed under
conditions existing in India f o r disseminating t h e r e s u l t s of demonstrations.
The author discusses t h e r e a s o n s f o r non-adoption o r poor adoption of
programmes, despite t h e successful demonstration. Not a l l individuals
a r e good communicators, a selection of personnel f o r t h e i r ability in
advisory must be made with c a r e .The present book is the outcome of
seven y e a r s ' field experience in agricultural demonstration and advisory
work in Uttar Pradesh.

60
PILOT PROJECTS

A L V I, S. / Towards evolving a project in r u r a l development. J. R u r . Dev.

Adm., Peshawar, 5 (1965) 1 : 13-33.
T h e Pakistan Academy f o r R u r a l Development, Peshawar, is the training
institution f o r government officials and Basic Democrats in W. Pakistan.
The Academy has initiated a pilot project in a selected number of union
councils i n t h e Peshawar d i s t r i c t t o evolve a model of r u r a l development
f o r W . Pakistan. The project shows how t h e problems of r u r a l develop-
ment and administration can be solved (WAERSA 1965-2198).

T O D E S C H I N I , F . / F i r s t f r u i t s of t h e Mekong project. A pilot f a r m in

Laos. Span. 7 (1964) 3 : 164-167.
The a i m of the experimental f a r m is to show local f a r m e r s what can be
achieved by irrigation in view of t h e t i m e when the vast irrigation project
of t h e Lower Mekong Basin will become operational, and to t r a i n s o m e 20
students on a practical f a r m i n g school t o become extension officers f o r this
project.

COHEN, R . / T h e s u c c e s s that failed. An experiment in culture change in

Africa. Anthropologia, 3 (1961) 1 : 1 - 1 6 .
Introduction of a f e r t i l i z e r in Nigeria.

B E G UIN, H. / E s p o i r s , bilan et leFons d'un "Paysannat" au Congo.

T i e r s Monde, 6 (1965) 24 : 891-913.
An appraisal, made in 1960, of a modernization project s t a r t e d over 10
y e a r s before i n the Gandajika a r e a of K a s a i province (ex-Belgian Congo)
revealed that t h e new rotation s y s t e m introduced did not i n c r e a s e incomes
and even slightly d e c r e a s e d labour productivity. Mechanized ploughing
s e e m e d uneconomic except possibly on the best s o i l s . Changes i n t h e l a y -
out of the fields had time-consuming effects f o r c e r t a i n f a r m e r s . A detailed
analysis of the mistakes made is provided. F e r t i l i z e r and c r o p protection
m e a s u r e s a r e recommended (WAERSA 1966 -1667).

FAR OUK, A . and S . A . RA HIM / Modernizing subsistence agriculture.

An experimental survey in Comilla (1963 -64). Dacca: E a s t Pak. Bur. Econ. R e s . ,
Dacca University, Comilla, Pak., Adad. R u r . Dev., 1965. 92 pp.
An investigation was undertaken of a pilot s c h e m e of a voluntary village
cooperative in Comilla, backed by a c e n t r a l association and supported by

61
 a government s c h e m e of public works on drainage, irrigation, etc. t o give
employment in the slack season. Some significant correlations w e r e
established between various factors such a s literacy, c a s h input, degree of
indebtedness and f a r m income. The modernization s c h e m e appeared t o
have s o m e effect, particularly on s m a l l medium f a r m s (WAERSA 1966 -801).

MA Y E R , A. / Pilot project India. The s t o r y of r u r a l development at Etawah,

Uttar P r a d e s h . Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, 1958. 367 pp.
An elaborate description complete with l e t t e r s and memoranda of the well
known project which had major influence on t h e community development
organization, launched a few y e a r s l a t e r .

P A NIK K A R , U . B ./ Whither Indian cooperative farming? Kurukshetra,

15 (1966) 1 : 49-50.
Cooperative farming in India has been advocated since 1946. In Sept. 1965
t h e r e w e r e about 2, 300 societies with a membership of 40,000 covering an
a r e a of 93,000 ha in pilot projects, and 2, 200 societies with a membership
of 47,000 covering an a r e a of 107,000 ha in non-pilot projects. A close
study of the recent r e p o r t of the Evaluation Committee on Cooperative
F a r m i n g leads t o the conclusion that the cooperative farming p r o g r a m m e
has been a failure since it has not r e g i s t e r e d any spectacular s u c c e s s
either in production o r in reducing the cost of agricultural operation. The
author suggests t o do s o m e re-thinking on the programme with i t s t a r g e t
of 10,000 additional cooperative farming societies planned f o r the fourth
5 -year plan period.

P r e m i e r s r e s u l t a t s d'enqu&tes obtenus dans le village -pilote de Laptinkaha

(zone de Korhogo, C6te d'Ivoire). Agron. T r o p . , 20 (1965) 2 : 147-219.
A comprehensive socio-economic and agronomic study is presented of the
pilot village of Laptinkaha. T h i s village which will be developed into a
model village f o r modernized agriculture, is representative of t h e Korhogo
region of t h e Ivory Coast, a densely populated a r e a with degraded s o i l s .
The r e s u l t s a r e considered t o be of g r e a t importance f o r the general
prospects of extension. The social and technical difficulties t o be expected
with the various extension s c h e m e s and with the development of agriculture
i n general a r e discussed in detail.

SC H NE L L B A C H, O . / Landwirtschaft und Gewerbe ergBnzen s i c h .

D r e i MusterdOrfer in Togo. Landtechnik, 20 (1965) 15 : 544-551.
T h i s a r t i c l e gives a description and evaluation of a German technical
a s s i s t a n c e project in Togo. The a i m is t o establish i n each of the villages

62
 a production cooperation, b a s e d on the principle “help through self -help”.
The cooperations a r e the f i r s t of t h i s type in Togo. T h e most difficult
problem a p p e a r s t o be the change of mind. It is h a r d f o r the m e m b e r s t o
l e a r n that they a r e not l a b o u r e r s in an e n t e r p r i s e but e n t r e p r e n e u r s
themselves.

S HETTY , V .V . / High-yielding variety p r o g r a m m e in a Mysore d i s t r i c t .

F i r s t Year’s lessons. Yojana, 11 (1967) 10 : 1 9 - 2 0 .
A brief discussion is presented on t h e experience obtained in t h e Shimoga
d i s t r i c t in Mysore State, India, with t h e introduction of high-yielding
v a r i e t i e s of s o r g h u m and rice.

63
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

.
B A T T E N , T . R / The non-directive approach in group and community work.
Oxford Univ. P r e s s , London, 1967. 148 pp.
In this book, the author critically a s s e s s e s the nature, the advantages and
the limitations of the community development o r non -directive approach.
In part 1, he examines the old, directive approach and the non-directive
approach and concludes that each approach offers some advantages and
incurs some disadvantages that the other lacks. In part 2 the functions to
the non-directive worker's role a r e examined in detail. In part 3 the
problem is considered how workers can best be trained to perform these
functions effectively, and in part 4 the training of t r a i n e r s in the appropriate
training methods and techniques.

B L A UG, M. / What price community development. Community Dev. Bull.,

15 (1964) 3 : 84-89.
Contrary t o general views, community development has never really caught
on in Africa. Very little money is spent on it, and funds and staff a r e being
curtailed instead of increased. F a c t s a r e presented about expenditures and
field staff in Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya and Ghana. Lack of basic data makes
it impossible t o submit community development t o any rational analysis of
cost and benefit. Nevertheless, the author feels that community develop-
ment may well be the most effective instrument yet devised for social and
economic progress in underdeveloped countries (Tropical Abstracts 1964 -
2926).

C HA K R A V A R T I S , S S .. / Community development, planning and adminis -

tration at local level in India. J. Loc. Admin. Overseas, 2 (1963) 4 : 212-221.

.
C HA N G , C W . / Community development and economic development.
P a r t I . A study of the contribution of r u r a l community development programmes
t o national economic development in A s i a and the F a r E a s t . FAO, Bangkok,
1962. 113 pp.

C HA NG , C . W . / Community development and economic development.

P a r t 11. A study of f a r m e r s associations in Taiwan. FAO, Bangkok, 1962. 95 pp.
It has appeared that f a r m e r s ' associations can develop t o one of the most
grateful and valuable means of communication for the agricultural extension
service.

64
The C o m m u n i t y development approach t o land settlement. United Nations
Dept. Econ. Soc. Affairs, New York, 1966. 86 pp.
The spontaneous settlement, without intervention f r o m any authorities can
lead t o destructive u s e of natural r e s o u r c e s , heavy erosion, random selec-
tion of lands, continuation of a subsistence economy, and s o c i a l disorganiza-
tion of t h e s e t t l e r s . However, the other extreme, i. e . establishment and
development of settlements under a high degree of control and direction, has
has not been successful either because of high costs o r the failure of s e t t l e r s
t o become independent f a r m e r s . This r e p o r t demonstrates that t h e communitj
development approach is a prerequisite f o r successful land settlement.

D E Y , S . K . 1 Community development. Vol. I. The Quest. Vol. 11. A

movement is born. Kitab Mahal, Delhi, 1960.
T h e s e two volumes a r e written by t h e Minister of Community Development
in India who was a prominent personality in launching t h i s movement. "The
Quest" contains the thinking of M r . Dey during the incubation of the prog-
r a m m e ; the other volume is in s t y l e and content not different f r o m "The
Quest'' and r e l a t e s t o the p r o g r a m m e in action (WAERSA 1 9 6 1 -846).

F ONSE KA, C . de / Shramadana: mobilization of unutilized human r e s o u r c e s .

Int. Dev. Rev. 7 (1965) 1 : 14-20.

F R A NC O , J . di 1 Differences between extension education and community

development. Cornel1 Univ., Ithaca, New York, 1958. 1 9 pp.

I n t e r n a t i o n a 1 s e m i n a r on community development 1964; r e p o r t on t h e

proceedings. Dept. of University Extension, Univ. of New England, Armidale,
N.S. W., 1964. 233 pp.

L E A G A N S , P . J . 1 Elements of extension education p r o c e s s related to

community development. F o r d Foundation, New Delhi, 1960.
Extension education f o r community development; p r o g r a m m e planning t o
meet peoples needs; extension teaching methods; t h e communication process,
and evaluation of extension p r o g r a m m e s .

.
L L O SA L A R A B U R E , J / "Cooperaci6n popular"; a new approach t o
community development in P e r u . Int. Labour Rev., 9 4 (1966) 3 : 221 -236.
Village cooperation, a new approach t o community development on t h e b a s i s
of aided self-help, was launched in P e r u a few y e a r s ago. It h a s c r e a t e d
a conscious r e a d i n e s s t o change among t h e peasants, and a r e a d i n e s s t o do
volunteer work in the villages among t h e university students. Local

65
 development committees discuss the wishes of the villagers, and r e p o r t
them t o a centre staffed by a t e a m of experts. In t e r m s of labour invest-
ment, the village cooperation s c h e m e is a marked s u c c e s s . Some of t h e
achievements a r e : 2600 k m of roads built; 3700 buildings constructed;
250 s m a l l irrigation projects c a r r i e d out; 1900 m of drains made. General
education and special r e f r e s h e r c o u r s e s w e r e organized and attended by
24,000 persons (WAERSA 1967-2036).

ME Z IR O W , J . D. / Dynamics of community development. The Scarecrow

P r e s s , New York, 1963. 252 pp.
Chapter 1 indicates the dimensions of the concept of community develop-
ment and describes antecedent experiments. Ch. 2 and 3. provide a sketch
of the cultural background in Pakistan and a review of Village Aid. Ch. 4.
r e p o r t s programme developments. Organizational and administrative
problems a r e discussed in ch. 5. The chapters 6 . and ?. give a n analysis
of t h e bureaucrat a s a democratic change agent and the village worker a s
an adult educator, while t h e final ch. 8. contains a brief conclusion.

MINIC L I E R , L .M./ Values and principles of community development

Int. R. Community Dev. 5 (1960) : 57-61.

MOSHE R, A . T ./ Varieties extension education and community develop-

ment. Comparative extension publ, no. 2, Cornel1 Univ., Ithaca, N. Y . , 1958.
111 pp.
Different approaches to the problems of agricultur a l extension a r e considered.
T e s t s made in the USA showed personal qualities t o be m o r e important than
technical knowledge or f o r m a l training.

MUKERJ I, B. / Community development in India. Repr. Bombay, 1 9 6 2 .

312 pp.

N E I S S E R I Ch. S. / Community development and m a s s education in British

Nigeria. Econ. Dev. Cult. Change, 3 (1955) : 352-365.

.
P L A N C K I U / Community development in Agypten. Z . ausl. Landwirtschaft,
6 (1967) 2 : 149-172.
A description of the history of community development i n Egypt is followed
by a n appraisal of the movement, the emphasis being laid on its social
aspects. The new policy is based on t h e combined-units p r o g r a m m e which
a i m s at: 1. promoting the basic public s e r v i c e s needed f o r socio-economic
development, and 2 . encouraging r u r a l social and cultural life in a democratic

66
 way. The combined units should s e r v e about 15,000 people by providing
health, educational, social and agricultural s e r v i c e s . In 1965, 300 units
had been established. Agrarian r e f o r m and community development a r e
closely interrelated. Shortage of both financial means and qualified
personnel hamper expansion of community development. T h e r e is a growing
danger of bureaucracy, institutionalism and centralization. (English
summary).

P O T HE N, K . P. / Community projects and National Extension Service

Blocks. Ind. Soc., 4 (1962) 5 : 33-39.

R e p o r t on community development p r o g r a m m e s in India, Pakistan and the

Philippines, by T e a m no. 1, U. S. International Cooperation Administration,
Comm. Dev. Div., Washington, 1955. 88 pp.

SCHMIDGALL, F. L. / Community development. Div. Non-Western

Sociology, Agr. Univ., Wageningen, 1958. 57 pp.
A l i t e r a t u r e review on the means to develop underdeveloped countries.

S H A M I M , I . / The r o l e of lay l e a d e r s in community development work.

Int. R. Community Dev. 3 (1959) : 81-87.

SEN, L. K . and P . R OY / Awareness of community development in

village India. National Institute of Community Development, Hyderabad, 1 9 6 6 .
75 PP.
The r e s e a r c h project, r e p o r t e d in this preliminary r e p o r t , was undertaken
in 1965. 7224 respondents in 356 villages, chosen at random f r o m a l l
sixteen States in India, w e r e interviewed. In this r e p o r t , i t e m s pertaining
t o the general awareness of t h e r u r a l people of the various aspects of t h e
community development programme have been investigated, and the extent
t o which this awareness has l e a d to specification by t h e individual. Another
a r e a of study was the development of communications and institutions.

S O E M A R D J A N, S . / The dynamics of community development in r u r a l

C e n t r a l and West J a v a . A comparative r e p o r t . New York, 1963. 40 pp.

SR I V A S TA V A, R .N. / Impact of community development p r o g r a m m e on

t r i b a l life. Kurukshetra, 13 (1965) 5 : 11-12.
Results a r e presented of seven y e a r s r e s e a r c h into the impact of the
community development p r o g r a m m e on t r i b a l life in t h e backward region
of Dudhi in Uttar P r a d e s h State (India). Implementation of the p r o g r a m m e

67
 was hampered because: 1. local conditions w e r e not properly understood,;
2 . Hindi was used instead of native dialect; 3 . it was not realized that folk
customs, symbols, idioms etc. a r e important in the p r o c e s s of commun-
icating ideas; 4. t h e wrong people w e r e approached, 5 . c e r t a i n communities
w e r e not included i n the project. On the other hand, the people showed a
real d e s i r e f o r change and improvement. It was f u r t h e r m o r e found that the
villagers p r e f e r r e d t h e private money l e n d e r s t o the cooperative society.

T H O R A T , S . S . / Some salient c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of sarpanchas and the s u c c e s s

o r failure of agricultural innovations in India's villages. Nat. Inst. of Comm.
Dev. at Hyderabad and Michigan State University, 1967. 22 pp.
The author concludes that t h e social, personal and political c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of the g r a m panchayat sarpanchas o r village council presidents (level of
education, the c a s t e t o which they belong, s i z e of t h e i r holding, the concentra
tion of power, the degree of t h e i r secularity, t h e i r contacts with change
agents) make a marked difference in t h e s u c c e s s of agricultural p r o g r a m m e s
t o a considerable extent.

V i 11a g e volunteer f o r c e and defence labour bank. Nat. Inst. of Comm. Dev.,
Hyderabad, India, 1964. 1 2 1 pp.

68
THE PACKAGE PROGRAMME

CHAW D H A R I , T .P . S . et al. / Impact of intensive cultivation scheme

programme of I.A.R.I. in Delhi villages. Ind. J. Agr. Econ., 20 (1965) 3 :
76 -83.
In 1962 it was 10 y e a r s since the Indian Agricultural Research Institute at
New Delhi launched its "intensive cultivation scheme" in 19 villages,
comprising the "intensive cultivation block" and "non -b lock" a r e a s . In
each of 6 villages 10 holdings were selected and the impact of the "intensive
cultivation scheme'' was evaluated. It was found that the inputs of the
"scheme farmer" were R s . 27 (US $ 1. = R s . 4.75) more than those of the
counterpart in the "non-block" a r e a . This brought a net additional income
of R s . 238 per farming unit of 3.6 ha. Benefits that cannot be measured
in t e r m s of money a r e improved ability t o make decisions, and better
technical knowledge (Tropical Abstracts 1966 -522).

D A NT W A L A , M . L . / India's food problem. Asia Publishing House,

Bombay, 1960. 40 pp.
Describes the Package programme. The missing link is too little invest -
ment in education and in training f a r m people. Three approaches to the
problem of increasing foodgrains' production a r e discussed, i. e . techno-
logical, institutional and organizational. Imposition of ceilings on excess -
ively l a r g e holdings, merging too small holdings into cooperative f a r m s
and improving organizational efficiency a r e the author's main suggestions
to improve agricultural production.

I n t e n s i v e agricultural districts programme conference / Directorate of

Extension. Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Govt. of India, New Delhi, 1963.
368 pp.
Some topics a r e : preparation of f a r m and village production plans,
strengthening of cooperative institutions, agricultural credit, supplies and
marketing, programmes relating to quality seed production, soil testing,
field demonstrations, agricultural implement workshops and local works
programme.

M A L O N E , C . C . / Some responses of r i c e f a r m e r s t o the Package

Programme in Tanjore district, Ind. J. of F a r m Econ., 47 (1965) 2 : 256-269.
This study reports on the participation of Tanjore district r i c e f a r m e r s in
India's package programme and the extent to which they a r e adopting the

69
 recommended "package of improved production practices" in moving
towards the u s e of modern farming methods. Participation in the programme
by s i z e of f a r m is about normally distributed among the f a r m population
and is not limited t o the l a r g e r and m o r e progressive f a r m e r s . Progress
in increasing yields and production is substantial but t h e r e is little evidence
that the doubling of c r o p yields in a s h o r t t i m e is a logical expectation under
Tanjore conditions (WAERSA 1965-1174).

MANRAI, M . L.1 Intensive approach t o agricultural development. Ind.

J . Agr. Econ., 21 ( 1 9 6 6 ) 4 : 110-116.
A f e a t u r e of India's 4th F i v e - Y e a r Plan is the selection of a few a r e a s with
a s s u r e d rainfall and irrigation f o r concentrated application of a package of
practices based on improved v a r i e t i e s of seeds, heavy doses of f e r t i l i z e r s
and availability of inputs. T h i s intensive approach t o agricultural develop-
ment of t h e m o r e fortunately placed a r e a s has been criticized by D r . V . K .
R . V . Rao and P r o f . Dandekar. The author examines the 4th F i v e - Y e a r
Plan in t h e light of t h e s e objections and concludes that the intensive approach
is essentially sound. The ultimate s u c c e s s of the programme, however,
will largely depend on adequate agricultural extension, on ensuring the
supply of improved s e e d and f e r t i l i z e r s , and on speeding up the develop-
ment of high yielding varieties of all major c r o p s .

.
M I L E S , H . A 1 India's Package P r o g r a m m e teaches f a r m e r s new ways.
Foreign A g r i c . , 2, 34, 89 and 16 (1964).
T h e Intensive Agricultural District P r o g r a m m e o r Package P r o g r a m m e
s t a r t e d in 1 9 6 1 in seven highly productive d i s t r i c t s of India. It a i m s at an
i n c r e a s e d f a r m output by a combination of improved f a r m practices, and is
now showing important achievements. Yield improvements of 30 -50% have
been obtained in many c a s e s . In 1962163 about 320,000 ha w e r e t r e a t e d
against pests and d i s e a s e s . In the original seven d i s t r i c t s the u s e of
nitrogenous f e r t i l i z e r s was m o r e than doubled and t h e u s e of phosphate
f e r t i l i z e r s m o r e than t r i p l e d since t h e s t a r t . F o r the 4th F i v e - Y e a r Plan,
starting in 1966, an expansion of the work t o s e v e r a l other agricultural
d i s t r i c t s is planned (WAERSA 1966 -851).

Id. / Package P r o g r a m m e ; e a r l y experiences. Kurukshetra 12

(1964) 4 : 14-17.
A brief review of t h e r e s u l t s of t h e Intensive Agricultural Districts
P r o g r a m m e (Package P r o g r a m m e ) being conducted in each s t a t e of India.
The p r o g r a m m e includes the u s e of specific improved production practices
supported by agricultural extension, production credit and n e c e s s a r y

70
 production supplies. Many of the participants have i n c r e a s e d t h e i r yields
by 30 -50%. T h e r e is a considerable i n c r e a s e i n the u s e of f e r t i l i z e r s .
Although the p r o g r a m m e is s t i l l in i t s f i r s t stage of growth, the experience
gained shows that the f a r m e r s do respond (Tropical Abstracts 1964-1480).

P I L L A I, P . N. B . / Package P r o g r a m m e i n Tanjore d i s t r i c t of Madras

State. Agric. Situation India 1 7 (1963) 1 2 : 1251-1254.
A review is presented of the a i m s and r e s u l t s of t h e Package P r o g r a m m e .
The Package P r o g r a m m e includes: 1. t h e u s e of improved seed; 2. plant
protection; 3. i n c r e a s e d u s e of chemical f e r t i l i z e r s ; 4. t h e u s e of g r e e n
manures; 5. a suitable credit policy, and 6 . suitable s t o r a g e facilities.
The average yield in t h e Package a r e a s was higher by 43% in 1960/61 and
by 18.370 in 1961/62.

RA NDHA W A , M. S . / Costs and r e t u r n s relations of t h e "package and

practices" in t h e intensive agricultural district p r o g r a m m e . Agric. Situation
India 1 9 (1964) 3 : 205-207.
A new s y s t e m of agricultural demonstrations in India c o m p a r e s t h e financial
r e s u l t s of a control plot, t r e a t e d by the f a r m e r in h i s own way, with those
of a plot t r e a t e d with f e r t i l i z e r s , insecticides, selected s e e d s , etc. The
c o s t s of t h e s e treatments, which depend on quantities and p r i c e s of m a t e r i a l s
and on the cost of e x t r a labour, are compared with the value of t h e addi-
tional yield obtained. Demonstrations with a wide range of important c r o p s
indicated that t h e e x t r a r e t u r n s of the t r e a t e d plots generally exceeded the
e x t r a costs 2 - or 3-fold. Despite t h e s e favourable r e s u l t s , the author doubts
if f a r m e r s can apply the optimum levels a s used in t h e t r e a t m e n t s because
of t h e i r s h o r t n e s s of c a s h and t h e i r inability t o r u n financial r i s k s (WAERSA
1965 -1 1 2 2 ) .

Id. / Intensive agricultural programme. FAO, New Delhi,

1965. 114 pp.
A comprehensive description of the so-called Package P r o g r a m m e in India.

ROBERTSON, C. A. and R . K . SHARMA / Lessons f r o m t h e Package

P r o g r a m m e with implications f o r t h e new agricultural s t r a t e g y . Ind. J. Agr.
E c o n . , 2 1 (1966) 4 : 123-135.
The Intensive Agricultural District P r o g r a m m e as "Package P r o g r a m m e "
has been operating in India since 1960/61. This study evaluates i t s r e s u l t s
in the 7 d i s t r i c t s where it was f i r s t introduced. The r e s u l t s in 3 d i s t r i c t s
a r e very unsatisfactory. The adoption of improved s e e d s , f e r t i l i z e r s and
plant protection in s o m e d i s t r i c t s r e m a i n s at a v e r y low level. Some of

71
 the chosen d i s t r i c t s have insufficient i r r i g a t i o n facilities; performance of
the c r e d i t cooperatives was poor; f a r m planning, claimed t o be a powerful
instrument f o r introducing t h e f a r m e r t o improved methods, "has been
m e r e l y a grandiose exercise on paper", notwithstanding the fact that
680,000 f a r m - p l a n s w e r e p r e p a r e d in the 7 d i s t r i c t s . The author concludes
that the p r e s e n t Package P r o g r a m m e is a watered-down v e r s i o n of t h e
original concept.

SA I K I A , P. D ./ Intensive area development approach. A village level plan

f o r agricultural development. Ind. J. Agr. Econ., 2 1 (1966) 4 : 148-153.
The annual a g r i c u l t u r a l growth r a t e in t h e State of A s s a m is 1.370, which
is t h e lowest r a t e of all the States i n India. The growth r a t e in t h e C a c h a r
district, where the Package P r o g r a m m e was s t a r t e d i n 1963, was 21.870
in 1963/64 ( t h e highest r a t e of any package d i s t r i c t in India), 9. 5% and
3.370 in 1964/65 and 1965/66 respectively. A survey conducted by the
author revealed that i n t h e C a c h a r d i s t r i c t of t h e f a r m e r s 80% used f e r t -
i l i z e r s , 837'0 insecticides, 5770 improved seed, and 25% improved implements,
against virtually nil in the non-package d i s t r i c t s . Since the package p r o -
g r a m m e cannot be extended, a village level plan f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l develop-
ment is recommended.

SC H I L L E R , O . / Die L e h r e n von Mandi. E i n Beispiel e r f o l g r e i c h e r

landwirtschaftlicher Entwicklungshilfe. Z . ausl. Landw., 6 (1967) 1 : 74-83.
The Indo-German Agricultural P r o j e c t in t h e Mandi d i s t r i c t of Himachal
P r a d e s h (India) s t a r t e d in 1963 as p a r t of the Indian Package P r o g r a m m e .
The rapid adoption of f e r t i l i z e r s and other improved methods h a s l e d t o a
considerable i n c r e a s e of a v e r a g e yields p e r h a throughout the d i s t r i c t .
The author concludes that t h e r e a r e human r e s o u r c e s of g r e a t potentialities
i n t h e r u r a l a r e a s of developing countries; r a p i d a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o g r e s s is
possible on conditions that the right approach is used. The volume of
foreign technical aid f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l development is not only a question of
financing but f i r s t of all dependent upon t h e availability of qualified personnel.
English s u m m a r y (WAERSA 1967 -3231).

S I N G H , H . / Intensive a g r i c u l t u r a l approach t o a g r i c u l t u r a l development.

Ind. J. Agr. Econ., 2 1 (1966) 4 : 141-148.
Two basic problems of India's Package P r o g r a m m e are discussed: 1. do
high inputs lead t o increasing r e t u r n s ; 2 . do t h e Indian peasants have t h e
capacity t o adopt concentrated doses of inputs? Analysis of available data
suggests that higher inputs are associated with constant r e t u r n s in regions
where less intensive f a r m i n g prevails, and with diminishing r e t u r n s in

72
 regions where farming is already on a higher level of intensification a s
generally is the c a s e in the Package P r o g r a m m e d i s t r i c t s . Replacement
of t h e traditional f a r m technology by a completely different technological
s y s t e m might b e required. In t h e s h o r t run, however, t h e level of
technology, f a r m s t r u c t u r e , management skills, e t c . will r e m a i n fixed.
T h i s should l e a d t o s o m e caution with r e g a r d t o t h e Package P r o g r a m m e .

WEBSTER, R . L. and W . A . BEEGHLY / A Package P r o g r a m m e f o r

India's food production. Span 9 (1966) 3 : 140-144.
The Intensive Agricultural District P r o g r a m m e of India is based on the fact
that only the combination of improved practices supported by efficient
agricultural s e r v i c e s e n s u r e s increased food production in a reasonable
time. It is of p r i m a r y importance t o convince t h e f a r m e r that adoption of
the new practices will bring about an i n c r e a s e of h i s income. T o that end
demonstration plots are n e c e s s a r y . The Package P r o g r a m m e h a s already
given favourable r e s u l t s , including higher yields and outputs, i n c r e a s e d
understanding and skill of f a r m e r s and managers, and experience f o r the
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . India has now established a modified intensive p r o g r a m m e
in 114 m o r e d i s t r i c t s as part of a c r a s h campaign t o catch up food production.

73
RESEARCH A N D P L A N N I N G IN AGRICULTURAL
EXTENSION

A c t i o n r e s e a r c h and i t s importance i n an under -developed economy.

P . R . A . I. Planning R e s e a r c h and Action Institute, Planning Dept., Uttar
Pradesh, 1 9 6 2 . Publ. no. 282. 74 pp.

A L E X A ND E R , T . H . / Report t o the Government of Pakistan on a g r i c u l -

t u r a l extension. EPTA Rep. No. 1839, FAO, Rome, 1 9 6 4 . 32 pp.
The author r e p o r t s on his activities in Pakistan f r o m September 1960 t o
December 1963 to advise t h e Water and Power Development Authority
(WAPDA) on an extension s e r v i c e f o r the Ganges -Kobadak Project and on
the coordination of r u r a l s e r v i c e s , t o a s s i s t in a training c o u r s e and in the
preparation of teaching material, and t o collaborate with the other m e m b e r s
of the FAO t e a m t o develop an agricultural programme f o r t h e project
( WAERSA 196 5 -30 6 3 ) .

B E A L , G . M . , R . C . B L O U N T , R . C . P O W E R S e t a l . / Social
action and interaction in p r o g r a m m e planning. Ames, 1966. 510 pp.
A textbook on s o c i a l action in extension p r o g r a m m e planning.

B E L S H A W , D . G . and M . H A L L / Die praktische Nutzanwendung

landwirtschaftlicher Versuchsergebnisse. Erfahrungen in Afrikanischen
EntwicklungslClndern. Z . ausl. Landw., 4 (1965) 3 : 218-243.
The authors a r e concerned with t h e difficult problem of t h e application of
r e s u l t s of agricultural r e s e a r c h in peasant farming in Africa. The
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of peasant farming, r e s e a r c h programmes, and f a r m
planning a r e discussed at s o m e length. The practical r e s u l t s of r e s e a r c h
a r e generally small; t h e r e exists a wide gap between r e s e a r c h and t h e
application of i t s r e s u l t s , Consequently, public expenditure i n agricultural
r e s e a r c h is generally small, and agricultural potentialities a r e often passed
by. Finally, the paper discusses the implications of this unfavourable s i t u a -
tion f r o m t h e short, intermediate and long-term period of view. English
s u m m a r y (Tropical Abstracts 1966 -238).

B O O N E , E . J . ( E d . ) / A r e s e a r c h approach t o p r o g r a m m e development in
cooperative extension. Report of National R e s e a r c h Planning Conference in
P r o g r a m m e Development. The National Agricultural Extension Center f o r
Advanced Study, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison. Publ. 12. 1962. 72 pp.

74
BOY L E , P. C ./ T h e p r o g r a m m e planning p r o c e s s with emphasis on exten-
sion. Nat. Agricultural Extension Center f o r Advanced Study, Univ. of
Wisconsin, Madison, 1965. Publ. 24. 56 pp.

BR IDG E R, G A . ./ Planning land settlement s c h e m e s (with s p e c i a l r e f e r e n c e

to E a s t Africa). Agron. Econ. Bull. f o r Africa, 1 (1962) : 21-54.
T h e author concludes that settlements a r e only justified in c a s e of population
pressure, People should be guided by the ordinary agricultural extension
s e r v i c e which a i m should be t o r a i s e the standard of life highly.

CONROY, W . L . / Tradition and t r e n d s in agriculture. Australian

T e r r i t o r i e s , 2 (1962) 4 : 2 1 -27.
The author describes s o m e problems with which extension w o r k e r s a r e
confronted in communities based on subsistence agriculture, where social
and cultural patterns a r e normally interwoven with land usage. In planning
agricultural extension p r o g r a m m e s the following f a c t o r s should be consid -

ered: 1. the importance of traditional subsistence production; 2 . other

aspects of traditional land use, such a s p a s t o r a l i s m and hunting; 3. b a r t e r
t r a d e with other communities. The f i r s t attempts to change f r o m produc-
tion f o r subsistence only should make use of s p a r e r e s o u r c e s of labour and
land, without interfering with the subsistence r e g i m e . Once c a s h cropping
becomes f i r m l y established, f a r m e r s a r e m o r e amenable t o suggestions
f o r changes in t h e i r subsistence practices (WAERSA 1963-959).

HA A N , J .H. de / Aspects of r u r a l development in primitive a r e a s . Neth.

J . of Agric. S c i . , 6 (1958) : 222-231.
No general r u l e o r particular p r o g r a m m e can be indicated. A thorough
survey of land and people, proper planning with on the spot control, adequate
means and t h e right persons a r e p r e r e q u i s i t e s f o r the s u c c e s s of a develop-
ment project.

HENDERSON, T .H . / R e s e a r c h in agricultural extension. Caribbean

Q u a r t . , 11 (1965) 3-4 : 29-35.
R e s e a r c h of t h e efficiency of agricultural extension was undertaken by t h e
Trinidad Faculty of t h e University of the W. Indies in 1962. Projects
completed include investigations on t h e adoption of innovations by a group
of vegetable f a r m e r s and a group of dairy f a r m e r s in Trinidad, and a
study of the effectiveness of t h e Cocoa Rehabilitation Scheme in relation
t o f a c t o r s of f a r m productivity. A study on pigeon pea farming is a l s o
mentioned in this connection. The studies revealed, i n t e r alia, that the
number of f a r m e r s annually adopting a recommended improvement is

75
 usually low in the first y e a r s , i n c r e a s e s to a peak, and then falls off.
However, when a vigorous campaign is conducted and the innovation fulfills
a felt need, most of the f a r m e r s who adopt the innovation do s o in the f i r s t
years. Among 9 s o u r c e s of information used by the f a r m e r s , radio, news -
paper and a f a r m e r s ' almanac, occupied the first 3 places, extension
personnel was only 4th in importance, and f a r m e r s ' societies came l a s t .

IGA, G. A. / Scope f o r r e s e a r c h in agricultural extension. P r o c . Agr. Soc.

Nigeria 4 (1965) : 63-69.
Many developing countries attempt t o improve agriculture by the r e o r g a n i z a -
tion of extension s e r v i c e s and an i n c r e a s e of the staff, neglecting specific
problems of extension. The author discusses the problems with r e f e r e n c e
t o the situation in Nigeria and s t r e s s e s the need f o r r e s e a r c h in agricultural
extension. Evaluation of the relative importance and influence of the general
education pattern on the s u c c e s s of extension work is necessary; general
education, agricultural training and extension should be developed harmon -
iously. Agricultural ektension should be taught at the university. Subjects
needing study include: 1. training of staff; 2 . r u r a l sociology; 3 . educa-
tional aspects of extension, acceptance by the f a r m e r s , methods of diffusion
and motivations of ideas; 4. relation of extension to community development;
5. coordination and integration of extension with r e s e a r c h , and 6 . value and
methods of programme planning (Tropical Abstracts 1960 -220.

NE Z A M U D D I N, S. / Requisites of c r o p planning in India. Indian

Agriculturist, 7 (1963) : 7-12.
In an analysis of the r e a s o n s why c r o p planning is s o often rejected by
f a r m e r s in India, t h e author indicates s e v e r a l omissions in the planning.
Advance instruction of t h e f a r m e r s , in o r d e r t o convince t h e m of the
superiority of the new planned patterns, is mostly lacking. Planners also
overlook the f a r m e r s ' lack of r e s o u r c e s and the fact that new techniques
a r e strange t o them. Insufficient attention is paid t o the necessity of
improved marketing, s t o r a g e and processing facilities; uncertain p r i c e s
a r e another r e a s o n f o r rejection. Cooperative credit, guaranteed p r i c e s
and well demonstrated methods of good husbandry a r e seen a s indispensable
requisites f o r good c r o p planning (Tropical Abstracts 1964-2203).

R e h o v o t h conference on comprehensive planning of agriculture in developing

countries, August 19-29, 1963. Rehovoth, 1964. 220 pp.

S C HA PP E R , H . P. / Information and computer planning f o r f a r m manage -

ment extension. J. Aust. Inst. Agric. S c i . , 32 (1966) 1 : 1-10.

76
 T h i s a r t i c l e points out the s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i s s i m i l a r i t i e s of f a r m manage -
ment advice and technical agricultural extension. The r o l e of t h e computer
i n an integrated s y s t e m of f a r m management information is outlined and the
necessity f o r a f a r m management c e n t r e o r laboratory in each s t a t e is e x -
panded (WAERSA 1 9 6 6 -2940).

S C H U L MA N , S . / E l reconocimiento del papel del campesino en l a r e f o r m a

agraria. America Latina 9 (1966) 3 : 75-87.
Agrarian r e f o r m in Latin America is a t a s k both f o r t h e government and
f o r t h e peasants; t o b e successful i t r e q u i r e s acceptance and collaboration
by the f a r m e r s . Unfortunately, the low level of education and n a r r o w out -
look of the peasants prevents t h e m t o present t h e i r views t o t h e government,
while legislation is p r e p a r e d and implemented by officials having no f i r s t -
hand knowledge of peasant life. The resulting situtation, c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
lack of contact and mutual understanding, should be improved by r e c r u i t i n g
personnel charged with the implementation of a g r a r i a n r e f o r m m e a s u r e s
f r o m those having followed special training c o u r s e s i n which a period of
personal participation i n the peasant's life is made compulsory. English
summary.

T O UR T E ,R . / Suggestions pour une politique d'application de l a r e c h e r c h e

agronomiyue dans les pays en voie de d6veloppement. Agron. T r o p . , 11 (1965) :
1163 -1176.
T h e delay which o c c u r s before t h e r e s u l t s of agricultural r e s e a r c h a r e
applied in p r a c t i c e is due principally t o t h e lack of contact and c l o s e liaison
between r e s e a r c h and extension. An attempt is made to find a solution f o r
t h e developing countries where t h e digression of t h e two only s e r v e s t o
i n c r e a s e t h e economic gap which s e p a r a t e s t h e s e countries f r o m those
known a s developed. A proposal is put forward f o r creating different
stages f o r passing progressively f r o m r e s e a r c h t o extension: 1. r e s e a r c h :
r e s e a r c h proper, experiments at stations, multilateral r e s e a r c h ; 2 . applica-
tion of r e s e a r c h , land improvements, pre-saturation: visits, training c o u r s e s ,
demonstrations, publications; 3. extension (WAERSA 1966 -4049).

WEITZ , R . (Ed. ) / R u r a l planning i n developing countries. Report on t h e

second Rehovoth conference, Israel, August 1963. Routledge & Kegan Paul,
London, 1965. 443 pp.
T h e second Rehovoth conference discussed 3 main subjects: agricultural
planning and r u r a l development; the human f a c t o r in a g r i c u l t u r a l r e s e a r c h ;
extension and education. This r e p o r t is based on t h e p a p e r s presented at
t h e conference and on the main points r a i s e d during t h e discussions. The

77
 r e p o r t does not follow t h e actual sequence of the discussion. A number of
specific and well-defined subjects have been selected,and each of t h e s e
subjects is r e p r e s e n t e d a s a s u m m a r i z e d combination of papers, minutes
of meetings and the e d i t o r ' s own comments and conclusions.

YANG, W. Y . / F a r m planning and agricultural development. F m . Mgmt.

Notes Asia and t h e Far East, Bangkok, 1 (1965) 2 : 1 - 7 .
The author discusses the importance of a few sound approaches t o effective
f a r m planning and s t r e s s e s t h e s t r a t e g i c r o l e of f a r m e r s in making and
executing r e a l i s t i c f a r m plans. Government agencies, technicians, experts
and workers at the village level can only give technical a s s i s t a n c e and
provide the essential information supplies and s e r v i c e s r e q u i r e d by f a r m e r s .
They cannot make decisions and take action on behalf of t h e f a r m e r s . Thus,
a f a r m plan must be made t o achieve a goal recognized by t h e f a r m e r within
t h e limitations of his r e s o u r c e s and ability (WAERSA 1 9 6 5 - 1 8 5 2 ) .

78
ORGANIZATION OF EXTENSION SERVICES

E x t e n s i o n development around the world. Guidelines f o r building extension

organizations and p r o g r a m m e s . Washington, 1 9 6 2 . 30 pp.
Report of a conference held in Washington f r o m J u n e 5 t o 9, 1961.

I N F I E L D , H./ Co-operative farminginlow-income countries. T h e problem

of its initial organization. Archiv. Int. Co-op., 7 (1960) : 76-86.

I S O B E , H. / Why I proposed t o c r e a t e posts f o r f a r m management specialists

in Japan. F m . Mgmt. Notes Asia and t h e F a r East, Bangkok, 1 (1965) : 32-34.
The Japanese law on improvement and promotion of agriculture of 1948 in-
augurated the new extension s y s t e m . T h i s extension s y s t e m is considered
t o be a significant democratization m e a s u r e of Japan's agriculture i n which
the f a r m e r s ' independence and initiative a r e duly respected and f a r m e r s
a r e encouraged t o undertake improvement voluntarily by t h e m s e l v e s , The
Agricultural Improvement Bureau was established t o implement the new
s y s t e m and the f i r s t t a s k of the Bureau was the creation of posts for exten-
sion subject m a t t e r specialists and extension s e r v i c e s (WAERSA 1965 -2022).

.
J O H N S T O N , B F . and S . F . N I E L S E N / Agricultural and s t r u c t u r a l
transformation in a developing economy. Econ. Devel. Cult. Change, 14 ( 1 9 6 6 )
3 : 279-301.
The s e c t o r a l interdependence of agriculture and non-agriculture in the
c o u r s e of economic growth is examined i n section I. Section I1 s t a t e s that
the required i n c r e a s e of agricultural output should be achieved p r i m a r i l y
by relying on an institution-building approach, aimed at increasing the
productivity of the existing relatively abundant land and labour r e s o u r c e s
i n agriculture. Attention should be given t o inputs such a s f e r t i l i z e r s ,
which, complementary t o existing land and labour r e s o u r c e s , a r e likely t o
yield v e r y high r e t u r n s . Section I11 examines t h e effects of international
t r a d e on t h e p r o c e s s of s t r u c t u r a l transformation. T h e role and problems
of agricultural exports and of food aid, as a component of economic a s s i s t -
ance programmes, a r e a l s o examined (WAERSA 1966 -2100).

K E L S E Y , L . D . / The challenges of s t a r t i n g extension work in new a r e a s .

Comparative extension publication number, New York State College of Agriculture
Cornel1 University, Publ. no. 11, Ithaca, 1960. 15 pp.

79
LAL, R. / The c a s e f o r agricultural extension. A. I C . C . , Econ. Rev.,
11 (1959) 15 : 19-23.
The article seeks t o make out a convincing c a s e f o r "agricultural" extension
instead of the existing overall "rural" extension in the present day condi-
tions in India. Three arguments have been advanced in support of the case;
1 . the paramount importance and adequate nursing of agriculture in the
Indian economy; 2 . the unimpressive r e c o r d of general r u r a l extension
primarily in agricultural productivity; 3. the lessons of other countries.
The f i r s t section of the article pleads f o r a much g r e a t e r extension intensity,
the second attempts a quantitative and qualitative assessment of the intensity
of extension in India, the third makes an attempt at a s e a r c h f o r solution in
the prevailing circumstances in India and the l a s t advocates the adoption of
a new programme of agricultural extension instead of the existing r u r a l
extension t o quicken the tempo of the community development programme
(WAERSA 1960 -105).

L E A , D . A . M . / Suggestions f o r the improvement of indigenous subsistence

horticulture. Papua and Nw. Guinea Agr. J . 18 (1966) 1 : 1-4.
Traditional systems of subsistence farming in the highlands of the T e r r i t o r y
of Papua and Nw. Guinea can probably be improved by the introduction of
yam and sweet potatoe varieties r i c h in protein, the introduction of new
found plants, improved hand implements, mechanization of post -harvest
handling of produce, mulching, simple terracing, improved yam storage
methods, extension of t r e e cultivation, pig bread improvement, and the
introduction of cattle and goats. However, extension officers should bear
in mind that valuable practices should be retained a s much a s possible, and
that improvements a r e accepted only when they do not disturb the social
organization of the people. Examples a r e given of some traditions militating
against certain improvements.

N A R K S W A S D I , U . / Institutions responsible f o r conducting f a r m manage -

ment programmes in eight countries in Asia and the F a r E a s t . F m . Mgmt.
Notes Asia and the F a r East, Bangkok 3 (1967) 1 : 1-5.
The countries f r o m which institutions are briefly described a r e Japan,
Taiwan, Korea, Thailand, Philippines, India, Malaysia and Ceylon. The
organizations a r e classified a s official organs, specialized a s s e m i -
specialized institutions, agricultural experimental stations, f a r m e r s '
organizations, private societies, universities and agricultural colleges and
international foreign agencies (WAERSA 1967 -3225),

NI D A O , A. / L'6volution de l a vulgarisation agricole au S h e g a l . Rev. Soc.

80
Belge Etudes Expansion, 6 2 (1963) : 714-718.
The f a r m e r s ' s y s t e m s of agricultural extension work in the Senegal region
a r e briefly discussed; only incidental work could be done because of lack of
t r a i n e d personnel. The creation of settlement c e n t r e s was only partially
successful, since t h e mechanization which had to be introduced was un-
economic. Good r e s u l t s w e r e obtained with the creation of c e n t r e s f o r r u r a l
expansion. Integrated r u r a l development is persuaded by t e a m s of trained
officers a s s i s t e d by village animators (WAERSA 1964 -2826).

NEW C O M B E , F . H. / Agricultural extension. Report t o t h e Government

of Burma. EPTA 1397, FAO, Rome, 1961.
The author s u m m a r i z e s briefly the observations upon the completion of
approximately one y e a r of study in Burma. After a survey on the present
situation of extension development the author explains t h e duties and activ-
ities of field officers, i n - s e r v i c e training, extension fellowships, and pilot
village projects. He then makes various recommendations f o r strengthening
the Extension Division at the Department of Agriculture (WAERSA 1962 -2545).

R e p o r t t o t h e Government of Pakistan on agricultural extension. Expanded

Techn. Assistance P r o g r . , 1839, FAO, Rome, 1964. 26 pp.
When the major irrigation works in the Kushtia d i s t r i c t of t h e Ganges -
Kobadak project i n E a s t Pakistan w e r e nearing completion, it was r e a l i z e d
that an agricultural extension s e r v i c e should be organized t o help f a r m e r s
t o adopt t h e new farming p r a c t i c e s s o that they would be able t o take the
utmost advantage of the irrigation water. Field t r i a l s had shown that yields
of i r r i g a t e d r i c e , wheat and other c r o p s w e r e double those obtained under
rainfall conditions. The organization and activities of t h e agricultural
extension s e r v i c e a r e discussed, the need f o r agricultural credit is s t r e s s e d
and t h e r o l e of t h e P e a c e Corps volunteers is described. It is recommended
t o direct t h e i r f u t u r e activities t o irrigation development, training and
experimental work providing t h e m with t h e r e q u i r e d qualifications and a
background of i r r i g a t e d farming.

ROSS, M . G . and B . W . L A P P I N / Communityorganization. Theory,

principles and p r a c t i c e s . H a r p e r and Row, New York, 2nd ed., 1967. 290 pp.
Deals with: 1. the nature of community organization; 2. f a c t o r s impinging
on community organization methods; 3 . principles of community organiza -
tion, and 4. principles and practice. The focus of t h e r e v i s e d edition is on
practice; theory and principles a r e discussed in the f i r s t sections and then
applied specifically t o t h r e e c a s e r e c o r d s : a village in Ceylon, a community
c e n t r e in a changing urban North American locality, and a s o c i a l planning
 council.

SANTOY, P. du / Committee procedure for clubs and voluntary organiza-

tions. Oxford Univ. P r e s s , London, 1963. 44 pp.
This paper describes in detail the formal procedures normally adopted in
committees. It is designed especially to explain to anyone not familiar with
them, especially the newly -elected chairmen and members, the reasons
/
for and the practice of these procedures.

W o r k s h o p on organization and administration of agricultural services in the

Arab states. United Nations, Programmes of Technical Assistance, New York,
1964. 103 pp.
The workshop s t r e s s e s the need for a comprehensive approach t o agricul-
t u r a l extension covering all subject fields, s o a s to avoid the danger of
giving the individual f a r m e r conflicting advice. Also the need for evaluation
is underlined. Training facilities a r e discussed and agricultural extension
recommendations a r e given. No agricultural programme can be effective
unless it is fully related to the needs of the f a r m e r himself.

82
 D E S C R I P T I O N OF E X T E N S I O N SERVICES

GENERAL.EUROPE and NORTH AMERICA

A g r i c u1 t u r a l advisory services in Europe and North America. EPA/OEEC,

P a r i s , 1961. 246 pp.
The conference had the following objectives: 1. To discuss important
developments in agricultural advisory work in Europe, the United States
and Canada since the f i r s t Conference of this kind was held by the O. E. E. C.
in 1957, and to review the projects c a r r i e d out by EPA / O. E . E. C. in this
and related fields during the same period; 2 . to delineate the role and
contribution by agricultural advisory services in Europe and North America
towards the solution of urgent technical, economic and social problems at
present affecting agriculture; 3. to make recommendations in regard t o the
most effective follow-up by the O. E . E. C. of the work already under way
(WAERSA 1961 -2378).

ASKW I T H , T ./ Community development in Turkey. Community Dev. J . ,

l ( 1 9 6 6 ) 1 : 6-11.
A description of community development in Turkey and some r e m a r k s . The
success of certain programmes is due mainly to the promotion of village
councils, inspired leadership of some individual, local initiative, technical
advice and the latent ability of the people to organize and undertake substantial
development activities at considerable personal sacrifice (WAERSA 1966 -1931)

BRUNNER, E. de S . , I . T . S A N D E R S and D . E N S M I N G E R
(Eds.) / F a r m e r s of the world. The development of agricultural extension,
Columbia Univ. P r e s s , New York, 1954. 208 pp.

. .
K I M M E L , D C / The need f o r efficient extension services. Span, 4 ( 1 9 6 1)
1 : 43-44.
The paper examines the reasons f o r the lack of effectiveness in increasing
agricultural production. A specially selected and trained staff is needed
combined with adequate government support. The paper ends with a list of
FAO-reports devoted t o agricultural extension in Africa, the Middle East
and the F a r East.

PE ND E R SI J .M. A . / The role of r u r a l extension in developing countries.

In: Penders, J . M A. (Ed.), Rural extension on the crossroads, 1963: 54-65.

t
83
 P r o g r e s s i n a developing country is largely determined by "intellectual"
investment. Extension should pave the way for vocational teaching. It has
a r o l e to play in r u r a l development projects and in the integration of
agriculture into the national economy. Extension and community develop-
ment a r e t o a g r e a t extent s i m i l a r and t h e r e f o r e no different s e r v i c e s would
b e needed. Extension and community development a r e different aspects of
one indivisible, self -generating p r o c e s s .

P E ND E R S , J . M . A . / R u r a l extension in a developing country. A

comparative study. Neth. J. Agr. S c i . , 10 ( 1 9 6 2 ) 1 : 27-51.
The extension situation in Surinam is described in comparison with the
Netherlands. Limitations in t h e f o r m e r country t o higher productivity a r e
caused by the s m a l l a r e a s of t h e f a r m e r s , lacking adequate water manage-
ment, the non -availability of capital, t h e poor development of m a r k e t s and
the inadequate training of the r u r a l population. Discussion of various a s -
pects, viz. the scope of extension, the working procedures and methods in
extension, t h e relation between extension, applied r e s e a r c h and teaching
and the organization of the extension s e r v i c e (Tropical Abstracts 1 9 6 2 -2244)

SANDERS, H. C. (Ed.) / The cooperative extension s e r v i c e . Prentice

Hill Int., London, 1966. 436 pp.
The book, with contributions by 41 agricultural and home economics extension
workers, presents a comprehensive account of the Cooperative Extension
Service, i t s foundations, history, purposes, p r o g r a m m e s and techniques.
P a r t I - Foundations - contains the following chapters: 1. Why an extension
s e r v i c e today? 2 . a brief history; 3 . t h e legal base, scope, functions, and
general objectives of Extension work; 4. organization of the work; P a r t I1
presents s o m e contributions of the behavioural s e r v i c e s ; P a r t I11 p r o g r a m m e
development. Part IV d i s c u s s e s planning and implementing change; P a r t V
r e p o r t i n g and public relations; P a r t VI examines personnel training and
development, and P a r t VI1 looks t o t h e future (WAERSA 1967 -906).

.
S I M O N S , L R . / E a r l y development of cooperative extension work in
agriculture and home economics in the United States. Ithaca, 1 9 6 2 . 64 pp.

TURNER, R. M. / The f i r s t 45 y e a r s . A history of cooperative extension

in Washington State. Pullman, Wash., 1961. 138 pp.
The author t e l l s of the different administrations of the Extension Service
and t h e i r contributions t o policies now providing the foundation of f u r t h e r
growth and development i n helping f a r m and r u r a l families and t h e broadering
influence of urban fields of activity. T h e approach to writing t h e history was

84
 t o s a m p l e different periods t o show t h e t r e n d s and reaction t o changes in
farming, technology and methods and types of p r o g r a m m e s . Biographical
data on extension d i r e c t o r s a r e added, including a l i s t of extension workers
through 1957 (WAERSA 1962-1748).

V E R S L UY S, J .D . N. / Basic f e a t u r e s of agriculture in underdeveloped

countries compared with those of Western agricultural production and t h e
difference between agricultural cooperation in E a s t and West . Indonesia. 1956.

ASIA AND THE FAR EAST

A g r i c u 1 t u r a l development operations in the T r u s t T e r r i t o r y of t h e Pacific

Islands. Agr. Inform. Bull., 1 (1964) : 126 pp.
This publication provides general basic information on t h e islands of the
T r u s t T e r r i t o r y of t h e Pacific Islands; a brief discussion of the o v e r - a l l
programme f o r agricultural development; and r a t h e r detailed information
on the agricultural p r o g r a m m e s and operations of t h e 6 d i s t r i c t s into which
the vast a r e a of the T r u s t T e r r i t o r y is divided. T h i s t h i r d part c o m p r i s e s
among others, a chapter on agricultural extension p r o g r a m m e s and
operations.

A g r i c u1 t u r a l extension work among native f a r m e r s in Papua and New Guinea

Australian T e r r i t o r i e s , Canberra, 1 (1961) 5 : 16 -20.
Discussion of the main a i m s of agricultural extension among t h e native
people of t h e T e r r i t o r y . In o r d e r t o a c c e l e r a t e and intensify this work a
3 -year development p r o g r a m m e was instituted in Nov. 1959. The main
i t e m s of this 10 -point plan a r e : expansion of the f o r c e of indigenous
agricultural a s s i s t a n t s with the aim t o provide one t r a i n e d agricultural
worker t o every 5,000 head of r u r a l population; completion of t h e training
p r o g r a m m e t o the stage when m o r e than 1 , 0 0 0 indigenous f a r m e r s a r e
trained each y e a r ; completion of agricultural extension stations; develop-
ment of 32 new agricultural extension c e n t r e s ; strengthening of t h e profe-
ssional staff; expansion of agricultural patrolling (WAERSA 1962 -857).

A ND E R S O N , O . B . ( Ed. ) / F a r E a s t agricultural extension and information

workshop. April 6-18, 1959. Taipeh, Taiwan, 1959. 180 pp.
This workshop was held t o review t h e s t a t u s of extension and information
w o r k e r s and f o r the cooperative exchange of experiences in o r d e r that they
might be b e t t e r equipped t o offer informed leadership. T h e country r e p o r t s
of the delegates f r o m Japan, Korea, Philippines, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam

85
 and the Republic of China show t h e p r o g r e s s each country is making toward
an effective extension s e r v i c e (WAERSA 1960 -1206).

BA N , A .W . van den / -Organisatie van de Community Development in

India. Landbouwk. T y d s c h r . , 78 (1966) 1 2 : 397-400.
A brief review is presented of the Community Development organization in
India. This organization was established in 1952; it h a s a personnel of
75,000 including 50,000 village level w o r k e r s (VLW), m o r e than 5,000
agricultural extension officers, and nearly 5,000 animal husbandry officers.
The h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e of the organization has both advantages and
disadvantages. According t o the author the drawbacks a r e dominant; the
VLW's take little pleasure in t h e i r work; the downward communication is
good but the upward communication is insufficient; coordination with other
organizations is very difficult; and agricultural extension finds it m o r e
difficult t o overcome the distrust of the r u r a l f a r m e r .

BLANDY, R . and M . NASHAT / TheEducationCorpsinIran.

A survey of i t s social and economic a s p e c t s . Int. Labour Rev., 93 ( 1 9 6 6 ) : 5 :
521 -529.
A s p e c i a l corps of a r m y conscripts, t h e Education Corps, was formed in
I r a n in 1963 with the direct a i m of spreading l i t e r a c y in r u r a l a r e a s , but
a l s o t o play a pivotal r o l e in community development and r u r a l r e f o r m s .
Corpsmen s e r v e the normal period of conscripted s e r v i c e of 18 months.
The f i r s t 4 months are taken up in training in both military and non-military
subjects including teaching methods, basic principles of agricultural exten-
sion, and sanitation. At the end of this training those who p a s s an examina-
tion a r e qualified f o r the a r m y rank of sergeant, a r e equipped with special
uniforms, and a r e sent to the villages t o s e r v e the remaining 14 months of
t h e i r t e r m of s e r v i c e (Tropical Abstracts 1 9 6 6 -1740).

BOSE, S . P . / The changing pattern of agricultural extension in West Bengal.

Note Agriculture Change, West Bengal, India, 1960. 15 pp.
Extension began a s an agency f o r supplying t h e f a r m e r s ' needs but gradually
developed into an organization which undertook the development of the r u r a l
people. While supplies and s e r v i c e s w e r e the s o l e objective before now,
this is supplemented by an educational p r o g r a m m e which is an essential
element in agricultural extension. The expenditure on extension and r e s e a r c h
has been increased about hundred t i m e s i n t h e c o u r s e of the l a s t 30 y e a r s .

C HA N G , C . W . / The present status Of agricultural extension development

in A s i a and t h e F a r E a s t . FAO, Rome, 1961. 60 pp.

86
C O N R O Y , W . L . / Agricultural extension work in Papua and New Guinea.
South Pac. Bull., 11 (1961) 4: 4 9 - 5 3 .
The main aims of the extension programme in Papua and New Guinea a r e :
1 . t o r a i s e the level of subsistence in the villages by improving the nutri-
tional value of the foods eaten, by introducing new foods, and by ensuring a
y e a r -round supply of food; 2 . to introduce the economic means of supporting
a higher standard of living by introducing crops and stocks; 3 . to contribute
to the advancement of the people by technical training; 4 . t o improve the
methods of indigenous agriculture including better land use, the use of better
implements, animal husbandry and poultry raising (WAERSA 1962 -860).

.
C O T T R E L L - D O R M E R I W / Rural extension in Eastern Papua. Papua
and New Guinea Agr. J., 14 (1962) : 92-112.
This article describes and discusses the work on agricultural extension
c a r r i e d out in a region of E a s t e r n Papua. Starting with reconnaissance
patrols, village agricultural committees were established and the agricultural
extedsion programme was gradually broadened into a programme of r u r a l
extension. The author concludes that urgent needs in extension activities of
all kinds in Papua a r e : 1. g r e a t e r emphasis on participation by the village
people in the planning and execution of programmes; 2. the stepping up of
the training of native leaders, both men and women, and 3 . the strengthening
of the team spirit between departments at the district and sub-district level
(WAERSA 1963 -1 11).

D A Y A L , R . / community development programme in India. Kitab Mahal,

Allahabad, 1966. 432 pp.
The author has t r i e d t o bring home the usefulness of the community develop-
ment programme in the present day world situation. Particularly the estab-
lishment of Panchajati -Raj and the constitution of a village volunteer force
have proved to be very useful. The book is divided into four parts. The
first part deals with the general aspects of the programme and gives an idea
about the concept, chief features, administration and progress and targets
of this programme. The second part is the c o r e of the book and deals with
all aspects relating t o welfare and development of the m a s s e s . The third
part gives an idea about this programme in tribal, gramdan and urban
areas. The l a s t part shows the people's contribution, evaluation and a
critical view of this programme.

HESS, R. / The village panchayat in India. Ind. Soc., 5 (1963) 6 : 1 - 3 , 6-8.

KAUFMAN, H. F. / Rural community development in India. Int. Rev. Comm.

D e v . , 9 (1962) : 77-94.
A concise analysis of the r u r a l community development movement in India:
1. national setting; 2. organization of the programme at s t a t e and national
levels; 3. activities and problems at local o r village levels, and 4. ideology.

K OCK, W ./ Wandlungen landwirtschaftlicher Beratung in Indien. Z . Ausl.

Landw., 3 (1964) 2 : 121-132.
The National Extension and Community Development P r o g r a m m e in India
did not contribute sufficiently t o an i n c r e a s e of food production which depends
principally on yield i n c r e a s e . This has led t o t h e introduction of the Intensive
Agricultural District P r o g r a m m e , through which better agricultural p r a c t i c e s
a r e gradually introduced i n a limited number of d i s t r i c t s . The principles,
prospects, working methods and r e s u l t s of this programme a r e discussed.
The r e s u l t s s o far a r e encouraging. Lack of extension officers and of an
administration adapted t o t h e programme a r e limiting f a c t o r s (WAERSA
1966 -850).

L E C L E R C , J . / Rapport au Gouvernement des Iles C o m a r e s s u r l a

vulgarisation agricole aux Iles C o m a r e s . EPTA Rep. No. 1830, FAO, Rome,
1964. 40 pp.
A description of the existing s e r v i c e and recommendations f o r an improve-
ment.

Some t h o u g h t s on agricultural extension methods and community development

p r o g r a m m e s i n India. Information Booklet, Dept. of Agriculture, Mysore, 6
(1959) : 1-56.
Subject -matters: Indian five y e a r plans; extension is education f o r life;
extension methods; programme planning, and t h e village extension worker
in India.

TA T SUN O, T . and R. KA N E K E / Agricultural extension i n Japan.

Agriculture, F o r e s t r y and F i s h e r i e s Productivity Conference, Tokyo. FAO,
Rome, 1958. 46 pp.
A s h o r t description of t h e agricultural extension s e r v i c e in Japan.

WALLIS, €I. / Community development in Serawak. Commun. Dev. J . , 1

(1966) 1 : 12-15.
A distinction is made between indigenous community development and
community development with "outside" help (WAERSA 1 9 6 6 -1930).

88
AFRICA

A g r i c u 1t u r e extension s e r v i c e in Ethiopia. / Rep. Econ. Condit. Market

Trends, 57 (1963) : 9 - 1 3 .
A number of 110 agricultural extension agents and about 200 community
development o f f i c e r s and t e a c h e r s a r e working at present in Ethiopia.
Since both export and non-export c r o p s are mostly based on s m a l l -scale
agriculture, the Extension Service, in connection with an initial supply of
adequate credit facilities, is mainly engaged in distributing better s e e d s ,
selected livestock and improved agricultural implements and tools among
the s m a l l f a r m e r s . Cooperatives a r e being organized and community
leadership is encouraged. The extension agents come f r o m t h e agricultural
schools of Ambo and Jinna, t h e s u p e r v i s o r s a r e graduates of Alemaya
Agricultural College. I n - s e r v i c e -training is given at the training c e n t r e at
Debre Zeit (Tropical Abstracts 1964 -228).

A R IBSA L A , T .S.B . / The f a r m settlement s c h e m e in Western Nigeria.

Report of t h e Cocoa Conference, London 12-14 Sept. 1961, London, 1 9 6 2 : 102-107.
Education is indispensable t o development. T h e problem is, however, how
to make farming attractive t o t h e educated. The solution is sought in t h e
establishment of f a r m settlements occupying about 2000 ha and designed t o
hold 150 -200 f a r m e r s ; 13 of t h e s e settlements a r e already in operation.
Selected candidates a r e f i r s t given a training c o u r s e of one t o two y e a r s in
one of t h e five f a r m institutes. They will then e n t e r a settlement. During
the f i r s t y e a r s they will work communally and under supervision, while
credit is provided t o give t h e m a suitable iucome. After this period, t h e
s e t t l e r s a r e allocated t o t h e i r individual f a r m s and houses; they a r e allowed
t o m a r r y , and training facilities will be provicied f o r t h e i r wives (WAERSA
1962 - 1 9 3 2 ) .

HAPGOOD, D. / R u r a l animation in Senegal. Int. Dev. Rev., (1964) 3 :

15-18.
The technique of " r u r a l animation" was evolved by a s m a l l international
(largely F r e n c h ) organization, 1'Institut de Recherche et Application des
Methodes de Developpement (IRAIVI), as a means of getting illiterate,
traditional societies t o change t h e i r attitudes towards new o r improved
institutions within t h e s o c i a l environment, and it is based on IRAM's conten-
tion that peasants in traditional societies will not change t h e i r methods until
they change t h e i r wider attitudes towards life and society. In Senegal,
animation has concentrated i t s main efforts t o date on organizing human
investment and cooperatives, and human investment p r o g r a m m e s t o build

89
 roads and small irrigation works have been attempted with varying success.
The author concludes that, though the technique of r u r a l animation is highly
promising, certain political b a r r i e r s higher up the social scale must be
broken, and in many of the developing countries such a s Senegal the basic
decision r e s t s with the,ruling Blites (WAERSA 1965 -2023).

.
L Y N N , C h . W / Agricultural extension and advisory work with special
reference to the colonies. A report on a tour made in 1947 to study agricultural
extension and advisory work in East and West Africa, England, Canada, USA
and Puerto Rico. London, 1949.
Definitions and aims of extension programme planning.

PENDE R S , J. M . A ./ Compte rendu de l a vulgarisation agricole en Tunesie.

The-Hague, 1961. 22 pp.

R e p o r t on the Agricultural Extension Development Centre for East, Central

and Southern Africa. FAO, Rome, 1962.

SA NT O Y , P . d u / Community development programmes in Nigeria, Ghana

and S i e r r a Leone. DBveloppement et Civilisations, 21 (1965) : 25 -31.
Sierra Leone is considered to be the weakest of the three countries in its
development programme, largely because of inadequate finance and
coordination, leading to poor coverage and a lack of concentration of effort
of the various agencies which could be involved. Ghana is the strongest,
but is still largely pursuing the same policies a s it has done for some y e a r s
with perhaps a greater coverage and more attention to establishing local
committees at the village level. The more "orthodox" socially oriented
community development in Nigeria had not developed in Ghana; radical new
plans have therefore been prepared in which the emphasis is laid on the r u r a l
r u r a l economy (WAERSA 1966 -2969).

S E LA S S I E , S .G, /
Das Community Development Training and Demonstration
Centre in Awasa (Athiopien). Z . ausl. Landw., 5 (1966) : 143-148.
This centre, the only one of its type in Ethiopia, was established in 1961
with the aims to: 1. train staff, 2 . get a research centre f o r community
development and i t s application to Ethiopia; 3. improve the living standard
of the Awasa population; 4. get a training centre f o r ministerial experts on
development programmes. The centre has a two and one -year-pre-service
training for men and women respectively, and refresher courses. Organiza-
tion and teaching curricula a r e presented. The duties of the centre staff
include extension work in the surrounding villages (WAERSA 1966 -4052).

90
T A J I M A, /
Report on agricultural education and training in Liberia; f o r
S.
UNESCO educational planning mission Rome, 1963. 27 pp.

V IGU IE R, P. / L'Afrique de l'ouest vue par un agriculteur. ProblCmes de

base en Afrique tropicale. La Maison Rustique, P a r i s , 1961. 133 pp.
Introduction into agricultural development in West Africa. The first section
deals with the place of agriculture and emphasizes the need to increase
agricultural production. In the second part a description follows the t r a d i -
tional system of agriculture. The third section enumerates the main prob-
l e m s of West African agriculture and suggests how they can be solved. In
the fourth part the author t r e a t s the whole question of r u r a l development in
its wider aspects, its aims, the methods which it employs, and the contribu-
tion which can be made by technical assistance programmes and carefully
chosen schemes of foreign aid. Ten points a r e given which must be observed
if technical assistance is t o be effective.

CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMXRICA

CHENA -GONZALES, R. / Perceptions of extension work in Mexico.

D i s s . Cornel1 Univ. 1963, 228 pp. Diss. Abstracts Ann Arbar, Mich. 24 (1964)
8 : 3190.
The findings indicated that the different statistical groups of the study
(extension agents, extension supervisors, experimentalists, r e s e a r c h
l e a d e r s and professors) agreed that the specific objective of the extension
service should be t o concentrate i t s effort in promoting among f a r m e r s in
Mexico a higher production of basic food crops. They disagreed, however,
about functions and training needs of extension agents. F r o m the conflicting
expectations it was concluded that the dual task of defining more precisely
the role and training needs of extension agents is urgent and requires
r e s e a r c h planned cooperatively by teaching, r e s e a r c h and extension
institutions in Mexico (WAERSA 1964-2822).

. .
D R I E L S M A , J A / De landbouwvoorlichting in Suriname van 1955 t / m
1964. Surinaamse Landbouw, 13 (1965) 1 : 12-21.
A survey of the reorganizations of the Department of Agriculture in Surinam
in the period 1955-1964 is followed by a description of the task of the
agricultural extension service and of the various measures taken t o modern-
ize and improve this service. In 1955 a home economics division and a
4 -Hyouth work division were added. The reorganization relieved the
officers of much administrative work, enabling them t o spend more t i m e on

91
 the training of t h e i r staff in subject m a t t e r and extension methods, and an
efficient planning. The various extension methods a r e briefly discussed.
They all a i m at attaining an independent, self-reliant peasant c l a s s . English
s u m m a r y (WAERSA 1966 -1880).

MA R Q U E Z , O . S . / Estudio comparativo de metodos de extensi6n utilizados

en Costa Rica . Turrialba, Rev, Interam. Ciencias Agr., 14 ( 1 9 6 4 ) 2 : 93-95.
A study was made to determine t o which methods extension agents attribute
m o r e importance in the diffusion of agricultural p r a c t i c e s in Costa Rica.
Results show that t h e methods most frequently used, and the most effective,
a r e f a r m visits, demonstrations and f a r m t o u r s . Radio and f i l m s a r e used
with s e v e r e limitations. C i r c u l a r l e t t e r s and bulletins w e r e thought t o have
little educational value (WAERSA 1965 -1 118).

NARANJO, G .E. / Estudio del Servicio de Extension de Ecuador. Thesis

Inst. Interamericano de Ciencias Agricoles, T u r r i a l b a , 1963, 172 pp.
An analytical study of the extension service, focusing on the knowledge,
abilities and skills of personnel. Results indicate that no staff member had
received a post -graduate training in extension, education o r related social
sciences! A high degree of staff mobility was discovered. The personnel
was found insufficient in number. It is recommended to plan s h o r t c o u r s e s
on extension education, post -graduate training f o r s u p e r v i s o r s and in - s e r v i c e
training agents. Effort should be made t o obtain a permanent staff
(WAERSA 1963-2526).

N a t i o n a l extension s e r v i c e s of selected countries in the A m e r i c a s .

Comparative extension publication number. New York State College of
Agriculture at Cornell Univ., Publ. no 8. Result of the Comparative
Extension Seminar at Cornell Univ., Ithaca, 1959. 71 pp.

P O S S I NG E R , H . / Die brasilianische Landwirtschaft und d e r Rural Extension

S e r v i c e . Z . ausl. Landw., 3 (1964) 1 : 33-44.
B r a z i l ' s r u r a l extension s e r v i c e was organized in 1948 on t h e U. S . model.
Each community has a t e a m consisting of an agronomist o r a veterinarian,
a t e a c h e r f o r home economics and a typist. Most important working methods:
visits, demonstrations, lectures, films, radio p r o g r a m m e s , field demonstra -
tions, excursions, exhibitions, etc. Planning and r e s u l t s a r e compared
continually. F e w s h o r t t e r m improvements i n farming and productivity
have been realized i n spite of t h e s e e f f o r t s . F a r m e r s , although willing t o
accept new ideas apply them only in r a r e c a s e s . But viewed f r o m the long -
t e r m angle, the extension s e r v i c e can be considered a valuable and promising

92
 instrument (WAERSA 1964 -1941)

R e p o r t t o the Government of B r i t i s h Guiana on cooperative development.

EPTA Rep., Geneva, B r i t i s h Guiana R . , 4 (1964) : 1-70.
A description of t h e development of the cooperative movement in B r i t i s h
Guiana is followed by recommendations f o r organizational improvement.
F i v e appendices t o the r e p o r t t r e a t the following subjects: 1. the i n t e r -
relationship of community development and cooperation and t h e i r potentiality
a s instruments of socio-economic development; 2. promotion and regulation
of cooperatives; 3. cooperative agricultural farming; 4. t h e Black Bush
Polder Land Development Scheme, and 5. a comprehensive s y s t e m of
cooperative education and training (WAERSA 1965 -3067).

R I B E IR O, J . P. / C a s e studies of subsistence and transition: the Acar

P r o g r a m m e i n t h e State of Minas G e r a i s , Brazil. Agric. Dev. Comm., Honolulu,
1965, 60 pp.
A brief description on the main physical, economic and sociological
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Minas G e r a i s is followed by a detailed account of the
ACRA (Association for Credit and R u r a l Assistance) programme, s e t up in
1948 by agreement between one s t a t e government and the American Interna-
tional Association f o r Economic and Social Development. At f i r s t ACRA was
m o r e a supervised credit p r o g r a m m e than an advisory s e r v i c e ; now i t is
mainly advisory and educational. Information is given on the staffing of
ACRA, i t s main functions, and the r e s u l t s of s o m e of its work to date
(WAERSA 1966 -2943).

S A M P E R , A . 1 Papel de l a extensi6n en el desarollo de A m e r i c a Latina.

Ext. Americas, 10 (1965) : 3-12.
T h i s a r t i c l e contains t h e text of an a d d r e s s given at t h e opening of a s e m i n a r
of Latin American p r o f e s s o r s of agricultural extension, held at t h e Inter -
American Institute of Agricultural Science, Turrialba, Costa Rica, in May
1965. A panorama is presented of t h e importance, r e c e n t development, and
problems of agricultural extension throughout Latin-America. Impediments
t o a better agricultural extension i n the a r e a a r e t h e shortage of highly
qualified personnel f o r teaching and r e s e a r c h ; t h e shortage of extension
o f f i c e r s at t h e field level; t h e bureaucratic c h a r a c t e r of many extension
s e r v i c e s ; and the poor integration of agricultural extension in t h e r u r a l
development projects of many Latin American countries ( T r o p i c a l A b s t r a c t s
1966 -1616).

R e p o r t on community development p r o g r a m m e s in Jamaica, P u e r t o Rico,

93
Bolivia and Peru, by U. S. International Cooperation Administration, Commun.
Dev. Div., Team no 2 . Washington, 1955. 76 pp.

SM I T H, T . L . / The process of r u r a l development in Latin America.

Social Science, no. 33, Univ. of Florida P r e s s , Gainesville, U. S. A., 1967.
85 PP.
This paper contains s i x studies, concerned with specific aspects of t h e
sociology of the development process a s it is going on in Latin America:
1. reflections relating t o the sociology of development; 2 . contributions
t o the study of the two r u r a l social systems; 3 . the development of family-
sized f a r m s ; 4. improvement of the systems of agriculture in Colombia;
5. a suggestion for r u r a l community planning in Latin America and 6 .
sociology and the process of community development.

94
METHODS OF EVALUATION

BAN, A. W. van den / The organization of extension evaluation. Soc. R u r .

Assen, 3 (1963) 3 : 281-292.
A well-integrated p r o g r a m m e of extension evolution should include basic
In o r d e r t o get basic r e s e a r c h , the
r e s e a r c h a s well a s applied r e s e a r c h .
r e s e a r c h worker should have much freedom and not too c l o s e t i e s with the
agency. F o r applied r e s e a r c h , on the other hand, supervised t e a m work
and c l o s e r relations with an action agency are m o r e effective. Some of this
applied r e s e a r c h can even be done by extension officers themselves
(WAERSA 1963-2530).

B EER SI H . W . / P r o g r a m m e evaluation in India. R u r . S o c . , 25 (1960) :

4 3 1 -441.
T h i s a r t i c l e annotates studies of the P r o g r a m m e Evaluation Organization
between 1952 and 1958. Evaluation is especially undertaken in agricultural
extension p r o g r a m m e s . Each y e a r , beginning in 1954, h a s brought an annual
evaluation r e p o r t , timed t o be ready f o r the annual meeting of State Develop-
ment Commissioners. The a r t i c l e ends with a l i s t of 27 publications of the
P. E . O.

Id. / Evaluation in community development. The Indian experience.

Int. R . Commun. Dev. 5 (1960) : 203-219.

E v a l u a t i o n in extension. U. S.D. A . F e d e r a l Extension Service, Washington,

1959. 107 pp.
A textbook on need and methods of evaluation in agricultural extension.

E v a l u a t i o n techniques. Int. Soc. Sei. B u l l . , 7 (1955) I, 3 : 345-442.

A review written by a number of well-known specialists.

E x t e n s i o n evaluation. Allahabad Agricultural Institute, 1957. 56 pp.

F R UTC HEY, F . , et al."./ Evaluation in extension. Div. of Extension,

R e s e a r c h and Training, U. S.D.A., Topeka, Kansas, 1959. 107 pp.
A textbook on evaluation techniques.

HAY E S , S. P. / Evaluating development projects, 2nd ed. UNESCO, Paris,

1966. 116 pp.

95
 Increasing i n t e r e s t in the evaluation of field development projects h a s l e d
to the second edition of this manual f o r t h e u s e of field w o r k e r s of which the
f i r s t edition was published i n 1959. The findings of 2 s e m i n a r s convened
by UNESCO at the A r a b States Fundamental Education Centre in S i r s - e l -
Layyan (Egypt) in 1 9 6 1 en 1962 have been incorporated. The book d i s c u s s e s
ways of measuring and analysing both t h e r e s u l t s of development projects
and the r e s u l t s of the individual operations comprising those projects. The
application of social scientific r e s e a r c h methods to t h e evaluation of extension
p r o g r a m m e s is discussed.

HESSE LING, P. G . M. / Strategy of evaluation r e s e a r c h in the field of

supervisory and management training. Diss. Univ. of Amsterdam, Assen, 1966.
359 pp.

LEV E G UE, A ./ Etude s u r l a march6 de l a vulgarisation Synergie - Roe,

P a r i s , 1961.
An evaluation of the extension s e r v i c e s in a country. A good example of
social psychological r e s e a r c h applied t o agricultural extension.

PARA SHAR, R. K. / Response of f a r m e r s to mailed questionnaires: an

analysis. AICC Economic Review, New Delhi, 12 (1961) 1 9 : 22-27.
The author analyzes in the a r t i c l e t h e response of 172 f a r m e r s belonging t o
34 villages to whom he had mailed questionnaires in connection with an
investigation into the economics of well-irrigation. P r i o r t o the mailing of
t h e questionnaires, the author had interviewed the f a r m e r s personally.
F r o m t h e analysis the author draws c e r t a i n conclusions regarding t h e attitude
of the villagers towards mailed questionnaires and offers suggestions f o r
improving t h e i r r e s p o n s e (WAERSA 1961 -811).

Pr O m o t i o n of work study in the agricultural and horticultural advisory s e r v i c e s .

OECD, P a r i s , 1962. 2 2 3 pp.
The r e p o r t d e s c r i b e s how work study can be applied i n f a r m management
work, in the future development of f a r m mechanization and in the design,
construction and maintenance of f a r m buildings. It s u r v e y s t h e develop-
ment of work in the horticultural and agricultural advisory s e r v i c e s .

W IC HE R S , A .J . / A manual on evaluation tested. Experiments in the

U . A . R . and in the Sudan with the u s e of P. Hayes, Jr.; Measuring the r e s u l t s
of development projects. Report on the UNESCO Regional Techn. A s s . Project
on the development of evaluation techniques, UNESCO, Paris 1964.

96
RESULTS OF EVALUATION

A C HA R Y A , H. / Some observations on community projects. Sociol., B 8

(1959) 2 : 19-31.
The Indian Community Development P r o g r a m m e critically examined.

B HA T T A C HA R J E E , J . P . / Agricultural extension inputs and community

development. Econ. Weekly, Bombay, 1 7 (1965) 5 / 7 : 293-298.
The c a u s e s of t h e subdued p r o g r e s s of f a r m production in India, particularly
in t h e l a s t t h r e e y e a r s , a r e examined. It is maintained, firstly, that inputs
have not i n c r e a s e d a s much a s expected, and secondly, that the r e s p o n s e of
production to t h e i n c r e a s e d u s e of inputs is discouraging. T h e idea of
integrated development in community development is not at fault; the weak
technological base, poor supplies and under -staffing a r e the main r e a s o n s
f o r the unfavourable r e s u l t s of the community development experiment
(WAERSA 1965-1146).

COLDWELL, M. J . , R . D U M O N T and M . MEAD / Report o f t h e

Community Development Evaluat.ion Mission in India, appointed under the U. N.
P r o g r . of Techn. ASS., 23 nov. 1958 - 3 a p r . 1959. Govt. of India., Min. of
Comm. Dev. and Coop., New Delhi, 1959. 100 pp.
An evaluation of t h e community development in India by a few well-known
experts.

C o m m u n i t y development and economic development. P a r t I1 A : ECAFE /

FAO Agr. Division, Bangkok, 1960. 100 pp. A c a s e study of t h e Ghosi
Community Development Block, Uttar Pradesh, India.
The publication embodies t h e findings of an investigation undertaken t o study
the impact of community development p r o g r a m m e s on economic development,
particularly t h e development of agriculture. The extent of acceptance of
improved agricultural practices, changes in output, level of living and
capital formations, associated with community development activities in t h e
s i x selected villages covered by the Ghosi Community Development Block
w e r e studied and compared t o the conditions in s i x other villages i n a s i m i l a r
a r e a not covered by community development activities. The study r e c o r d s
solid gains from the angle of changing the outlook of t h e individual and
promoting an all-round development of village community, whereas in r e s p e c t
of improved techniques of production and i n c r e a s e in productivity the achieve -
ments a r e t e r m e d a s modest (WAERSA 1961-841).

97
D E SA I , A .R . / Community development projects. A sociological analysis.
Sociol. B . , 7 (1958) 2 : 142-165.
An examination of the Community Development P r o j e c t s i n India.

E v a 1u a t i o n of community work in Kolhapur. Artha Vijnana, Evona, 2 (1960)

4 : 263-270.
This paper is the concluding p a r t of the r e p o r t of a committee, appointed
by the Poona University at t h e request of the P r o g r a m m e Evaluation Organ-
ization of the Planning Commission. The committee c a r r i e d out a field
survey of the project a r e a and submitted t h e i r r e p o r t in 1957. The survey
h a s brought out the c r u c i a l r o l e of proper indigenous leadership in r u r a l
development work (WAERSA 196 1 -849).

E v a l u a t i o n of the G r a m Sahayak programme. P r o g r a m m e Evaluation

Organization, Planning Commission, G o d . of India, Delhi, 1 9 6 2 . 144 pp.
An evaluation of the training and follow-up p r o g r a m m e f o r It g r a m sahayaks"
(village l e a d e r s ) in nine s t a t e s and one union t e r r i t o r y in India. The p r o g r e s s
r e p o r t s on community development p r o g r a m m e s have emphatically s t r e s s e d
the r o l e of village l e a d e r s a s c a r r i e r s of new ideas and initiators of new
p r a c t i c e s . T h i s r e p o r t d i s c u s s e s various aspects of the I' g r a m sahayak"
training programme, c r i t e r i a f o r the selection of village l e a d e r s f o r training,
and content of the training scheme. Suggestions a r e made t o strengthen t h e
programme, the most important of them being the setting up of integrated
training camps of longer duration in all s t a t e s .

F RA N C O , J . di / Some factors that do not contribute t o efficient o r effective

extension in Latin America. Mater Ensenanza E x t . , E E / 3 (1964) : 1 - 7 .
On the b a s i s of analytical studies conducted in 8 Latin American countries,
a brief review is presented of the f a c t o r s that minimize t h e effectiveness of
agricultural extension. The principal weaknesses recorded a r e : 1. lack of
effective supervision; 2 . inadequate facilities; 3 . insufficient extension
training o r preparation; 4. lack of technical subject m a t t e r specialists;
5. insufficient academic training of extension agents; 6 . the staff has no
experience; 7. the extension personnel do not effectively u s e the local
leaders.

FRANCO, J . d i and R . A . CLIFFORD / Analytical study of the extension

s e r v i c e of Honduras. Status Report 1 9 6 2 . Inter -American Institute of Agricultural
Sciences, T u r r i a l b a , 1 9 6 2 . 17 pp.
A follow-up analysis on the recommendation made in a previous r e p o r t on
Honduras extension s e r v i c e s . An evaluation is made, a y e a r after submitting

98
 the first report, of the work achieved in implementing each recommendation.
Much effort and attention has been expanded toward meeting the recommencia-
tions. There have been sincere intentions to strengthen personnel and
administration.

.
G O R DO N I J / Problems of agricultural extension in the developing countries.
World Crops 1 7 (1965) 1 : 68-71.
Some pronouncements of the author: Generally, extension workers a r e
poorly paid, live in h a r s h conditions, away from good schools f o r their
families, away from the amenities of town-life and with little opportunity
to promotion. Hence the service is poorly fed with entrants of high quality.
The extension worker is very often young, arrogant, despising all manual
work and those who perform it. Defects a r e very conspicuous in India,
where bureaucratic incompetence, maladministration and mistrust has
reduced the morale of the village level workers to the vanishing point.

GUPTA, S. B. and S . B . SINGH / Impact of developmental activities on

technological changes in Varanasi district. Ind. J . Agr. Econ., 21 (1966) 1 :
154 -160.
The impact of community development programmes on the adoption of
technological changes such a s the introduction of improved varieties of
seeds, use of chemical fertilizers, adoption of improved cultural practices
and implements was investigated in 1962 -1963 in a sample in two adjoining
blocks which had s i m i l a r agro -economic conditions before the initiation of
developmental activities. A comparison of existing methods and practices
in block and non-block a r e a s is made. F a r m sizes and crop enterprises
a r e analyzed in tables. Considerable difference is shown between the
adoption of improved practices in block and non-block a r e a s . The output-
input ratio and yields per a c r e in block a r e a s a r e a little higher than in
non-block a r e a s , and this is attributed to the favourable impact of improved
practices (WAERSA 1966-4125).

HYMAN, H.H., G . N. L E V I N E and C . R . W R I G H T / Inducingsocial

change in developing communities. An International Survey of Expert Advice.
U . N . Res. Inst. f o r Soc. Dev., Geneva, 1967. 224 pp.
A study by the U. N. Research Institute for Social Development in its
programme of r e s e a r c h on methods and problems of social development and
planning at the local level. It gives the opinions of over 400 national and
foreign experts.

I
99
 .--

ISHIKAWA, S. / A r e J a p a n e s e experiences applicable? A study on s o m e

limiting f a c t o r s governing a g r i c u l t u r a l development in Asian countries. Nogyo
Keizai Keukyu, 14 (1963) 2 : 114-122.
A study of t h e problem suggests that t h e question of applicability is complex
and that the J a p a n e s e pattern of input in a g r i c u l t u r e would be relevant only
t o t h o s e groupings in Asia where the p e r - a r e a productivity is relatively
high. On the economic side, Japan’s experience was fortunate in two r e s -
pects; a high p r i c e - l e v e l f o r r i c e with a substantial long-run decline in
f e r t i l i z e r p r i c e s , while most of the rice-producing Asian countries today
suffer f r o m stagnantly low p r i c e s f o r r i c e without having the benefit of
declining input p r i c e s of any significant magnitude (WAERSA 1964-1189).

J A C O BY, E . €I. / Report on the C e n t r e on Principles and Policies of Land

Settlement f o r Asia and the Far East, Inginiyagala, Ceylon 1 4 nov. - 5 dec. -

1958. Expanded technical a s s i s t a n c e P r o g r a m , Report 1131, FAO, Rome,

1959. 125 pp.
Origin of the f a i l u r e of most of t h e settlement s c h e m e s in S . E. A s i a a r e
shortcomings of the a g r i c u l t u r a l extension s e r v i c e .

KAHLON, A. S. and S . S . G R E W A L / A study of s u b s i d i z e d i n s e c t pest

control m e a s u r e s . Ind. J. Agr. E c o n . , 20 (1965) 3 : 54-62.
In Punjab State (India) the s h o r t a g e of plant protection equipment was c o n -
s i d e r e d t o be t h e main limiting f a c t o r t o plant protection. A s u r v e y conducted
in 1963 examined the u s e of plant protection equipment subsidized by the
government, and identified the f a c t o r s that limited the popularity of plant -
protection m e a s u r e s . T h e s e f a c t o r s w e r e r e l a t e d to: 1. cost; 2. a v a i l -
ability of insecticides; 3. doubt as t o the m e r i t of plant protection practices;
4. lack of sufficient technical knowledge f o r c a r r y i n g out control m e a s u r e s ;
5. t h e s m a l l effect of control m e a s u r e s when neighbouring f a r m e r s did not
participate. P r a c t i c a l demonstrations in cultivators fields, adequate supply
of insecticides t o village cooperatives and cooperative action in combating
insect pests are important ( T r o p i c a l a b s t r a c t s 1966 -518).

L E P A G E BARR E T O, R ./ Evaluacion de extension en t r e s communidades

de Venezuela. Agronomica, Venezuela, 2 (1965) : 9 -13.
An inquiry into the educational impact of a g r i c u l t u r a l extension was conducted
in 3 communities in t h e State of Aragua, Venezuela. F r o m the r e s u l t s p r e s -
ented in t h i s paper i t was concluded that communities should participate t o a
g r e a t e r extent in t h e preparation and execution of extension p r o g r a m m e s ,
s t r e s s i n g educational a s p e c t s . P r o b l e m s s u c h as t h e relatively s m a l l
number of f a m i l i e s that s e e k advice f r o m extension officers and t h e l i m i t e d

100
 response t o recommended practices r e q u i r e thorough studies. More
attention should be given t o work groups, training of group-leaders, and
women and youth clubs. The number of extension methods should b e i n -
c r e a s e d and cooperation with t h e national agencies f o r r u r a l development
improved. Extension w o r k e r s should have the opportunity t o r e c e i v e f u r t h e r
training i n m a t t e r s connected with extension work (Tropical Abstracts 1966 -
1742).

MARTINEZ, V . G . and D . T . MYREN / Alcanceeimpactodelapagina

agricola de "El Dictamen" de Veracruz. F o l l . TCcu., Inst. Nac. Invest.
Agricolas, Mexico, 47 (1964) : 1-80.
In August 1957, a daily paper published i n t h e city of Veracruz, Mexico,
s t a r t e d a weekly agricultural page written by t h e staff of the Cotaxtla
Experiment Station. Nine months l a t e r i t s impact was studied by interviews
with 6 YO of r e a d e r s in the city, including 30 f a r m e r s , and with 11 70 of
r e a d e r s in r u r a l a r e a s including 100 f a r m e r s . F a r m e r s who r e a d t h e paper
were found t o constitute a special group mainly consisting of progressive,
comparatively well -educated landowners. Nearly all f a r m e r s who took the
paper regularly o r occasionally consulted the agricultural page; 70 70had
found at l e a s t 1 recommendation that was applicable t o t h e i r f a r m s ; about
one -third had no other s o u r c e of agricultural information. English summary
(Tropical Abstracts 1966 -1412).

P A R A SH A R I R .K . / Community development programme: a review.

Aerian Econ. Rev., 7 (1965) 4 : 489-513.
The Community
- gevelopment - P r o g r a m m e s e e m s t o have had a breakthrough
i n changing t h e outlook and attitude of t h e r u r a l people but h a s not been very
successful in setting the tempo of economic growth. This is because: 1. it
was never designed t o do s o according t o a t i m e schedule; 2 . the quality of
l e a d e r s h i p was unsuitable; 3. it s p r e a d i t s r e s o u r c e s and e n e r g i e s on a
huge and widely diversified p r o g r a m m e t o change the outlook and the way of
living of f o u r hundred million a g r a r i a n people. A six-point p r o g r a m m e f o r
agricultural development t o making the CDP m o r e effective is suggested
(WAERSA 1966-874).

P A T IL , R . K ./ Community development: achievement and f a i l u r e s .

Kurukshetra, 13 (1965) 4 : 5-6.
The author presents a brief review of the achievements and f a i l u r e s of t h e
Indian community development p r o g r a m m e . On the c r e d i t side, the p r o -
g r a m m e h a s focussed t h e attention on the needs of the r u r a l a r e a s ; a develop
ment agency has been c r e a t e d which a i m s at reaching every village; and a

10 1
 .--

network of cooperatives has come into being. On the debit side, however,
the development p r o g r a m m e is s t i l l a government p r o g r a m m e that has failed
to c r e a t e a genuine s p i r i t of cooperation amongst t h e r u r a l population owing
t o t h e absence of a suitable extension agency.

R e p o r t of the T e a m for the Study of Community P r o j e c t s and National

Extension Services. V o . I/IV / Committee on Plan P r o j e c t s , New Delhi, 1957.
I: 175 pp. 11: 172 pp. 111: 281 pp. IV: 114 pp.
An elaborate r e p o r t on the r e s u l t s of an evaluation of the community develop-
ment work i n India.

R e p o r t on t h e agricultural extension study t o u r f o r A s i a and t h e F a r E a s t /

Expanded Techn. A s s . P r o g r . No 892, FAO, Rome, 1958. 37 pp.
The main objective of the t o u r was t o provide extension a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and
s e n i o r policy level officials f r o m Ministries of Agriculture an opportunity
f o r intensive study of extension organization, at a l l administrative levels
in Japan, the Philippines and India.

R e p o r t on the s a m p l e survey f o r estimating the a r e a s brought under improved

agricultural practices in community development a r e a s of Punjab -Kharif, 196 1/
1962. Econ. and Stat. Organization, Gov. of Punjab, 1963. 77 pp.
Improved seeds, chemical f e r t i l i z e r s , and pesticides w e r e the t h r e e p r a c -
t i c e s on which data w e r e collected. The r e p o r t a l s o p r e s e n t s information
on the attitudes and opinions of cultivators f o r b e t t e r propagation of t h e s e
aids. The r e p o r t r e v e a l s that 63 yo of the cultivators w e r e beneficiaries.
Nearly 60 70of t h e total cultivators used improved s e e d s . Fertilizers were
used by 20 % only, and a very few made u s e of pesticides. The r e p o r t
s t r e s s e s the need t o s t e p up the supply of improved s e e d s through govern-
ment s o u r c e s (WAERSA 1964-1329).

SINGH, H. / Strategy on the agricultural front. Kurukshetra 10 (1962)

5 : 23-25.
T h e article evaluates t h e activities of the national extension s e r v i c e in
India. The arguments a r e based on field-experiments gathered in Uttar
Pradesh. The author indicates how the p r o g r a m m e -planning could be
improved.

T A J I MA, /
An evaluation of agricultural extension in Hokkaido, Rev. e d . ,
S.
Obihiro, 1961. 25 pp.

102
TA JIMA, S. 1 An evaluation of radio f a r m p r o g r a m m e s . R e s e a r c h Bull.
of Obihiro, Zootechnical University, S e r i e s 1, Vol. 3, no 3, 1 9 6 2 .

.
T A Y L O R I C . C 1 A c r i t i c a l analysis of India's community development
programme. New Delhi, 1 9 5 6 . 62 pp.

TEXTOR, R . B . ( Ed.) 1 Cultural f r o n t i e r s of the peace c o r p s . The

Massachusetts Institute of Technology P r e s s , M a s s . , U. S . A . , 1 9 6 6 . 3 6 3 pp.
Now that adequate data a r e available and the experimental s t a g e h a s been
successfully surmounted, fifteen s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s present in this volume
t h e f i r s t c r i t i c a l professional a s s e s s m e n t of the Corps p r o g r a m m e s over -
s e a s i n a variety of countries and situations. This book brings a series of
analyses of o v e r s e a s p r o g r a m m e s in selected host countries, with each
analysis written by an authority of that particular country. The analysis
presented h e r e suggests that the g r e a t e s t s t r a i n , conflict and responsibility
c e n t r e on t h e country representative and h i s staff. He must mediate not
only between P e a c e Corps Washington and the volunteers but a l s o between
the different groups within the p r o g r a m m e and the host country. In addition,
he must deal percipiently and protectively with the problems of individual
volunteers.

10 3
RELATED SCIENCES

RURAL SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

A B E L SON, J. I. / How opinions and attitudes a r e changed. Springers,

New York, 1959.
The book gives a practical s u m m a r y of the aspects of social psychological
r e s e a r c h , which have important implications f o r agricultural extension
officers.

Die A n w e n d u n g psychologischer Erkenntnisse bei d e r Arbeit d e r B e r a t e r i n .

FOrderungsdienst 1 3 (1965), spec. no 4 : 1 - 8 2 .
The following papers w e r e presented at a s e m i n a r organized by t h e Austrian
Ministry of Agriculture and F o r e s t r y and held in Vienna in June 1965: special
f e a t u r e s of the mental development of adults (K. FINK); applied psychology
in advisory work ( W . REICHERT); special f e a t u r e s of t h e mental develop-
ment of young people ( T . SCHROM); the effects of psychological difficulties
of f a r m g i r l s on work with young people in r u r a l a r e a s (A. WEIGL); problems
of the community and t h e family in r u r a l a r e a s (L. ROSENMAYR); group-
dynamics opportunities f o r i t s utilization i n agricultural advisory work
(M. HRUSCHKA); effective methods of advisory work and t h e c o r r e c t and
methodical ways of utilizing t h e m (H. HABERT); t h e methodical and c o r r e c t
ways of utilizing s l i d e s and f i l m s ( E . KRENZIGER); t h e concept of achieve-
ment in out -of -school-work with young people (F.LINGER); examples f r o m
home economics advisory p r a c t i c e f o r t h e application of psychological
knowledge (S. BAYER); t h e question of functional methods (H. RHEINWALD);
n e c e s s a r y conditions and points of d e p a r t u r e f o r fulfilling t h e educational
task in advisory work (H. SCHERMER); rationalization and intensification in
home economic advisory work (O. DORNIK); conclusion t o the s e m i n a r
(M, NEJEZ) (WAERSA 1966 -1867).

AR C E , A . M. / Sociologia y d e s a r r o l l o r u r a l . Inst. Interamericans de

Ciencias Agricolas, Turrualba. 1961. 131 pp.
This book is part of the Manual and Text p r o g r a m m e sponsored by t h e
Kellogg Foundation, t o provide teaching m a t e r i a l in Spanish f o r Latin
American university faculties of agronomy. It is directed t o t h e various
professional people who have a r o l e in r u r a l development. It gives basic
knowledge i n sociology f o r extension, r u r a l credit, home economics and
social workers. The book deals mainly with: social groups, r u r a l

104
 communities, population c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , qualities and function of r u r a l
l e a d e r s ; t h e p r o c e s s e s of socio-cultural changes of communication and
diffusion in r u r a l a r e a s (WAERSA 1961 -1545).

C HA U HA N , D.S ./ Relationships between technology and sociology in

economic growth. Econ. Weekly, 11 (1959) : 1709-1716.
The author points out that t h e r e a l problem why a considerable i n c r e a s e i n
agricultural production has not been achieved, l i e s in the s o c i a l and organ-
izational s p h e r e s .

CONSTANDSE, A.K. and E . W . HOFSTEE / Ruralsociologyinaction.

Agricultural development papers, n r . 79, FAO, Rome, 1964. 64 pp.
The f i r s t p a r t of t h e studies gives a brief s u r v e y of rural sociology a s a
science; i t s c h a r a c t e r and development, i t s place among the other behaviour-
ia1 sciences, and t h e nature and r e s u l t s of r u r a l sociological r e s e a r c h . The
second part d e s c r i b e s s o m e examples which i l l u s t r a t e t h e contribution that
r u r a l sociology can make t o t h e improvement of t h e economic and social
conditions of r u r a l life. The examples have been chosen t o demonstrate t h e
fields of interest, possible specializations practical significance, and t h e
working methods of r u r a l sociology (WAERSA 1965-1127).

EMERY, F . E . and O . A . OESER / Information, d e c i s i o n a n d a c t i o n .

A study of psychological determinants of changes in farming techniques. Univ.
Press, Melbourne, 1958. 132 pp.
The study contains excellent examples of s o c i a l psychological r e s e a r c h
applied t o agricultural extension.

ESSER, W . M. / Development of r u r a l social guidance in the Netherlands.

Soc. R u r . , 3 (1963) 3 : 293-309.
Agricultural problems can not be solved by advisory work in the technical
and economical field alone. Special attention should be paid t o social changes
with which the agricultural population is confronted. The subjects mentioned
a r e mostly r e l a t e d t o t h e p r o c e s s e s of industrialization and exodus f r o m
agriculture a s : choice of vocation, f a r m succession and inheritance, and
financial relations in the family.

F ERNEA, R. A. / Conflict in irrigation. Compar. Stud. Soc. History, 5

(1963) 1 : 76-83.
Within t h e framework of a discussion on the relationship between an
irrigation s c h e m e and t h e s o c i a l s y s t e m of t h e people involved, s h o r t
descriptions a r e given of the s o c i a l setting of t h e irrigation s y s t e m s in t h e

10 5
 Teotihucan Valley in Central Mexico and in the Daghghara Valley in Iraq.
It is explained why in the former conflicts over water appear t o be endemic,
whereas the division of water in the latter is subject t o much l e s s dissension
(Tropical Abstracts 1964-740).

J ON E S , . ./
G E Rural development and agricultural extension: a sociological
view. Commun. Dev. J . 6 (1967) : 26-33.
Increased agricultural productivity is a process of change. It can be achieved
through producing more without changing total cost; or output may be i n -
creased without an equivalent increase in inputs; o r the same production
may be obtained by the use of fewer inputs. A considerable amount of
changes a r e controlled by planning. The task of agricultural extension
services is t o improve the well-being of r u r a l people. To be effective, the
dissemination of agricultural information needs an adequate understanding
of what any changes involve. An important function of an agricultural exten-
sion service is t o act as a link between the scientific, political and socio-
economic systems of a saciety on the one hand, and the f a r m e r and his local
community on the other. Coordination with other agencies is necessary.

LARSON, O . F . / Contributions of r u r a l sociology research and evaluation

t o extension development in the United States. Soc. Rur., Assen, 5 (1965) 3 :
308 -332.
The development of r u r a l sociology in the U. S. A. a s a scientific discipline
corresponds in time to the development of extension work (advisory services).
Illustrations of sociological r e s e a r c h and evaluation of basic experimental
approaches o r programmes a r e cited. The direction of changes made by
extension has created increased need for sociological knowledge.

LOOMIS, Ch. P . and J . A . BEEGLE / Rural social systems. NewYork,

York, 1951.
A well -known handbook describing the social systems within the agricultural
populat ion.

L IK E R T , R , / New patterns of management. Mc Graw -Hill, New York,

1961.

MACCOBY, E. M., T.N. N E W C O M B an@ E . L . HARTLEY /

Readings in social psychology. 3rd ed., Halt and Co, New York, 1958. 674 pp.
The book contains among others, the following contributions: HYMAN and
SHEATSLY Some reasons why information campaigns fail (164 -173);
LAVIN; Group discussion and social change (197 -212);

106
 COET and FRENCH: Overcoming resistance to change (233 -250).

M E HT A , B . H . / Social experiments in extension projects. Ind. J . SOC

Wk., 23 (1962) : 53-56.

. .
ME Z E R I K , A G / Social factors in economic development of underdeveloped
countries. International Review Service, 554, New York, 1959. 41 pp.
A brief but fairly complete survey of the role of social factors in the econ-
omic development of developing countries. With regard to r u r a l develop-
ment some programmes for reorganization of agricultural production a r e
discussed. It is stated that the community approach has been by f a r the
most successful of the methods introduced in non-Communist countries.

M O S H E R , A . T / The sociologist in agricultural development. Rur. Soc.,

2 9 (1964) 1 : 18-29.
The author states that the basic question is not how society is organized,
but what stimulates change, not who visits whom, but what makes com-
munication evocative, not how stability is maintained, but how constructive
instability can be provoked, not what the norm is, but how the deviant can
be more effective, how aspirations and selfconfidence can be heightened.
What is needed at early stages of development is l e s s formal organization
r a t h e r than more. Change can come from persons, it can come neither
from natural resources, nor from capital, nor from social organization.
Sociologists must help by cognizance of the centrality of individual persons
t o the development process and not centre attention on the mechanics of
organization (WAERSA 1964 -2011).

N A I R , S . P . / Agricultural extension; its socio-psychological aspects.

Kurukshetra, 12 (1964) 1 2 : 12-22.

N A I R , S . P . / Social factors in the acceptance of improved practices.

AICC Econ. Rev., 15 (1963) 13 : 35-39.
A review of the work done elsewhere in the world on methods and processes
of adopting improved technology and f a r m practices and the relevant factors
associated with them. Traditionally accepted values and practices a r e
challenged by the new element of change sought t o be introduced. Adoption
of a new technique is not a single act, but a process with a s e r i e s of stages
in adoption.
Research studies in various countries focus on the importance of the
f a r m e r s ' social characteristics in the adoption o r rejection of directed
change, sponsored by external agencies. The basic factors that influence

10 7
 t h e f a r m e r s ' adoption p r o c e s s e s a r e : cultural background, f a r m e r s ' age,
education, f a r m ownership, f a r m s i z e and finally participation in formal
groups (WAERSA 1964-174).

O S T E R KA M P I H . / Gahuta, ein liberianischer Dorf i m Wandel. Z . Ausl.

Landwirtsch., 4 (1965) 2 : 136-148, 178-190.
This socio-economic c a s e study, based on direct questions put t o different
households in a village in the hinterland, revealed the following main changes
in the agricultural s e c t o r : 1. a break in the predominance of subsistence
farming; 2. t h e increased production of c a s h c r o p s ( s i n c e coffee, sugar
cane); and 3. demand f o r production and consumer goods. Changes w e r e
a l s o noted in t h e behaviour and attitudes of t h e population since the money
economy c r e a t e d new demands that can only be satisfied slowly. Now
agricultural employment is t h e r e f o r e spreading rapidly while the social
s t r u c t u r e of the village l a g s behind the new development; it is a l s o creating
social insecurity mainly f o r t h e old and dependent m e m b e r s of t h e l a r g e
families (WAERSA 1965 -2061).

PERK, A . / The labour pattern as a sociological aspect of agricultural

extension work. Neth. J . Agr. S c i . , 11 (1963) 5 : 378-386.
Economic development can be influenced t o a considerable extent by local
social situations, which often lead to what appears t o the agricultural expert
t o be unconquerable opposition. The labour pattern is an important element
of the social situation. Agricultural extension can only be effective when it
is possible t o estimate in what way and t o what extent the social situation
should be altered, s o a s to bring about changes in the economic attitude of
t h e f a r m e r s , thus making t h e m m o r e amenable t o the introduction of
reasonable innovations.

GRA B H U, P. H. / Social psychology of community development. Ind. J.

Soc. Wk. 21 (1960) 1 : 1 - 1 2 .

P r o b 1 e m e d e r Beratung. / Arbeiten d e r Landwirtschaftlichen Hochschule

Hohenheim, Bd. 26, Ulmer, Stuttgart, 1964. 214 pp.
Collection of p a p e r s . H. ALBRECHT's contribution on American adoption
and diffusion r e s e a r c h is followed by A . BUHLER's, analysis of frequency
and seasonal distribution of f a r m e r s ' conversations in connection with
demonstration and its implications f o r advisory work. H. ENGELHARDT
d i s c u s s e s t h e development of t h e F r e n c h s t a t e extension s e r v i c e since 1959
by describing the "Groupements de Vulgarisation de P r o g r b s Agricole" in the
Somme departmeat. Other papers cover t h e f a r m e r s ' r e a d i n e s s to accept given

10 8
 advice (J. HARIS), t h e psychological b a s e s of extension, with r e f e r e n c e t o
Lewin's field theory (E. HRUSCHKA), t h e u s e of models in decision making
(K. MEINHOLD), experience and methodology of a g r i c u l t u r a l extension
w o r k e r s (U. THOMAS) and relations and cooperation between the g e n e r a l
a g r i c u l t u r a l advisory s e r v i c e s and t h e rapidly i n c r e a s i n g advisory activities
of private f i r m s , s u c h as f e r t i l i z e r and machinery p r o d u c e r s and d i s t r i b u t o r s
(H. ALBRECHTS and A. ZÜFLE) (WAERSA 1 9 6 4 - 1 9 4 2 ) .

R OGE R S, E .M. / Social change in r u r a l society. Appleton-Century -Crafts,

Inc. NewYork, 1960. 490 pp.
An introduction t o a g r i c u l t u r a l sociology. T h e author is p r i m a r i l y i n t e r e s t e d
in a g r i c u l t u r a l extension.

R O L I N G , N . G . / Towards the inter-disciplinary integration of economic

theory and r u r a l sociology. Soc. R u r . , 6 (1966) 2 : 9 7 - 1 1 7 .

R u r a l social guidance in t h e Netherlands / Ministry of A g r . , F i s h e r y and Food,

T h e Hague, 1958. 17 pp.

SMI T H, M. G . .
and G J . K R U I J E R / A sociological manual f o r extension
w o r k e r s in t h e Caribbean. Univ. College of t h e West Indies, P r i n t e r s , Kingston,
J a m a i c a . 1957. 255 pp.
T h e authors a i m with t h i s book t o provide a g r i c u l t u r a l and extension w o r k e r s
with information about West -Indian folk organization, and about s u r v e y and
communication techniques and problems.

ST R A US, M. A ./ Cultural f a c t o r s i n t h e functioning of a g r i c u l t u r a l exten-

sion in Ceylon. R u r . Soc., 1 8 (1953) 3 : 249-256.

TINKER , H. / T h e human f a c t o r in foreign aid. Pac. A f f a i r s , 32 (1959)

3 : 288-297.
Most development p r o g r a m m e s have fallen s h o r t of t h e i r objectives. The
author r e g a r d s the main r e a s o n f o r t h i s f a i l u r e t o be t h e fact that insufficient
attention is given t o the human factor, t o t h e existing l o c a l s o c i a l attitudes.

TULLY, J. / New concepts in extension training. J . A u s t r . Inst. Agric.

S c i . , 3 1 (1965) 4 : 309-310.
Traditional extension methods a r e invariably effective in bringing about
s i m p l e changes in f a r m techniques, e. g. Rogos f o r DDT. However it io
advocated that new understanding and new approaches based on t h e findings
of behavioural s c i e n c e s , in p a r t i c u l a r sociology, s o c i a l psychology and

10 9
 education, are needed i n advisory work t o handle the m o r e complex and
m o r e important situations (WAERSA 1966 -1866).

Y A NG, H. P. / F a c t finding with r u r a l people. Dev. P a p e r 52, FAO, Rome,

1955. 1 3 8 pp.
An introduction t o the techniques of social investigations which can a l s o be
useful t o evaluation.

AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY

.
DA L T O N , G / T h e development of subsistence and peasant economies in
Africa. Int. Soc. Sci. J. 16 (1964) 3 : 3 7 8 - 3 8 9 .
T o understand the social implications of r u r a l African development, one
must f i r s t understand the relation between traditional social organization
and economic s t r u c t u r e i n primitive and peasant communities. Case
studies show that unsuccessful development occurs where an i n c r e a s e in
production f o r s a l e is not accompanied by technological and cultural inn-
ovations: traditional economy and society are forced t o change without
new modes of integration being formed and without sustained growth in
income forthcoming. Successful development r e q u i r e s eventually reinforc -
ing innovations in econorny, technology and culture which induce sustained
growth in income over successive generations, and integrate t h e local
community with the region, the nation and the world (WAERSA 1964-2916).

D R U C E , P . C . / R u r a l extension and the agricultural economist. Aust. J.

Agr. Econ., Melbourne, 10 (1966) 2 : 97-111.
The r o l e of the agricultural economist in r u r a l extension is discussed with
particular reference t o the changing s t r u c t u r e of extension, exemplified by
the development of private consulting s e r v i c e s and the changing orientation
of extension f r o m purely technical considerations t o problems of manage-
ment. T h e status of the agriculturist generally and of the extension worker
i n particular, is a l s o examined and it is concluded that the status of exten-
sion as a profession must be r a i s e d if the r e s u l t s of technical and economic
r e s e a r c h i n agriculture are to be utilized effectively (WAERSA 1967 -3226).

E R E S, A . / Der Gebrauchswert einiger bkonometriseher Methoden in d e r

Betriebsberatung. Agrarwirtschaft, Hannover, 1 3 (1964) 3 : 94 -97. English
summary.
Various planning methods have been used in Israel in o r d e r t o facilitate
the decision -making p r o c e s s in farming. Simplified programme -planning

110
 and l i n e a r programming have increasingly replaced traditional budgetting
methods and have both been used successfully. Successful application
r e q u i r e s close cooperation with f a r m managers (WAERSA 1964 -2253).

E T IE NNE, G. / L'agriculture indienne on " l ' a r t de possible". Collection

" T i e r s Monde", P r e s s e s Universitaires, 1 9 6 6 . 364 pp.
T h i s analysis of t h e Indian r u r a l economy, based partly on investigations
c a r r i e d out in Uttar Pradesh, Madras and Maharashtra, examined develop-
ment in t h e F i v e -Year -Plan, and the basic f a c t o r s of agricultural policy.
Doubt is e x p r e s s e d about the reliability of the available s t a t i s t i c s . The r o l e
of a g r a r i a n r e f o r m , community development, Panchayati Raj, cooperatives,
and the Package P r o g r a m m e a r e briefly reviewed and evaluated. Irrigation
is shown t o b e of p r i m a r y importance, but t h e l a r g e irrigation projects have
not fulfilled expectations, due t o inadequate organization of t h e follow -up.
Second in importance is t h e drive t o i n c r e a s e u s e of f e r t i l i z e r s , which is
limited by insufficient production and, poor distribution. Agricultural
development should be organized by concentrating labour and capital on
i r r i g a t e d regions where food production can be i n c r e a s e d m e r e l y by i m -
proving t h e organization of irrigation management, which will compensate
f o r t h e inevitable deficits i n the p o o r e r regions (WAERSA 1967 -2389).

F O G G , C . D . / Economic and s o c i a l f a c t o r s affecting t h e development of

smallholder agriculture in E a s t Nigeria. Econ. Dev. and Cult. Change, 13
(1965) 3 : 278-292.
The author concludes that t h e economic f a c t o r s a r e of g r e a t e s t importance
because they a r e readily identifiable and m o r e easily manipulated than t h e
s o c i a l f a c t o r s . Although social b a r r i e r s t o development may be overriding
in s e l e c t c a s e s , one can generally, at l e a s t in E a s t e r n Nigeria, find enough
economic motivated people t o a b s o r b the capital s e t a s i d e by t h e government
f o r agricultural development. T o date, economists and sociologists have
largely neglected t h e study of smallholder agriculture p e r se and concentrated
on t h e l a r g e r and m o r e spectacular settlement and consolidation s c h e m e s .

GROENVELD, D. / Investment f o r food. North Holland Publ. C y . ,

Amsterdam, 1961. 146 pp.
Special attention is paid t o capital investment which t h e author considers
essential f o r increasing food production t o a satisfactory level in t h e period
1960-1980. He e s t i m a t e s t h e amount of public investments which will be
n e c e s s a r y i n t h e next 20 y e a r s , taking into account t h e supposition that the
i n c r e a s e in production during this period will have t o be 10% higher than in
recent y e a r s t o meet the estimated food r e q u i r e m e n t s . The t h e s i s ir based

111
 on extensive s t a t i s t i c a l m a t e r i a l that has been obtained f r o m s e v e r a l leading
s o u r c e s , but which is however of inequal value, while information on many
places is lacking (WAERSA 1962 -1125).

NI O S H E R , A .T . / Interrelationships between agricultural development,

s o c i a l organization and personnel attitudes and values. New York State College
of Agriculture, Cornell Univ., Comparative Extension Publication Number.
Ithaca, 1960. 40 pp.

P OU R OS, T . L. / Agrarian r e f o r m and t h e development of agricultural

cooperative societies within t h e a g r a r i a n r e f o r m regions. Inform. Land Reform,
Land Settlement Co-op., 1 (1965) : 32-37.
The initial consequence of a g r a r i a n r e f o r m in Iraq has been a decline of
agricultural output, because t h e f o r m e r tenants could not cope with t h e i r
new responsibilities. In o r d e r t o ameliorate this situation, agricultural
co-operative societies supervised by government officials and a s s i s t e d by
extension officers a r e being established. Lack of trained co-operative
personnel h a m p e r s this development. A co -operative training institute
provides training at two levels f o r both co -operative and extension w o r k e r s
(Tropical Abstracts 1966 -735).

EDUCATION

BA R RA C L O U G H , S . / Land r e f o r m and education in Latin America.

In: Information on land r e f o r m , land settlement and co-operatives. FAO,
Rome, 1963. 39 pp.
Land r e f o r m will not be consistent with r i s i n g f a r m production in the s t a r t
r u n unless it is accompanied by immediate m a s s i v e efforts of technical
a s s i s t a n c e and supervision and general education.

B H A T A W D E KA R , M. V ./ The r o l e of education in economic development.

Artha Vijnana, 7 (1965) 4 : 285-295.
The general belief in the importance of education in economic growth s t e m s
largely f r o m t h r e e factors: 1. t h e fact that education is better and f a r m o r e
widespread in the advanced countries; 2 . t h e observation that a substantial
part of the i n c r e a s e in national income r e m a i n s unexplained after allowing
f o r the contribution of the traditional f a c t o r s of production; 3 . empirical
data suggesting that the r e t u r n on investment in education is considerably
higher than that on the investment in physical capital. H e r e an attempt is
made t o place education in p r o p e r perspective in the developing countries,
 i. e. by giving m o r e adequate guidance t o planners concerned with t h e c e n t r a l
problem of allocating the right amount of r e s o u r c e s t o education (WAERSA
1 9 6 6 -1848).

BOS E , J ./ Educational techniques in community development. Orient

Longmans, New Delhi, 1965. 246 pp.
The s u c c e s s of community development depends p r i m a r i l y on the educational
techniques it u s e s t o bring about t h e n e c e s s a r y social and psychological
change in the people. T h i s book deals with basic techniques a s group
discussions, talks, audio-visual aids, r e s u l t s and method demonstrations,
field t r i p s , etc.

CL E RCK, M. de / L'dducation des adultes en vue du ddveloppement r u r a l .

Rev. Sud-est Asiatique (Bruxelles), 1 (1963) : 1-50.
Describes a new approach t o adult education, with examples f r o m Vietnam.
The attitudes and actions of t h e educator and person being taught a particular
bit of knowledge o r technique a r e studied f r o m a l l aspects, a s a l s o t h e i r
natural and cultural surroundings and t h e i r r u r a l social group. Adult
education in traditional peasant societies is not only a question of teaching
people how t o r e a d and write o r r a i s i n g t h e i r level of education; it often
means substituting new information or techniques f o r o t h e r s which the
people have known o r used f o r generations. Some notions, f o r example,
on how t o r a i s e agricultural production o r protect oneself against contagious
disease, a r e not only new, they a r e "foreign". They may class with the
society's beliefs, m o r e s , o r s e n s e of values (WAERSA 1964-1927).

E d u c a t i o n and agricultural development / UNESCO, P a r i s , 1963. 6 2 pp.

In planning r u r a l education constant cooperation between educators, econ-
omists and sociologists is indispensable, s o that agricultural education
and training will be related t o the needs and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the r u r a l
social environment.

F L I E G E L I F . C . / Literacy and exposure t o instrumental information among

f a r m e r s in Southern B r a z i l . R u r . Soc. 31 (1966) 1 : 15-28.
Literacy and level of education a r e examined a s predisposing f a c t o r s in
exposure t o information about modern farming methods. Data f r o m 142
o p e r a t o r s of s m a l l f a r m s in S . B r a z i l show that, except f o r a n e c e s s a r y
association between l i t e r a c y o r level of education and reading of printed
f a r m information, these variables do not serve in a general way t o enhance
exposure t o information about agriculture. It is concluded that the influence

113
 of l i t e r a c y and basic education on the p r o c e s s of agricultural development
may not be direct. Quality of education, and t h e articulation of education
with available means of increasing economic productivity, a r e among t h e
f a c t o r s which should be analyzed to a r r i v e at a sound b a s i s f o r policy
decisions regarding investment in education in underdeveloped a r e a s
(WAERSA 1966 -2942).

GISSER, M. / Schooling and the f a r m problem. Econometrica, 33 (1965)

3 : 582-595.
An econometric analysis of the relationship between f o r m a l education of
f a r m e r s and f a r m income, concentrated on two main aspects: 1. the effect
of m o r e education on migration f r o m agriculture; 2 . the effect of education
on increasing f a r m productivity. Regression analysis fitted t o reduced-farm
supply and demand equations, using c r o s s -section data, t e s t the basic hypoth-
esis. Results show the migration effect, of reducing the supply of labour,
which overshadows t h e productivity effect of m o r e schooling on improving
f a r m income. Policy implications f r o m the study a r e c l e a r . A 10% i n c r e a s e
in schooling in f a r m a r e a s would induce a 6 -7% outmigration of f a r m labour
and r a i s e f a r m wage r a t e s by about 570. Cost estimates on raising education
levels a r e a l s o presented (WAERSA 1966 -1860).

HALMOS, P./ The faith of the counsellors. London, 1965. 220 pp.

HARMS, E. and P. S C H R E I T E R ( E d s . ) / Handbook of counseling

techniques. Oxford, 1963. 506 pp.
T h i s volume contains 36 papers of competent experts in specialized fields.
The editors have purposely limited the scope of this handbook t o counseling
in the field of human relations. The chapters a r e grouped under the heads:
1. children and youth; 2 . family and community; 3. employments and
vocation; 4. religeous; 5. special problems.

MOS E M A N I A .H. (Ed. ) / Agricultural s c i e n c e s f o r the developing nations.

American Association f o r the Advancement of Science, Publ. 76, Washington,
1964. 2 2 1 pp.
This volume contains the papers presented at a symposium held at Cleveland,
Ohio in Dec. 1960 t o discuss the r o l e of agricultural science and technology
in the acceleration of economic p r o g r e s s in developing nations. The twelve
contributions a r e classified according t o 4 main subjects, viz. 1. c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c s of agricultural s y s t e m s in emerging nations; 2 . r e s e a r c h t o devise and
adopt innovations; 3. education and development of human r e s o u r c e s ; 4 .
establishing indigenous institutions t o s e r v e advancing agriculture.

114
P r o v i s i o n a l r e p o r t on the s t r u c t u r e and orientation of intellectual invest -
ments in agriculture in relation t o economic and social developments. O. E . C. D . ,
P a r i s , 1962. 130 pp.
Important data on t h e c o s t s of r e s e a r c h , education and agricultural extension
in s e v e r a l countries and the relation between illiteracy and agriculture in
industrial level. It is concluded that intellectual investments a r e very
valuable in agriculture.

SIZER, L . M. and W . F . PORTER / The relation of knowledge t o

adoption of recommended practices. West Virginia Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 446,
1960. 1 2 pp.

AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH AND EXTENSION

BRUNNER, E. de S . / An overview of adult education r e s e a r c h . Adult

Education Association of Amerika, Chicago, 111, 1959. 279 pp.
Investigations on extension problems by education psychologists, sociologists
and social psychologists.

AR N O N ,I . / The r o l e of agricultural r e s e a r c h i n developing countries.

World Crops, 16 (1964) 3 : 20-23.
On t h e b a s i s of experience with agricultural r e s e a r c h in I s r a e l , the following
principles a r e considered generally valid: 1. local r e s e a r c h is indispensable
f o r any developing country; 2 . long-term b a s i s r e s e a r c h and s h o r t - t e r m
applied r e s e a r c h a r e both needed, they should not be relegated t o different
institutes o r t e a m s of r e s e a r c h workers; 3. r e s e a r c h on new c r o p s may
be equally important a s r e s e a r c h on existing crops; 4. communication of
r e s u l t s t o f a r m e r s of different ethnic groups should be entrusted t o extension
officers belonging t o the s a m e group as the f a r m e r ; 5. means must be made
available t o the f a r m e r , s o that the recommendations of the r e s e a r c h i n -
stitutes can be t r a n s l a t e d into r e a l i t i e s (Tropical Abstracts 1965 -282).

A r t i c u 1 a t i o n de l a r e c h e r c h e et de l a vulgarisation au niveau des s t r u c t u r e s .

Cah. Agr. Pratique Pays Chauds, 3 (1965) : 1 6 9 - 1 7 2 .
The theme of this paper is the close collaboration between r e s e a r c h and
extension s e r v i c e s n e c e s s a r y f o r the successful introduction of improved
farming p r a c t i c e s in tropical countries. In Madagascar and Dahomey a
solution has been sought by t h e creation of regional units in which both
s e r v i c e s participate. A regional experiment station, a network of t r i a l
fields under the supervision of a r e s e a r c h officer, a s well a s a s e r i e s of

115
 s i m p l e t r i a l s on f a r m e r s fields chosen and supervised by the extension staff,
lay the foundation f o r the t a s k of the extension s e r v i c e in popularizing the
d e s i r e d improvements. An important t a s k f o r t h e r e s e a r c h officer is the
instruction of t h e extension personnel by means of technical publications,
a joint study of extension methods, and the discussion of experimental
techniques and r e s u l t s .

CO2 E N S , .
L . E / Production economics, averages and standards in r e s e a r c h
and extension. Mest. J. Agric. Econ., 9 (1965) 2 : 111-128.
Though theoretically desirable, production functions a r e difficult both t o
obtain and t o u s e . F a r m standards have generally been the main vehicle
f o r giving f a r m management advice, despite t h e i r defects. This a r t i c l e
puts an argument f o r standards but concludes that m o r e effort can be made
t o u s e standards derived f r o m mathematically defined production functions
(WAERSA 196 6 -20 11).

F O R BE S I A . P. S . / Relations between extension and r e s e a r c h s e r v i c e s i n

Tanganyika. Dept. of Tuku. Coop. Misc. 2, London, 1 9 6 2 . 74-75 pp.
Although t h e r e is f o r m a l division between extension and r e s e a r c h s o u r c e s
i n Tanganyika, t h e s e frequently overlap. This paper d e s c r i b e s t h e harmon -
ious relations that have been established between specialists and extension
w o r k e r s (WAERSA 1963-2521).

L i a i s o n s e n t r e r e c h e r c h e et vulgarisation. Cah. Agr. Pratique Pays Chauds,

l ( 1 9 6 5 ) : 55-58.
In o r d e r to promote the adoption of the r e s u l t s of r e s e a r c h in the r u r a l
milieu, collaboration between r e s e a r c h and extension s e r v i c e s must be
strengthened. To r e a c h this goal, the specialized institutions i n the F r e n c h
speaking countries of Africa and in Madagascar, such a s IRAT (Institute f o r
R e s e a r c h on Tropical Agronomy and Food Crops) have decentralized agron-
omic r e s e a r c h t o the level of t h e agro-economic regions, and c r e a t e d
regional units f o r experimentation and field r e s e a r c h . The t a s k of t h e
r e s e a r c h worker in the decentralized stations is r a t h e r s i m i l a r t o that of
the consultant.

.
M O N T G O M E R Y , G / F a r m management r e s e a r c h and agricultural
development in India. Illinois a g r i c . Econ. Urbana. 4 (1964) 3 : 3 8 - 4 5 .
R e s e a r c h t a s k s f o r f a r m management in low -income countries a r e identified
on t h e b a s i s of experience in India. The focus in t h e paper is on the persons
responsible f o r such identification, the extent and nature of needed f a r m
management r e s e a r c h and the responsibilities of t e a c h e r s in U. S . land

116
 grant universities (WAERSA 1965 -1008).

S U B R A MA N I A M , .
C / F a r m management and accelerated agricultural
growth. F m . Mgmt. Notes, A s i a F a r East, 2 (1966) 2 : 1-4.
The r o l e of f a r m management r e s e a r c h and extension work in India is briefly
reviewed. An important field f o r f u r t h e r investigation is t h e p r o c e s s of
decision-making of t h e f a r m e r . T o meet agricultural s h o r t a g e s p r o g r a m m e s
have been given a new orientation and s t r e s s has been laid on encouraging
the adoption of physical inputs in an integrated manner, i. e. new varieties,
with intensive f e r t i l i z e r application, plant protection etc. This involves
g r e a t e r r i s k f o r the s m a l l cultivator with h i s s c a r c e r e s o u r c e s and it is
important f o r economists and management experts t o evaluate t h e economics
of such m e a s u r e s in t e r m s relevant t o t h e s m a l l cultivator with t h e help of
related disciplines like agronomy, sociology and psychology. The develop-
ment of extension work and t h e teaching of f a r m management at agricultural
institutes a r e also problems t o which m o r e attention must be given
( WAERSA 1967 -66 9 ) .

VER V E LDE, G.J ./ Relationships between agricultural r e s e a r c h ,

instruction and extension. Rehovoth, (Israel); 1963. 4 pp.
Since r e s e a r c h instruction and extension s e r v e t h e f a r m e r best if they act
in combination; every effort should b e made t o integrate t h e i r activities.
Each branch has a part in t h e cooperation, it is not a n independent p a r t .
Each should be f a m i l i a r with the philosophy, aims, and p r o g r a m m e of the
others. The field of action should be dovetailed and probably somewhat
overlapping without duplication of t a s k s (WAERSA 1964 -1031).

117
BIB LIOG RAP HIES

B i b l i o g r a f i a s o b r e extension agricola (Extension bibliography). / S e r i e

Bibliografica, Institute Nacional de Technologia Agropecuaria, tom0 5,
Pergamino, 1966. 2 2 5 pp.
The 2420 r e f e r e n c e s i n this bibliography are classified under four m a j o r
categories: 1. general documentation; 2. specialized documentation t e a c h -
ing; 3. specialized documentation r u r a l sociology; 4. auxiliary documenta -
tion. It a l s o contains an author alphabetical index and a geographical index.

B i b l i o g r a p h y on community development. / Bibliographical s e r i e s ,

N. I. C. D. National Institute of Comm. Dev. G o d . of India, Mussoorie, 1962.
Up t o Sept. 1961.

.
B Y R N , D / Bibliography on foreign-based Extension Research; 1950 through
1962. Extension Service C i r c u l a r no 543, U. S. Dept. of A g r i c . , Washington,
1962. 44 pp.
An extensive survey of agricultural extension l i t e r a t u r e except t h e most
recent. 207 refs.

C o m m u n i t y Development / United Nations S e r i e s on Community Development,

U. N . , New York, 1960.
A selective booklist.

F R E I T A G , R . S . / Agriculture development s c h e m e s in sub-Saharan Africa.

A bibliography. L i b r a r y of Congress, Washington, 1963. 189 pp.
Agricultural development can be interpreted in different s e n s e s . The m o r e
important aspect f o r the purpose of this bibliography is agricultural develop-
ment which means the improvement of the cultivators' efficiency by teaching
them t o adopt m o r e advanced methods of cultivation. It contains nearly
1800 annotated titles, mostly between 1945 and 1962.

J A NT Z E N, C.R . and I . ISHINE / A working bibliography on community

development. Bibliographic series, Institute f o r Community Development and
Services, Michigan State University, no 2, Detroit, 1962. 33 pp.

Mc . C L U SK Y , F .D. / The Audio -visual Bibliography. Brown, Dubuque,

118
MY R E N , D T. ./ Bibliography. Communications in agricultural develop-
ment. Londres 40, Mexico, 1965. 101 pp.
The r e f e r e n c e s have been divided into eight categories. Each category is
made up of a basic l i s t assembled in 1963, and a supplement made up of
r e f e r e n c e s reviewed during 1964 -1965: 1. theory and c a s e studies in
economic and agricultural development; 2. p r o c e s s e s by which knowledge
is produced o r organized; 3. the economic importance of communicating
knowledge; 4. theory and r e s e a r c h on the t r a n s m i s s i o n of and responses to
knowledge; 5. experience and r e s e a r c h with r e s p e c t t o specific media,
channels and m e s s a g e s ; 6 . audience studies in newly developing a r e a s ;
7 . r u r a l s o c i a l change, the p r o c e s s and consequences of diffusion and adop-
tion of innovations; 8. organization for information transmission: extension
and information experience.

O b r a s bPsicas en communicaci6n p a r a el desarrollo. / Camp. by

J . D. BORDENAVE, Turrialba, Instituto Interamericans de Ciencias Agricolas,
Costa Rica, 1965. 125 pp.
This bibliography contains long, signed a b s t r a c t s i n Spanish of 38 books.
T h e s e books, a highly selected collection, have been chosen because they
a r e entirely o r partly concerned with t h e r o l e of communication, in the
s e n s e of transmittance of information between people, in the economic and
social development of nations and s m a l l e r communities. Several of t h e m
have a bearing on techniques of agricultural extension and acceptance of
new agricultural methods by the f a r m e r s .

R e v i e w of Extension R e s e a r c h . / Washington.
Edited annually.

ROGER S, E . M. / Bibliography on t h e diffusion of innovations. Dept. of

Communications, Michigan State University.
Annually supplement ed.

S e 1e c t e d bibliography on agricultural extension and community development

p r o g r a m m e s with emphasis on developing countries. National Agricultural
Extension C e n t r e f o r Advanced Study, Publ. no 16, Madison, 1962. 35 pp.
The 265 r e f e r e n c e s cited ( f r o m 1945 t i l l 1961) a r e divided in: 1. wide world
application; 2 . Far E a s t countries; 3. Middle and Near E a s t countries;
4. African countries; 5. European countries; 6 . Australia; 7 . Central
and South American countries. References are f u r t h e r classified according
to: books, bulletins, periodicals, and unpublished t h e s e s and s e m i n a r
reports. Some r e f e r e n c e s a r e annotated, but t h e number of pages is not given.

119
T H O MA S, U . / Bibliography on Agricultural Extension. FAO, Rome,
1964. 871 pp.
About 10.000 i t e m s on extension and r e l a t e d subjects w e r e chosen out of
m o r e than 100.000 publications, which appeared before the end of 1960.
Most of t h e m concern countries in Western Europe and North A m e r i c a . It
gives a l s o a n extensive l i s t of some 750 periodicals r e l a t e d with a g r i c u l t u r a l
extension, existing round 1960. Specially those written in G e r m a n language
a r e f a i r l y complete.

120
ABSTRACTING JOU R N A LS

African Abstracts
International African Institute. 10 /11 F e t t e r Lane,
London, EC 4.
Quarterly.

Sociological Abstracts
Sociological Abstracts Inc.
1 5 E a s t 31st Street, New York 10016.
Irregularly.

Tropical Abstracts

Royal Tropical Institute, Mauritskade 63,

A m s t e r d a m (Neth. ) .
Monthly.

World Agricultural Economics and R u r a l Sociology Abstracts

Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, F a r n h a m
Royal Bucks ( G r . Britain).
Quarterly.

121
PERIODICALS

Adult Education

Adult Education Association of t h e United States of America. 1225

Nineteenth S t r . , Washington ( U . S . A . ) .
Quarterly.

African Social R e s e a r c h

Institute f o r Social Research, Univ. of Zambia, Manchester. Univ. Press,

Manchester ( G r . Britain).

America Latina

Rio de J a n e i r o ( B r a z i l )
Quarterly

American Psychologist

American Psychological Association, 1333 Sixteenth S t r . , Washington

(U. S. A . ) .
Monthly

American Sociological Review

4 9 Sheridan Avenue, New Y o r k ( U . S . A . ) .

Bi -monthly.

Audiovisual Communication Review

Department of Audiovisual Instruction of the NEA, 1201 Sixteenth S t r . ,

Washington (U. S . A . ) .
Quarterly.

Behavioural Sciences and Community Development

National Institute of Community Development, Hyderabad (India).
Semi-annual, s t a r t e d in March 1 9 6 7 .

B r i t i s h Journal of Sociology

Routledge and Kegan Paul, 68-74 C a r t e r Lane, London EC 4 .

Quarterly.

122
Community Development Journal
2 2 Kingston Road, Manchester ( G r . Britain)
Monthly.

Economic Development and Cultural Change

Univ. of Chicago P r e s s , Chicago (U. S . A. ) .
Quarterly.

Etudes Rurales
Mouton & Co., Paris ( F r a n c e ) .
Quarterly.

Extension in A s i a

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.

Monthly.

Fatis
International Review of Agricultural Development, Published in English
and F r e n c h , OECD, Paris ( F r a n c e ) .
Quarterly.

Human Organization

Society f o r Applied Anthropology, Univ. of Kentucky Press, Lexington,

Kentucky (U. S . A . ) .
Quarterly .

Human Relations
Tavistock Publications, 11 New F e t t e r Lane, London EC 4.
Quarterly.

Indian Journal of Extension Education

Indian Society of Extension Education, New Delhi (India).
Quarterly.

International Development Review

Society f o r International Development, 1346 Connecticut ( U . S . A. ),

Avenue Washington.
Quarterly.

123
International Review of Community Development

2 P i a z z a Cavalieri di Malta, Rome (Italy).

Irregularly.

Journal of Communication

National Society f o r the Study of Communication.

Allan P r e s s , Lawrence, Kanses ( U . S. A . ) .
Quarterly.

Journal of Cooperative Extension

National Agricultural Extension Centre f o r Advanced Study, Univ. of

Wisconsin, Madison ( U . S. A . ) .
Quarterly.

J o u r n a l of Social Psychology

J o u r n a l Press, Provincetown, Massachusetts (U. S . A . )

Bi -monthly.

Journal of the Pakistan Academy f o r Rural Development

Comilla (Pakistan).

Kurukshetra

Publications Division, P. B. 20 11, Delhi -6 (India).

Monthly.

Man in India

18 Church Road, Ranch6, Bihar (India).

Quarterly .

Revue T i e r s -Monde

Institut d'Etude du DBveloppement Economique et Social, 58 Boulevard

Arago, P a r i s ( F r a n c e ) .
Quarterly.

R u r a l Sociology

R u r a l Sociological Society, Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison (U. S , A . ) .

Quarterly .

124
Social Forces

Williams and Wilhuis C o . , Baltimore 2 (U. S . A . ) .

Quarterly.

Sociologi Ruralis

European Society f o r Rural Sociology. Van Gorcum, Assen (Neth. ) .

Irregularly.

125