E3.

FRICTION LOSSES IN PIPES AND

FITTINGS

Abstract
This experiment aims to determine the effect of Reynolds no. on friction
factor of various pipe sizes and to determine the effect of volumetric flow
rate on pressure drop of various pipe fittings. Cussons P5160 Friction Losses in Pipes
and Fittings apparatus was used for this experiment. Pressure drops across pipes and pipe fittings
were calculated using a water manometer and digital manometer. The experiment was carried out
using four different volumetric flow rates. Reynolds no. can be calculated by the given formula
and the friction factor can be obtained from Darcy Welsbach equation for turbulence flow. The
results obtained were presented on logarithmic graph showing effect of Reynolds no. on friction
factor of pipes and effect of volumetric flow rate on pressure drop across different pipe fittings. It
was observed that with the increase of Reynolds no., friction factor of pipe decreased. Moreover,
higher the pressure drop, higher is friction factor. Pressure drop was observed more in rougher
pipes. A decrease in pipe diameter caused a decrease in pressure drop. It is also observed that
elbow pipe fitting has the highest pressure drop than the other pipe fittings.

1.0 Introduction
In chemical engineering, most of the processes deals with the materials in
their fluid form. Thus it is important to know how fluid behaves in different
conditions.
1.1 Fluid Behavior
Fluid is defined as a substance that takes the shape of the container
it is filled in due to shear stress that will cause it to deform
continually to reach some extend. Fluid flow behavior can be
classified by a dimensionless quantity known as Reynolds number.
Reynolds number is defined as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous
forces. It classifies the fluid flow into laminar, transitional and
turbulence flow.

Where, is density of fluid (kg/m3)

 V is velocity of fluid (m/s)
D is diameter of pipe (m)
And is dynamic viscosity of fluid (Pa.s)
1.

If the Reynolds no is higher than 4000, the fluid is defined to has turbulence
flow. In this case, inertial forces dominate viscous forces in the fluid.
Whereas, if the Reynolds no. is lower than 2100, the fluid is defined to has
laminar flow in which case, viscous forces dominate the inertial forces in the
fluid. The velocity gradient in the laminar flow is much high than the
turbulence flow. The velocity profile in turbulence flow is much flattened as
there is a very small difference between the fluid velocity near wall and fluid
velocity near centre.

When the fluid flows, there are always some energies that influence flow.
These energies in the fluid are normally expressed in the Bernoulli equation
which consists of kinetic energy, potential energy and head loss.
Bernoullis equation
v12 P W v2 P Friction
z1 1 s 2 z 2 2
2g g g 2 g g Loss

Where, v is velocity (m/s) Ws is shaft work

g is gravitational acceleration (m/s2) is density of fluid (kg/m3)
z is elevation of pipe (m)

1.2 Pressure Drop

Pressure drop is defined as the difference between the pressures in any
two points of fluid carrying pipe. Pressure drop occurs due to frictional
forces that are formed due to resistance to fluid flow and acts against
the fluid flow. The main determinants of resistance to fluid flow are
fluid velocity though the tube and fluid viscosity. High flow velocities
and viscosities results in higher pressure drop across the tube.
Likewise, lower flow velocities will result in lower to no pressure drop.

1.3 Friction Factor

Friction factor is a dimensionless quantity which is defined as the
resistance showed by the pipe walls during fluid flow. There are many
equations assigned to determine friction factor during laminar and
turbulence flow. As for laminar flow, friction factor can be determined
by

For laminar flow, the friction factor is independent to relative

roughness.
As for turbulence flow, the most common equation used to determine
friction factor is Colebrook equation which forms the basis for Moody
chart. For turbulence flow, the friction factor is dependent to both,
Reynolds no. and relative roughness.

1.4 Friction Loss

As mentioned before, pressure drop happens due to friction. An overall
friction loss consists of major loss and minor loss. Major loss occurs due
 to viscous effects in straighr pipes whereas, minor loss occurs due to
the presence of numerous components of pipe system like elbow,
valves etc.
Major loss
l u2
hf = f ( D ( 2 g (1)

(1)
where hf = head loss /(m)
f = Moodys friction factor
l = length of pipeline

3.
Equation 1 is known as Darcy Welsbach equation and is valid for
incompressible fluid flow and pipe is horizontal.
To obtain expression for finding friction factor, we need to know the
fluid velocity and cross sectional area of pipe.
Q
v (2)
A

Q = volumetric flow rate.

D
A=( 2 2

(3)

By substituting (2) and (3) to (1)

We can obtain expression for friction factor.
f = P 2 D5
8LQ2 where P = gh
L = length of the pipe
f = friction factor. Re = Reynolds number.
P = pressure drop

Minor Loss
The numerous components in the pipe systems like bends, elbows and valves can affect the the
velocity of the fluid. Minor loss can be calculated by
 2
u
hm = K L 2g )

Where hm = minor head loss

KL = loss coefficient

The objective of the experiment is to study the effect of Reynolds no. on friction factor
of various pipe sizes and to study the effect of volumetric flow rate on the the pressure
drop across various pipe fittings.

2.0 Methodology

Cussons P5160 Friction Losses in Pipes and Fittings apparatus was used for this experiment.
The following shows the experimental set up. 4.

Figure 3. Experimental set up.

The experiment setup consisted of four pipes. We only used pipe1, pipe2 and pipe 4 for the
experiment. Pipe 1 had 1 NB diameter and pipe 2 had 0.5 NB diameter. Moreover, right side of
pipe1 and pipe 2 had rough surface and left side had smooth surface. Pipe 4 consisted of different
pipe fittings.
First, the actual flow rate was calculated by recording the time it takes to flow 20 liters of water
using stopwatch. After that, the pressure difference across the rough section and smooth section
on pipe 1 and pipe 2 were recorded accordingly. The pressure difference across each pipe fitting
on pipe 4 was also recorded. The experiment was repeated using different flow rate with 0.6 1.0,
1.4 and 2.2 m3/h. In the case, of pipe 1, we used water manometer to measure pressure difference
but for pipe 2 and 4, we used digital manometer.

Job Safety Analysis

Sequence of Event Potential Hazards Preventive Measures

Switching on power supply Electric shock Hands should be dry or wear

Venting the air out of the
pipes.
Starting pump motor
Connecting the digital
meter to required tapings
The water may fall to floor
causing slipping.
Leakage may happen
damaging the apparatus.
Wrong connection causing
damage to the mechanism.
rubber gloves.
Put bucket below the
apparatus.
Circulating the water through
all pipes for checking before
starting experiment.
Inlet pipes should be
connected properly to low
and high pressure tubes.

3.0 Results and Discussions

I Effect of Reynolds number on friction factor of two pipelines.
Darcy friction factor and Reynolds number are calculated for pipeline 1 and 2.
The following calculations shows how Reynolds number (Re) and friction factor (f) were
calculated.
(Q=2.2m3/h for smooth region of pipe I)

2.2m3/h = 0.00061m3/s
Q 0.00061 m3 / s
V= = 2
=1.41 m/s
A (0.0235)
4
 kg m

=
VD
=
( 1000
m ) (
3
1.41 ) ( 0.0235 m )
s
kg
0.000894
m.s
= 37036.01

2 5
2
P D
5
( 10.9 c m H 2 O ) ( 0.0235 ) 98.0665 Pa
f= 2
=
8 L Q kg 1 cm H 2 O
( )
8 ( 1m ) 1000 3 ( 0.00061 )
m
2

= 0.000258

The results obtained are presented in the graph below.

6.

1)

Figure 4: Effects of Reynolds number (Re) on the friction factor for rough and smooth
section of pipe 1

It is observed that the friction factor in rough section of pipe is 5 times larger than smooth
section of pipe. The reason is that the pressure drop measured was higher in rough section than
smooth section. More shear stress is present in the rough pipe which causes more energy
dissipation and friction loss. So, the pressure drop is higher in rough pipes. The pressure drop is
proportional to shear stress.
Moreover, it is observed that the friction factor decreases with increase in Reynolds number.
This is because increasing Reynolds number is due to increase in volumetric flow rate. With the
increase in volumetric flow rate, friction factor decreases. This theory is well explained in
Moody chart.

7.

2)

Figure 6: Friction factor as a function of Reynolds number (Re) for smooth and rough sections
in pipe 2

The results for pipe 2 are same in that with increase in Reynolds number, friction factor
decreases. But the pressure drop in pipe 2 shows higher value than pipe 1. That is because with
decrease in pipe diameter, velocity will increase. With the increase in velocity, pressure drop will
increase but on the same time, friction factor will decrease.

II Effect of volumetric flowrate on pressure drop in various pipe fittings

The results obtained are presented on graph below.

8.
Figure 7: Effect of volumetric flowrate on pressure drop in various pipe fittings

It is observed that the pressure drop across 900 elbow is highest following bend and sudden
contraction. In elbow and bend, pressure drop is due to flow separation and sudden change in
flow velocity. In sudden contraction, when the fluid enters the small diameter region from large
diameter region, the velocity increases so the pressure drops faster. In sudden expansion, the
fluid enters from small diameter to large diameter, velocity decreases. According to Bernoullis
principle, pressure drop and velocity are inversely proportional, so pressure increases resulting in
negative axis.

4.0 Conclusion
So, from the experiment, it can be concluded that the friction factor decreases with increase in
Reynolds number. Small diameter pipes cause increase in pressure drop. Also, rougher pipes
have higher pressure drop. Whereas in pipe fittings, elbow showed the highest pressure drop due
to high energy dissipation. Thus, it must be wisely used in the design of pipeline. Friction factor
is an important term in the system design which provides the information about how much
energy is required to withstand friction losses in pipelines.
5.0 References
Cengel, Y. A., & Cimbala, J. M. (2010). Fluid mechanics: principles and applications. Boston,
McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Munson,B.R., Okiishi,T.H., Huebsch,W.D.& Rothmayer,.A.P. (2013). Principles of Fluid
Mechanics (7th ed.). USA: John Wiley & Sons.
Raju, K.S.N. (2011). Fluid mechanics, heat transfer, and mass transfer: Chemical engineering
practice. Canada: Wiley.
Pressure loss in Pipe. (n.d.). Retrieved March 28, 2016, from,
https://neuatrium.net/fluidflow/pressureloss-in-pipe/

9.
Appendix

Table 1: Results showing data achieved for pipeline 1 using water manometer
Smooth Section Rough Section
3
Q(m /s) P1 P2 Velocity, v P1 P2 Velocity, v
(cm (cm (m/s) (cm (cm (m/s)
P (cm P
H2O ) H2O) H2O) H2O)
Q H2O) (cm
(m3/h) H2O)
2.2 6.110-4 58.0 47.6 10.4 1.41 69.0 30.7 38.3 1.25
1.4 3.910-4 54.5 48.5 6.0 0.90 59.3 38.3 21.0 0.79
1.0 2.810-4 52.7 48.9 3.8 0.64 54.4 42.3 12.1 0.57

0.6 1.710-4 50.4 49.7 0.7 0.38 50.1 45.8 4.1 0.34
Table 2: Results showing data achieved for pipeline 1 using digital pressure
meter.
Smooth Section Rough Section
3
Q(m /s) P (cm Velocity, v P Velocity, v
Q
(m/s) (m/s)
(m3/h) H2O) (cm H2O)

2.2 6.110-4 12 1.41 44 1.25

1.4 3.910-4 7 0.90 20 0.79

1.0 2.810-4 4 0.64 13 0.57

0.6 1.710-4 1 0.38 5 0.34

10.

Table 3: Results showing data achieved for pipeline 2

Smooth Section Rough Section
3
Q(m /s) P (cm Velocity, v P Velocity, v
Q
(m/s) (m/s)
(m3/h) H2O) (cm H2O)

1.8 5.010-4 144 3.60 408 3.25

1.4 3.910-4 110 2.80 306 2.53

1.0 2.810-4 61 2.00 177 1.81

0.6 1.710-4 30 1.12 73 1.10

Table 4: Results obtained to calculate actual flow rate

Given flow rate Given flow rate Time taken to flow Actual flow rate
(m3/h) (litres/s) 20L water (litres/s)
(s)
 2.0 0.5556 29 0.65
1.4 0.3889 34 0.56
1.0 0.2778 50 0.39
0.6 0.1667 83 0.24

11.

Table 5. Results showing data obtained for pipeline 4.

Pressure drop, P (cm H2O)

Sudden Sudden 4 bends 4 elbows
3
Q (m /h) enlargement contraction
2.0 -22 54 128 266
1.4 -18 32 81 182
1.0 -7 19 55 106
0.6 -1 7 18 41

Table 6: Results showing data obtained to calculate Reynolds number and friction factor for
smooth and rough regions of pipe 1
Smooth Section Rough Section
Q Re Friction factor, Re Friction factor,
3
(m /h) f f
 2.2 37035.04 0.025305 34812.80 0.121791
1.4 23567.39 0.035546 22153.20 0.160931
1.0 16833.47 0.041574 15823.40 0.177618
0.6 10099.74 0.049943 9493.60 0.204159

Table 7: Results showing data obtained to calculate Reynolds number and friction factor for
smooth and rough regions of pipe 2
Smooth Section Rough Section
Q Re Friction factor, Re Friction factor,
(m3/h) f f
2.2 53540.44 0.029402 50863.37 0.106709
1.4 41642.32 0.037283 39560.15 0.132514
1.0 29744.20 0.041105 28257.02 0.150102
0.6 17846.07 0.057998 16952.42 0.178024

12.

This examination plans to decide the impact of Reynold's no. on rubbing element of different
pipe sizes and to decide the impact of volumetric stream rate on weight drop of different pipe
fittings. Cussons P5160 Friction Losses in Pipes and Fittings contraption was utilized for this
analysis. Weight drops crosswise over channels and pipe fittings were figured utilizing a water
manometer and advanced manometer. The examination was completed utilizing four diverse
volumetric stream rates. Reynold's no. can be ascertained by the given recipe and the contact
element can be acquired from Darcy Welsbach condition for turbulence stream. The outcomes
got were displayed on logarithmic chart indicating impact of Reynold's no. on rubbing
component of channels and impact of volumetric stream rate on weight drop crosswise over
various pipe fittings. It was watched that with the expansion of Reynold's no., contact component
of pipe diminished. Besides, higher the weight drop, higher is grinding component. Weight drop
was watched more in rougher funnels. A diminishing in pipe distance across brought on an
abatement in weight drop. It is likewise watched that elbow pipe fitting has the most astounding
weight drop than the other pipe fittings. This test plans to decide the viscosities of two liquids,
Glycerol and gelatinized starch and explore the impact of various shear rates on thickness of
liquids in various temperatures. The test likewise gave the model parameters of Newtonian and
non-Newtonian fluids. HAAKE rotational viscometer display VT550 was utilized to decide
thickness of both liquids. In a coveted temperature, the shaft was turned by the engine at a given
speed and torque to pivot the liquid. Shear rate was figured from speed of revolution and shear
stress was ascertained from torque. With these, thickness was figured for the liquid. The
outcomes acquired were obviously in that gelatinized starch had higher thickness than glycerol.
Gelatinized starch demonstrated the qualities of non-Newtonian fluid while glycerol
demonstrated the attributes of Newtonian fluid. The thickness of gelatinized starch diminished
with expanding shear rate however diminished with expanding temperature and the consistency
of glycerol stayed steady with expanding shear rate yet diminished with expanding temperature.
Gelatinized starch is a thixotropic liquid in light of the outcomes acquired. Two liquids, of
various beginning temperatures, course through the warmth exchanger. One moves
through the tubes (the tube side) and alternate streams outside the tubes however
inside the shell (the shell side). Warmth is exchanged from one liquid to the next
through the tube dividers, either from tube side to shell side or the other way
around. The liquids can be either fluids or gasses on either the shell or the tube
side. With a specific end goal to exchange warm productively, an expansive warmth
exchange territory ought to be utilized, prompting the utilization of many tubes.
Along these lines, squander warmth can be put to utilize. This is a productive
approach to save vitality.

Warm exchangers with just a single stage (fluid or gas) on each side can be called
one-stage or single-stage warmth exchangers. Two-stage warm exchangers can be
utilized to warm a fluid to bubble it into a gas (vapor), now and then called boilers,
or cool a vapor to gather it into a fluid (called condensers), with the stage change
normally happening on the shell side. Boilers in steam motor trains are commonly
substantial, for the most part circularly formed shell-and-tube warm exchangers. In
vast power plants with steam-driven turbines, shell-and-tube surface condensers
are utilized to consolidate the fumes steam leaving the turbine into condensate
water which is reused back to be transformed into steam in the steam generator.

To have the capacity to exchange warm well, the tube material ought to have great warm
conductivity. Since warmth is exchanged from a hot to a chilly side through the tubes, there is a
temperature distinction through the width of the tubes. As a result of the inclination of the tube
material to thermally extend contrastingly at different temperatures, warm anxieties happen amid
operation. This is notwithstanding any worry from high weights from the liquids themselves. The
tube material additionally ought to be perfect with both the shell and tube side liquids for long
stretches under the working conditions (temperatures, weights, pH, and so forth.) to limit
crumbling, for example, erosion. These necessities call for cautious determination of solid,
thermally-conductive, erosion safe, great tube materials, regularly metals. Poor decision of tube
material could bring about a hole through a tube between the shell and tube sides creating liquid
cross-defilement and conceivably loss of weight. (1)

Standard warmth exchangers especially made for overwhelming obligation ever with medium
weight ranges. The piece can be settled on with various selection of materials, all kind of mixes
make this sort of exchangers sufficiently adaptable to take care of any issue of liquids, streams,
even with high obligation rating. (2)