CHAPTER 1

F A N S AND BLOWERS
K. S. PANESAR
Houston. TX

INTRODUCTION
I
Pumps, compressors, blowers and fans all belong to the same family of niacl1:
called TURBOMACHINERY or ROTATING EQUIPMENT. Pumps can handle I ) !
j incompressiblefluidsviz. liquids while compressors, blowers and fans, on the oti
J hand, can handle only compressible fluids like air and other gases. These rnachii
can be damaged very easily if air or gases are pumped through centrifugal pumps
water etc. is pumped through blowers or fans. Most of this discussion will

i limited t o the centrifugal and axial machines, which are also called the const:
pressure machines as compared with the constant volume machines which are
3 aositive dirolacement machines. The oerformance characteristics of both are sho
in Figure 1.1.

0 l I I
0 50 100
CAPACITY (%)
Figure I . 7. Pressure-volume diagram for rhe cenrrifugal and
rhe positive displacement rypes o f machines. Capacity is uru-
ally specified in terms of rhe inlet C F M /at rhe inlet condi-
rionr) and the head in fee1 or pressure in PSI for compressors
and blowers. For fans, however, rhe pressure is usually speci-
fied in incher of water gage
 Most people, othe, than those lnvolved in the design or application o f the and when the term ( d m l d t ) is applied t o all the fluid in all the blades, i t becomes
rotating equipment, get confused i n the definitions of fan, blower or a compressor. Qplg; where
arid tise these terms interchangeably. A l l these machine5 can handle fluid flows

.
.
ranging l r o ~ na few hundred cubic feet pel- minute t o several m i l l i o n cubic feet per
rnrlutu. The ima111distinctton lies i n the amount of plessure generated b y each class
of inschine. Fans are supposed t o have a pressure range o f f r o m a fraction of an
the f l o w through the machine in cubic feet per second;
the specific weight in pounds per cubic feet:
the outer radius of the impeller:
inch ill water yage t o about 5 0 inches o f water gage, which is approximately 2 Psi. the inner radius o f the impeller;
Bloweus, o r the other hand, develop pressures f r o m 2 Psi t o about 1 5 Psi and the absolute velocity o f the fluid at the (lischarge:
pressures above 15 Psi fall in the category o f compressors. Compressors can develop the absolute velocity o f the f l u i d at the inlet;
pressures up t o several thousand pounds per square inch. Of course, extremely high the angle between the absolute and the peripheral velocities at the exit
preaures are developed i n several stages (wheels) or sometimes i n t w o or three and the inlet, respectively;
cases, each case having several stages. the peripheral velocity at the exit;
the peripheral velocity at the inlet;
FUNDAMENTALS
Now, substituting f o r ( d m l d t ) , equation number 1 becomes:
Most centrifugal {machines have a housing w i t h an inlet and an outlet. Inside the
housing is a wheel or an impeller which rotates and imparts kinetic energy t o the
fluid. The f l u i d comes i n at a pressure. P , . and leaves the housing at a higher
i
Ipiessilre, P-. . These inacliines will, therefore, always generate a constant pressure
differentiill whet1 operating at the same f l o w .
Thaovetic.?lly, the pressrlte~volurneline is supposed t o be a straight line, when
lhc! i l i s ~ : l i ; ~ i q !angle o n the I~ladesis 9 0 dcg~:ccs.The ideal pressure-volume lines for
disi:h;uge a ~ g l oloss than and greater than 9 0 degrees are as shown in Figure 1.2. I n
actu;~l prxtici:, however, this is never the case. They have a curvature t o them as
already shown i n Figure 1.1. The reason f o r this is that there are certain losses
within the housing: - disk f r i c t i o n (wheel friction). blade inefficiency, circulation
w i t l i i n the bl.ides. cfc.
Tile k i n e t x energy is generated b y the rota1.y m o t i o n o f the impeller and is
irnpa~teclt o the f l u i d moving through the machine. Each machine, in fact, each
~ m p l l e ris designed t o produce a certain pressure rise or (sometimes called "Head")
at a given capacity w i t h a m i n i ~ n u i nloss or, in other words, w i t h a m a x i m u m
efficiency, as shown in Figure 1.3.
I n oldel to undeustand h o w the head is generated b y an impeller, let us look at
Figure 1.4. F g o ~ e1 . 4 shows ~ a typical sectional elevation view o f hydraulic path o f
an ~ ~ n p e I i tw?lii.e r ~ d sFigure 1 4 b shows the same impeller in plan view w i t h inlet and
discharoe v d o c ~ t vt i ;males.
L e i 0 s . K S L I ~ L ' tIi;il ill t ~ ~ n'dt,'
e there i s a Inass 'dm' o f very thin layer of f l u i d
j;i!i, g.3~ or ltiliwcl) lc~iwfngthc impellev and a t the salne time an equal amount o f CAPACITY
mass of fiutd enters the in,pellel-. Thts change i n moment o f (momentum isequal t o
Figure 7.2. This figure shows the rheorericaipressure-volume curves for the
lnolnent of all the external foices i~nposedon the f l u i d contained between the t w o three differenr rype of blade discharge angler.
blades, Let T denote the m o m e n t o f external forces. Then T is given b y the
following equation:
 Horsepower Calculations

Once you calculate the polytropic head, i t is relatively easy t o calculate the
theoretical or actual brake horsepower as shown:
Just divide the THP by the polytropic efficiency t o get the BHP. In fans, however.
THP == w Hp/33000 (7) the horsepower is calculated i n a little b i t different form, which is shown below:

BHP = ,000157 X ACFM X S.P./S.E.

or
i
where BHP= ACFM X S.P.16356 X S.E.

w
lip
- THP and BHP are theoretical and brake horsepowers respectively.
flow i n Ibs per minute, and
p o l y t r o p ~ cefficiency i n decimal.
I n fans the discharge temperature i s hardly ever a problem because they are a
very low pressure ratio machine. I n blowers, and compressors the discharge
temperature can be very high, and therefore intercooling (between stages) or
aftercooling (i.e. cooling of the gas after i t leaves the machine housing) is usually
There is another way of calculating the theoretical or actual horsepower when required. T o calculate the discharge temperature, the following equations are used:
you do not know or d o not have t o know the polytropic head. The calculation of
head equation is very useful i n centrifugal and axial machinery because from this
you call deterniine the number of stages or wheels required t o get the desired
pressure o i head. For reciprocating cornpressots, o n the other hand, you do not
need to r.;ili:oliilu the lhcxi. There co~npressio~i is achieved in a cylinder, and if the A S is quite evident from the above equation, the discharge temperature va~lt,s
III<,SSIIIP I M I ~ O L ,1111 q111111higli YOL, .~tlcl.~dtlitioo:il cylindc1.s w ~ t i the
l desired pressure linearly with the inlet temperature ( T I ) , but more so w11h the pressura );111u
ttitlu is ,lcliievo~l.Thcis to calc~ilalethc horsepower, without the head, you must P I P . That's why intercoolers and aftercoolers are used i n the multistage
k ~ i o w or calculate the inlet v o l ~ i m eflow, called the ICFM (inlet cubic feet per centrifugal compressors, or reciprocating compressors. There is another way o f
nlinutc) or :also sometimes called the ACFM (actual cubic feet per minute). (They calcualting the discharge temperature:
both (mean the same). This is the flow in the machine at the inlet temperature and
pressilre. I f the process flow is given only i n terms of the pounds per hour, pounds
per ~niriuteor [moles per hour, use the following equations t o get the ICFM and
then finally the horsepower: Impeller Design

Basically there are three different designs used in the centrifugal machines, as

-
w : (Molesihll X (M.W.)iGO lbs per minute
shown i n Figure 1.5. I n the radial design, the fluid enters the impeller along the
SCFM (Molesihrl X (3791601 shaft, but leaves i n a direction perpendicular t o the shaft. I n the mixed flow design,
(Note: Each gas occupies the 379 cubic feet volume at stan- the fluid enters along the shaft as before, but leaves the impeller at some angle. In
dard conditions. (91 the axial design, however, the fluid enters and leaves parallel to the shaft. The radial
SCFM = Iw1M.W.) X 379 blades are used i n low specific speed range, mixed flow blades are used in the
ICFM =: SCFM X 114.7iP, I X I T , i 5 2 0 ) medium range and axial impellers or propeller design is used in high specific speed
range.
w h r ~ e M W , is the molecular weight, and 14.7 and 5 2 0 ' ~ are the standard Specific speed is a kind o f a dimensionless n u m k r used i n the industry to help
condit~ons. The blower and the fan manufacturers, however, use 6 8 ' ~ as the engineers and designers get an idea of the geometry of the machine they have to
staiidard temperature, instead of the G O O F . Let's call V , as the inlet CFM or the design. Machines having same specific speed are geometrically similar and thercfori
ACFM, the horsepower is given as follows:
you can predict the performance of the new machine. Specific speed. N 5 , is d e f w d
as the speed which will produce one foot of head at a flow of one CFM, a:,d
mathematically stated it is:
 Cliuprer I . K . S. Panesar Process Equipmrrir Series Volume 3

, 1 ,I,,, I I 11111
30' 1 1
DRAG PUMP
I 1111111 I 1111111 I I 1IIn-r
SINGLE- STAGE
- .
where: PUMPS OR
COMPRESSORS-
N, = specific speed -, -
-
Q = flow in cubic feet per second for compressors and GPM for pumps, ,MIXED FLOW -
N = machine rotative speed in RPM
Y
1 3 - A X I A L FLOW
-
I!
H = feet of head 0

0 I --
0.6 =
Y
The above equation is applicable to pumps, compressors and blowers but for fans OR COMPRESSOR
.d
D 1 NS=~#i/~3/4
-- oS; D H I / ~./ G -
the equation may be rewritten and defined as follows:
* 0.3
Q
H
FLOW, CFS
:HEAO,.FT
o :IMPELLER DIAMETER ,FT -
alL I I I 11a1tl I I 1111111 I I IIIIIII I I I 111111 I I 1~
where: 0.1 I 10 100 1,000 lo*
SPECIFIC SPEED, Ns
Q = flow in ICFM (inlet cubic feet per minute)
and P, = Static Presure i n inches of water gage.

For fans, the specific speed i s defined as the speed which will deliver one cubic Figure 1.63. NS - Ds diagram for single stage pumps and compressors.

feet per minute of flow a t one inch of water gage.

Specific speed, N, is related with another dimensionless number called the
10
Specific Diameter, D, which is defined as:
6
I TO TOTAL
n n a u o i PRESSURE B
rEXHAUST
TOTAL INLET PRESSURE
where: 'Iod-HEAD COEFFICIENT

D = Diameter of the wheel in feet

I
The above equation is applicable to pumps, compressors and blowers. The
equation for fans, however, i s a little different, as shown below: .6
FOWARD CURVED
D, = D P,"/Q~ (18) .3 BACKWARD CURVED

where: RADIAL BLADES A \ k&

' >4 1\dYw
I .6 .I2
D = D~ameterof the wheel in inches .I I 1 I
P, = Static pressure in inches of water gage
I 100 1000 lop00
O = Flow in Cubic feet per minute ! N
S
T1 (BI
The relationship between the specific speed and the specific diameter was
i
developed and presented by Dr. O.E. Balje, and is shown in Figure 1.6. The higher F w r e 1.66. Showing NE - DI C U N W S for single stage pumps and lowpressure blower,
the specific speed, the higher the flow and smaller the pressure or head and vice and fans.
versa. Figure 1.6a covers a wide range of turbomachinery viz. centrifugal and
positive displacement pumps and compresors. Figure 1.6b, however, covers just low
 1.1

m
0
0.8
[L
W
+
w 0.7 -
Z
-
4
0
0 0.6 - -
-
5
0
W
g0.5 -

04
' -F B H P z %CSFEMXX6 3SP
56

0.3-
FOWARD CURVED
BLADE

I I I I I I I l l
10 20 30 40 50 6 0 7 0 8 0 90 100 200
SPECIFIC SPEED (N,) , THOUSANDS
IC)
F i w r e 1 . 6 ~Showing
. the N, - D, diagram specially adapted for the fan industv. (Courtesy of American Standard)
 Procrrr Lquipmenr Series V v i u m e 3

Substituting the actual values of the densities o f each fluid at the same temperature,
we get:

Thus in order to convert inches of water to feet of Head, you multiply by 69.3

FANS AND BLOWERS

We have discussed the basic theory of the centrifugal machines and their design.
Now the discussion will be limited mostly to fans, blowers and exhausters. Fans are
used for a wide variety of application, in the petrochemical and chemical industry, Figure 1.8.
Steel mills, paper mills, heating-ventilating and air-conditioning industry. For fan Figure 1.8a. Vane-axial fan with the discharge guidevanes showing smoorh BN ROW
components see Figures 1.21a and 1.21b. Figure 1.86. Tubeaxial fan showing spiral air flow (no guide-vaned.
Basically there are t w o types of fans used in the industry viz, the centrifugal fans
which are low to medium flows and relatively higher pressures than the axial flow Radial Blades
fans which are mostly large volume and low pressure fans. This is a simple and a popular design which has many applications in systrl
Centrifugal fans are further sub-classified as: (see Figure 1.7) (Depending on requiring high resistance and low flows. The manufacturing i s relatively simple. T;
blade geometry). performance of this type blade is also simple, as shown in Figure 1.9a.
a. Radial blade Fig. 1.7a
b. Forward-Curved blade Fig. 1.7b
c. Backward-Curved blade Fig. 1.7~
d. Airfoil Fig. 1.7~
Axial fans are sub-divided into the following classes: (see Fig. 1.8) STATIC

a. Vane-Axial Fans Fig. 1.8a

b. Tube-Axial Fans Fig. 1.8b

Figure 1.7
-
Figure 1.78. Showing the radial blade desion.
Figure 1.76. Showing rhe forwardcurved blade. 0 50 100
Figure 1 . 7 ~ Showing
. me backwardly inclined blade end the airfoil design. VOLUME PERCENT

Figure 1.9
Figure 1.9a. Typical performance curve of a radial blade fan.
 .
:.
-
PRESSURE OR H E A D i%)
-.
i PRESSURE OR HEAD (%I
 The amount of the centrifugal force acting on a blade can be determined by:

where:
F = Centrifugal for in lbf.
4 m = Mass of the wheel i n lbm.
v = Tip velocity i n feet per second.
1 r = Radius of the wheel i n feet.
g = Gravitational constant i n ft-lbm/lbf-sec2

The above equation can be simpl~fiedby replacing 'v' by 277 r NI60 then equatlon
(22) becomes:

i The magnitude of the centrifugal force helps in the mechanical design of the
blades and their attachment t o the fan hub. There is another force that acts on thc
housing and that is the net radial force or radial thrust, due to the volute deslg~i.
Figure 1. 1 1 . Showing axial thrust an a single inlet,
There are basically two types of volutes viz. single volute and double volute. In ii
,~npeller
single volute casing, as shown i n Figure 1.12a. the radial force varies along the
periphery of the impeller at off-design condition, and the net resultant radial force
117 p w n p industry there are generally two ways to reduce this thrust. In the first
will act in a direction shown with an arrow. The radial forces are pretty much
~ix!tliad,l,olnwn!i rings or ribs arc providod to reduca th,: pressure (P,), but this
balanced when the machine is operting at the design point. I n a doublr:-volut~.
method uses a little more horsepowel. I n the second method, holes are drilled in
design, as shown i n Figure 1.12b. the radial forces are balanced even at off.drsiqrl
the back shroud, which reduces the thrust b u t also reduces efficiency. This method
is seldonl ifsed i n the fan ~ndustry.
f conditions. Actually there are two net resultants acting opposite to each other a r ~ d
are almost equal i n magnitude. The resultants F, and F, are shown in Fiyuri: 1.121,.
I n the axtal fails, the t h ~ u s ti s approximated by the! following equation:
I They tend t o balance out even though they are not eliminated. Any unbalancarl
radial force or load i s taken up by the radial bearings which can be either anti-
friction (ball bearings) or journal sleeve bearings.
I f there is any unbalance i n the center of gravity and the center of rotation of
In c e l ? t l i l ~ l p
fans, the thrust [nay be approximated as follows:
the wheel, i t would cause vibrations which are passed on to the bearings and furthci
down t o the foundations. That is why some manufacturers recommend that their
equipment be mounted o n vibration isolating pads. No matter how carefully the
dynamic balancing o f the rotor is done, it is impossible to have a perfect balance.
f,in total pressure in inches of water gage. The industry practice i s t o have the operating speeds at least 20% above or below
f a n static pressure i n inches of water gage. the critical speed. The shafts that operate below the critical speed are called the
\
Ttv diameter i n feet "Stiff shaft design" and the ones that operate above the critical speed are called the
Inlet diameter in feet "Flexible shaft." I n flexible shaft design the shaft has to go through the critical
Constant. If the pressure i n the fan housing is positive, then C = 1.0, but speed during the starting and the shutdown of the machinery. The critical speed of
if the pressure i n the fan housing is negative (for example, exhausters), a shaft is calculated by:
then C = 2.0
 Chapter 1. K. S.Pa~iesar Process Equipment Series Volume 3

N, = 60 fly
2n

1.i where:
y = Static deflection of the shaft in inches.
!
There are various other ways of calculating the critical speed of shaft, using
Rayleigh's or Dunkerley's method. Reader i s advised to refer to any text on vibra-
tions for these and other techniques of Calculating the critical speeds. Simple cases
of 'Overhung shaft' and 'Simply supported shaft' are, however, discussed below.
For a single bearing overhung design, the shaft deflection can be calculated as: (see
Figure 1.13at.

9
i
For a two bearing design, the shaft deflection is given by: (see Figure 1.13b).

Figurn I . 12a A typical single volute or a scroll showing the radial

forces acting at off-design point. Force F is the net resultant ect-
ing on the caring.

Equation (26a) i s for the case when the load acts in the center, between the two
bearings i.e. when x = LIZ.
i Sometimes there are other ways when minor or secondary vibrations are excited.
They can be caused by oil-whip, sleeve bearings, couplings etc. separately or in
combination with each other. Let us discuss each case separately.

a. Oil Whip
Most high speed and high load machines usually use sleeve bearings which are
normally oil-lubricated. The oil in these type of bearings sometimes forms what is
called oil wedge, which travels around the shaft a t about half the speed of the shaft.
I f this wedge speed happens to coincide with the shaft's first critical speed, the
shaft will start to vibrate. Once these vibrations get started, they will not disappear
even if the shaft speed is increased to about twice the critical speed. These vibra-
tions are very difficult to eliminate, but the following procedures may help reduce
them.
(1) Switch to anti-friction bearings. Figure I. 126. This shows the double volute design and the radial
forces which are balanced. Forces F , and F , act opporire ro each
other.

(21 Decrease the bearing length t o increase the load on the oil wedge and thus
reduce the oil-whip induced vibrations.
(3)Do ,701 the [machinery at twice the critical speed.
l ~ m
b. Slceve-Bearings
With sleeve-bearings small disturbances are transmitted f r o m the coupling, driver
or any other minor fluctuations w i l l easily produce shaft vibrations, since the shaft
does not have a continuous contact with the bearings. Sometimes these vibrations
disappear i f you reduce the clearances between the shaft and the sleeve bearing.
c. Coupling
These viblations are usually caused by either misalignment or are transmitted by
t h d~l i v w Even with the elastic couplings, i f the shaft runs above the first critical
speed. d slight misalignment w i l l produce periodic disturbances.
Fan Controls
Capacity control i s achieved i n several ways and some of the most commonly
meil mc~rhoclsof control are described below.
fiocess Eyuipmeni Series Vuiume 3
1. Inlet Guide Vanes
These are just before the air or gas enters the impeller. They are designed such
that the fluid leaving these vanes would match the impeller blade angle with a
minimum shock. This is an efficient way of saving energy, especially when the fan
has t o operate at reduced capacities. The variable inlet guide vanes are very efficient
and desirable when the fan operates at different capacities varying quite a bit.
2. Outlet Dampers
This is one of the most inefficient methods of capacity control. The inlet
capacity (ICFM) stays the same and the discharge capacity is varied by letting the
extra capacity t o atmosphere i f i t is safe t o do so. Toxic gases are either recycled 0 1
disposed of i n a safe manner.
3. Speed Variation
Variable speed motor drivers are sometimes used to handle reduced operatlori.
Sometimes steam turbines are also used, if the initial and the operation costs a t t i
justifiable.
Fan Construction
After the air or gas leaves the impeller tip, i t i s collected in a scroll or voluti:
which converts kinetic energy imparted by the blades. into pressure rneryy. A
typical volute or scroll is shown i n Figure 1.12. This conversion into pressuri:
energy is achieved by increasing the area continuously around the impeller. Thr!
inlet box is usually specified with the fan. As with any other air handling machinii.
inlet conditions are critical, a proper selection of an inlet box will assure proocic
performance. Even though the insulation i s installed in the field, i t should ii,,
specified so that the manufacturer can design the insulation attachment method ( > t i
the fan housing.
Materials
Housing is usually made of fabricated steel, which is used up to a maximum of
900°F i n a normal non-corrosive atmosphere. Above 900°F, stainless steels or high
nickel alloys are employed, especially when the atmosphere is corrosive or you are
pumping corrosive gases. I n low temperature but corrosive atmosphere or corrosive
gases, the wheels are made of FRP (fiber reinforced plastics).
Bearings
I n small sizes, single row ball bearings are used very commonly andXlhi:y 11,:
grease lubricated. Grease lubriication is satisfactory up t o about 2 0 0 " ~ .011
 Chapter I.
K. S. Panesar
lubrication is recommended above this temperature. Bearing cooling should be
considered above 300'F and also some sort of barrier and or cooling device be-
ween the fan housing and the bearing housing should be used. These air cooling/
circulating devices are called slingen or cooling disks. Usually above BOOOF, the
beaiing housing or subassembly should be isolated from the fan housing. ~ a n ands
the inlet and the outlet ducting should be insulated, not only t o cut down~onthe
heat transfer, but also to protect the personnel from injury.
In small fans with higher pressures double row ball bearings are used. In large
fans, say 1000 horsepower and above, some manufacturers or users may require
sleeve bearing which are oil-lubricated. The American Petroleum Institute Specifics-
tions No. 610 (API-610) for centrifugal pumps for refineries has clearly stated as to
when to use sleeve bearings. The same guide lines can be used for fans. The guide
lines are: (for use of sleeve bearings)
a. When the anti-friction bearings fail to meet the 6-10 life.
b. Where D.N factors are greater than 300,000, where D = bore in millimeters, and
N = speed in rpm.
c. Whenever pump rated speed times the pump rated horsepower equals or exceeds
2.7 million. Assuming the pump or fan is going to be operating at about 3550
rpm, sleeve bearings should be specified around 750 horsepower.
Some users are successfully using "oil-mist" lubrication system for the ball bear:
ings for their machines. I t has a central mist generating system, which supplies tiny
oil molecules carried by air under pressure, for the bearings. They claim to have
increased bearing life or reduced maintenance costs on their equipment with the use
of the "oil-mist."
The bearing life is usually expressed in terms of "6-10" life. Thissimply means
that only 10% of all the bearings operating under identical conditions would have
failed.
Special Considerations
High temperature is very critical for the rotating equipment's life and alignment.
For high temperature application, therefore, i t is recommended that the fan hous-
ing be center-line mounted as opposed to base mounted or foot-mounted, for ease
of alignment. In case of large equipment and also in the case of high temperature or
both, use of turning gear is recommended. This would prevent the large shaft from
getting a permanent set or bow.
I f you are pumping gases with some abrasive materials like sand, flyash, or
cement dust etc. the use of wear plates or hard-facing is recommended. With
abrasive particles in the gases, select fans at lower speeds. This will cut down on the
erosion.
Couplings
There are basically two types of couplings that have been used for years, viz.
Process byu~pmentSerzes Volume 3
gear type and the diaphragm type. Gear couplings for low speed applications are
usually oil filled or grease packed and can operate from six morlths to a year before
the oil or grease is changed. However, if the environment is dirty, the oil or greasc
may need changing sooner. The diaphragm type, on the other hand, has the advan-
e of no lubricant requirement and hence very little maintenance. They only need.
periodic check t o make sure that the discs, which are very thin, have not d e ~
eloped any fatigue cracks. There is another type of coupling that should be men-
tioned here, and that is the LIMITED-END-FLOAT type. As the name implies, tills
type just limits the motor rotor float. NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturer:.
Association) MG1-14.38, specifies that 250-HP and larger AC motors, when fitred
with sleeve bearings, have '%-inch minimum total rotor end float in the bearings (or
'/.-inch end float in each direction). It also specifies that the coupling should limit
that end float 3116-inch maximum (or 3132-inch in each direction. Limited end
float couplings restrict float by locating the rotor axially using the fixed thrusl
bearing on the driven machine and prevent damage to the motor bearings.
Forces and Moments
Fan housings are usually not as rugged as those of large pumps and compressols.
and the manufacturers normally do not allow any loads on the fan housing. Some
times you cannot help avoid loads imposed by the piping. Especially in high -
temperature cases, the loads due to thermal growth cannot be eliminated. In such
cases, you must consult the fan manufacturer and he may advise you to use flexible
connections (also called expansion joints) at the discharge end or at both the
discharge and the inlet connection as well. In the later case, you must, then, specify
that the fan be supplied with a flanged inlet, so that a proper connection with the
expansion joint can be made in the field. For a picture of a flexible connector, see
Figure 1.14.
COMPANION FLANGE -HEAVY DUTY
WlTH STUB PIPE BOLTS FLEXIBLE RUBBER
"FOR FLANGED INLET SLEEVE WITH
OR OUTLET CANVAS BACKING
ADJUSTABLE
CLAMPS
Figure 1.74. Showing flexible connecror for blowers and fans.
t The Air Moving and Cond~tioningAssociat~on(AMCA) Standards
[. The Air Moving and Conditioning Association has published quite a few sraii-
 Process fiquipmerrl Series V o l u m e 3

I ; .-
dalds for the ari handllng equipment, but here only a few important ones will be
dwxsscrl
cent i f u g a l
1. Spark Resistant Construction

The! AMCA Srandard AS-401, lists the following types:

a. Type "A" Construction - This states that all parts of the fan that come in
contact with the gas should be made of non-ferrous materials. Bronze and alumi-
num ;ire commonly used for this type.
b. Type "B" Construction - T h ~ sconstruction requires that only wheels and
slewes i or rings) around the shaft openings be made non-ferrous materials.
c. Type "C'' Construction -
This specifies that the design should be such that it
sho~8Idpevent the ferrous parts from rubbing together.

2. Construction by Class
Tlw class dus~gndtioi,just lilnits ths pressures viz.
a. Class I - This i s the lightest frame construction and limits applications t o a Figure 1.15. AMCA Standard 2407-66, showing rhe different motor 00s;-
prcsswc o l ; ~ b o ~4, tinches of water gage. tions with respect to the fan.

-
b. Class II T h ~ sis a mt!dlum constructiorr and limits pressures up t o about 7
,,>,:l,,!s O t "";,tt31 gage. Fans Operation
c. Class Ill -This is a heavier frame and the pressures are limited up t o about 12 Once you understand the fan fundamentals and have some knowledge of the
to 13 inches of water gage.
system i n which the fan is going to be used, the selection of a proper fan is
relatively easier based on the capital cost, operation cost and the maintenance cost.
3. Motor Positions Fans, like any other rotating equipment, should be selected as close to its maximum
The AMCA also specifies the motor position with respect t o fan as shown below. or best efficiency point as possible. I f a fan i s selected t o the right of its best
The motor position i s specified by the IettersW, X, Y, or Z , (see Figure 1.15). efficiency point (bep), it means either the fan is a little too small or i s running at a
higher speed. If a fanisselected t o the left too far from its bep, it means that the
4. Fan and Motor Arrangements selected fan is too large or is running too slow.
Fans, like other centrifugal machinery, operate only where the system curve
The AMCA Standard No. 2404.66, has for the convenience of everybody come intersects the fan curve. A t this point the system pressure matches the fan pressure.
w ~ r l the
I I ~ l f o l l u w i ~ ~arrangements
g (see Figure 1.161. System resistance is very simple t o calculate for a pipeline or duct and it i s propor.
tional t o the square of the capacity. I f there are other obstructions or equipment in
5. Inlet Box Positions the duct system or pipeline, the pressure drop across each item should be added to
Thr AMCA Standard No. 2405.66. has the following positions standardized for the line resistance and a combined system resistance be drawn on the same grsph
tht3 ~ i ~ l box
c t ( S L W F i w r e 1.17). which has the fan curve. I f the system resistance consists mostly of the line loss, the
curve will be a parabolic one as shown in Figure 1.19a and Figure 1.19b shows the
6. Rotation and Discharge Orientation system curve with some static pressure in addition to line resistance. Normally most
fans are suitable t o operate in a system shown in Figure 1.19a. The fan selection for
The AMCA Stmdal-d No. 2406-66, i s to specify the rotation and orientation of
systems shown i n Figure 1.19b is, however, a little critical. The fan operation where
the discharge of the centrifugal fans. The fan is viewed from the drive side.
the fan curve is flat or drooping will be unstable and should be avoided, as much as
possible. Normally a single fan is satisfactory for a system's operation, but some-
 I'rocess I:ijuip~ne,ilSeries Vulumr 3

Right t o p Horizontal Right bottom 0ot t b m

angular i n t a k e r i g h t intake angular i n t a k e intake

L e f t bottoin liorizonral L e f t top TOP i rnta-v

angular i n t a k e l e f t inrake angular intaue

Figure 1.17. Showing the different positions for the inlet box. The angularposirionr show,
are at 45-degree angle.
A R l i 1 S W S i ul ,llluct i i r U ill,- I\Rn I S W S I Foi L l U I d r l w 0 6,. A R R . I OWOI F O l bell d h OIOI.
,.,,.., ,,r" ,I,,,,,,> o,, D,,"'. ,r.c, i",1,1.,.1,0,, A ,,.,,,,,
U",C,,, 3 1OCI E""ll"Cl8"" nrranwment 3
,n ,,,, N, b , . . , # ~ ! , , >"C, > I,,,, P r # m e ,>,",".>>,:~",,>4,,,,u,,~~,"<.~ pllr, "Ille,", pr,,numorer Series Operation
n , " . , , u*ru i . i i , i , l i l ? * "8 imcgr.my
dl,*, 1," ~",lll,~lCil

For two fans operating in serles, the combined total pressure will be the sum o
total pressure of each machine at the same inlet capacity. The static pressure for th,
two should not be added to get the combined static pressure. The weight flow-rat,
handled by the fans operating in series is the same unless there is a loss or gain o
flow in between. The performance of t w o fans in series is shown in Figure 1.20a.

Parallel Operation
Any two fans similar or a little b i t dissimilar can be operated in series withou,
<"
>,> much trouble, but for parallel operation, it is difficult t o do the same withou.
' ..
sophisticated controls. For parallel operation, therefore, the two fans selectec
Figure 1.16. Showing different srrengsmentr.
should be similar i n performance if not identical. It is important they share the
total load equally, otherwise one fan will be overloaded and the other would bi
times you may require two or more fans t o meet the demand which may vary from
underloaded or could even operate near shut-off conditions. This type of loadin!
time t o time. Sometimes t w o fans may be required in series t o meet the higher
could even shift back and forth between the two fans and can damage the fans a,
pressures for a certain operation whereas normally a single fan will do. Similarly
well as the drivers. So you need controls t o make sure the load is shared equally an(
two fans i n parallel may be used to meet the higher capacity demand at certain
no driver i s overloaded. The performance of ,two fans i n parallel is obtained b i
times. The two systems are discussed below.
adding inlet capacities at the same total pressure. To find the point of operation l o
.> the t w o fans in parallel, you have again to draw a combined system curve (rag
ir
<.
PRESSURE (%)
PRESSURE (Yo)
 FAN OPERATION NOT
RECOMMENDED IN THIS
RANGE */ /

0 200 400"' 600 800

I N L E T CAPACITY ( CFM )
Figure 1.2Oe. The poinr of operation is when, the system cvweinmr-
sects me combined fan cuwe ( 1 ) + /21. The diagram shown is for two
fanr in series.
PERCENT OF VOLUME FLOW RATE

Figure 1.20 (Continued1

Figure 1 . 2 0 ~ .The two fanr have idenrical curve with a hump which when combmed wtli
anorher forms a loop. Operation in rhe loop area rhould be avoided.

Figure 1.20b for the parallel operation) and the point of intersection is the pol;
where the fans would operate. The parallel operation is simple if the fan curve
continuously rising. The situation can become very delicate if the two fans, e w
though identical, have a hump at a reduced capacity. When you obtain the c o ~
bined performance curve, it would have a loop as shown in Figure 1 . 2 0 ~The . lot
is obtained by adding all the possible capacities a t a given pressure. If the syrtt.
curve intersects the fan curve at point 'A,' then there will be no problem in ti
satisfactory operation of the fans, provided the system does not fluctuate. But
0 200 400 600 800 the system curve happens t o intersect in the loop area, it will have two points
INLET C A P A C I T Y ( C F M ) intersection and thus t w o points of operation viz. '6' and 'C.' This i s not desirabl
because one fan may operate at '6' and the other fan may operate a t 'C' and tht
Figure 1.20b. Shows two similar fans but not identical, in parallel. The may switch back and forth. This switching of loads back and forth is also call,
curves am not idenrical bur are continuously rising, which makes the 'Hunting' and can damage the fans as well as the drivers. Controls in the fan out1
opera tion satisfactory. areas or inlet and outlet dampers may be required to rectify the problem.
Z 1'85
01'Pb
LO'OC
P0'91
'M'W
 Chopter 1. K . S. Paneror Proccss Equipment Series Volume 3

GUlDE VANES
STRAIGHTENING VANES

IMPELLER
PROPELLER BELTTUBE
WHEEL lNTERNAL BELT
lNTERNAL BELT GUARD
GUARD

- BEARINGCASING
BEARINGTUBE

INLET BELL,

,lMPELLER
PROPELLER
WHEEL
- . MOTOR WITH CODLING FlNS

U 'OUTLET CONE

BEARINGCASING

lNLETCONE
INLET FLARE

.PREFERRED

Figure 1.21a. Common terminology for centrifugal fen components. /Courtesy AMCAI
Figure 1.Zlb. Common terminology for axial and tubular centrifugal fans. (Courtesy AMCAI
 Fan Selection and Evaluation
Fan selection is fairly easy once you understand the basic principles and the
requirements. T o get the right fan for the right job, you must send out inquiry with
- a set of specifications and a data-sheet t o several fan manufacturers. The data-sheet
should be filled out by the engineer responsible for the selection of fan and should
contain as much information as possible so that the manufacturer hasagood idea of
what is required. It is better t o have more information than not enough, otherwise
you may get the wrong type of fan which may not last long enough or may have
some kind of maintenance problem. Table 1.1 outlines the minimum information
required to be conveyed to the fan manufacturers.
Next step in the selection process is the bid-tabulation and evaluation of each
bid. A sample bid-tablulation is shown in Table 1.2. What may look like the cheap-
est lor least expensive) offering, might turn out to be higher than most of the bids.
Powel evaluation must be done for a t least a period of three years, if not more. This
cost should be added to the initial equipment cost, and then a proper evaluation
should be made. In addition other factors like, bearings, couplings, seals ( i f any),
material of construction, speed (RPM), outlet velocity (in feet per minute) etc.
should be considered. I t does not pay to buy the lowest evaluated fan when it
would be down quite a bit more time for maintenance and repairs.
A thorouqh evaluation of each offering, therefore, is recommended and would
pay out 111.111~lil7ll:S mole in thc long r~111. AS a gi~ideFigure 1.21 gives common
ter~ninol<xjylor various falls.
REFERENCES
1 . Srcp.lnoff, A. J., Pumps 2nd Blowerr. John Wiley &Sons. Inc., New York. 1966.
2. S t e p l w l l , A. J., Cenrrifugill & Axial Pumpr. John Wlley &Sons. Inc., New York, 1957.
3. Jorgenrun. Robert. F a n Engineering. Published by Buffalo Forge Co., Buffalo, N.Y.. 1970.
4. Jenningr, B. H. and Lewis. S. R.. Air Conditioning and Refrigeration, International Text-
Imok Co., Scrimton. Pa.. 1963.
5. AMCA iArr Mowng and Conditioning Arrocialion). Fsnr & Systems. Publication 201.
Arlingiun Heighrr, 111.. 1975.
6 . Balle, O.E.. A Study an Design and Matching of Turbomachiner: Part B - Comprerror and
Pump Performance and Matching of Turbocomponena.
7. API - 610, Centrifugal Pumpr for General Refinery Services, Washington. D.C. 1973.
8. American Standard, Industrial Division, Detroit, Michigan. Fan Composite Curve. Specific
SpeedISpecific Diameter, 1967.
CHAPTER 2
COMPRESSOR APPLICATION AND SELECTION
RICHARD F. NEERKEN
The Ralph M. Parsons Co.
Pasadena, CA
INTRODUCTION
Any chemical, petrochemical or petroleum process which involves the pressure
rise of air or gas will require compression equipment. Compressor i s the term applied
t o the rotating machinery which produces such a pressure rise, getting its name
from the fact that the volume of gas is compressed as it flows through the machine.
I n lower pressure ranges the term blower may be used t o mean compressor; there is
no uniform agreement on where or when the term blower should be used instead of
compressor. I n this chapter our objective will be t o present basic principles of air or
gas compression, an overall description of a l l types of compressors and blowers, and
certain sizing and performance methods which may be used by t h e process designer
or others who are concerned with compressor application, selection, and analysis.
Inasmuch as compressors are often rather large, complex, expensive, long delivery
machines, it is readily apparent that considerable early effort must be made in any
process design involving this machinery.
TYPES OF COMPRESSORS
Compressors can be broadly divided into two basic types: dynamic and positve
displacement (Figure 2.lj. Dynamic types produce a pressure rise by imparting
velocity t o the gas through one or more rotating impellers. The most well-known i s
the centrifugal type machine, although axial flow compressors are also correctly
categorized as dynamic types. Positive displacement types have a reciprocating
piston or plunger within a cylinder, or a rotating mechanism such as mating lobes.
screws or vanes within a pressure containing casing. Any of these types displace a
positive volume with each revolution of the drive shaft, which after allowances for
inefficiences within the machine, will produce a nearly constant output a t a given
speed. Historically the most widely used positive displacement type has been the
reciprocating compressor; currently there is increasing usage of the rotary positive
displacement types in various designs as shown in Figure 2.1.
COMPRESSOR OPERATING CONDITIONS
Whether the reader's purpose is t o select or specify a certain type of rnachtnr, to
make a preliminary size estimate of a compressor, or t o examine designs offered by
 Chnprer 2. Richard I". N e c r k e n Process K q u i p m e n i Series V o l u m e 3

Compressibility Factors

Compressibility factors show how the actual gas will deviate from an ideal gas.
They are given or calculated for gas mixtures, usually at suction and discharge
conditions, or at inlet and outlet of each stage of compression. For air or a pure gas,.
charts or tables are available: for gas mixtures these factors may be determined
from generalized compressibility charts (reference 1, 2, 3). or from specific data
which is available for a mixture such as 75% hydrogen-25% nitrogen in ammonla
synthesis. From the gas analysis and known properties of each component, the
critical pressure (PC) and critical temperature (T,) of the gas mixture can be calcu.
lated. Values of reduced pressure and temperature, defined as:

will enable the use of the generalized charts. Note that pressures and temperatures
are expressed in absolute units. Figure 2.2 illustrates a typical gas analysis calcula-
tion for a compressor. Note that in this example, the value for molal specif~cheat,
MC, is taken a t 150 F, a common approximation for the average temperature
Figure 2.1. C o m p m o r types.
during the compression cycle. For more accurate calculations, values of MC, should
be used which more accurately represent the actual values during a specific cycle.
manufacturers for given duty requirements, it is always necessary t o determine the
basiccompressor operating conditions and obtain or develop certain information
m r r
concerning the gas t o be compressed.
Hethlnr 65,

Gas Analysis Crllsn. ,dl

Propom 6%
I f the air or gas t o be compressed is pure, data i s available in the form of
i-8utnnc 1,
pressure-enthalpy diagrams or tables of gas properhes. I f the gas is a mixture, often
".B"t."O 2,
unique t o the given process design, a gas composition, given either as a molal
Carbon Dioxide 8%
analysis or a volume percent analysis, will make possible the determination of
properties of the gas mixture. For air compressors, i t i s usually necessary t o know
the relative humdity at the inlet conditions, or otherwise obtain data concerning
the amount of water vapor i n the entering air.

Molecular Weight and Ratio of Specific Heats

Comput~lion: .
Cv
.:
KO- y.986
. 11.14
11.14 - 1.986 ' "'"
Essential to selection and sizing of any compressor are values of molecular Figure 2.2. Typical gar analysis calculation
weight, and ratio of specific heats (k = C,/C,) either at inlet conditions, or for Given: Hydrocarbon gar mixrure conraining 6 5 % methane, 14% ethane, 6 % propane, 3%iso-
more accurate calculations, at the average temperature during the compression burnne, 2%normal butane, 8%carbon dioxide, 2%warer vapor.
cycle or at the entrance t o each succeeding stage. These properties may be obtained Find: Molecular weight (MWJ, ratio of sps~ifichears /kJ, criricalpresure (PJ, andcrirical
from published data or readily calculated from a gas analysis. remperarure /TJ.
 -
Chaorer 2. Richard F. Neerken Process Equipment Series Volume 3

Pressure and Temperature PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS

Pressures and temperatures are required for selection of a compressor. Pressure Recalling now the basic relationship of a gas:
and temperature should be given at suction or inlet conditions and pressure at
discharge conditions. Discharge temperature is calculated, based o n the type o f
compression cycle expected, which affects the heat rise during compression. Pres-
sures are normally expressed i n pounds per square inch gage (psigl or absolute it can be shown that the adiabatic work performed on a gas i n raising i t s Pressure
(psial. where psia = psig +barometric pressure (2). from P, t o P, is:

Capacity

Capacity can be stated i n numerous ways, based either on weight flow or volume ill I
flow requirements. Most common expressions for capacity by the process engineer
are:
b Weight flow, pounds per hour or pounds per minute. I f this calculat;on is made i n English units, with w equal to the weight flow i r l
Volume flow i n "standard conditions." defined i n the process industries as pounds per minute, the gas horsepower will be:
14.7 psia and 60 F (or 32 F). Standard units are SCFM (standard cubic feet
per minute], SCFH (standard cubic feet per hour), or MMSCFD (million
standard cubic feet per day].
b Volume flow may also be stated at inlet flow conditions, usually ICFM (inlet
cubic feet per minute) or ACFM (actual cubic feet per minute).
Unless capacity is given at inlet flow conditions, i t is necessary t o convert t o these and the actual gas horsepower based on a known or assumed value of adiabatic
conditions. A n y or all o f the following relations may be used, as applicable: efficiency w i l l be this number divided by that efficiency, expressed as a dec~mal.
The expression

molslhour X 379.46
SCFM =
60
is the adibatic head which the compressor must produce to meet the required
Pounds per hour = mols per hour X MW (51 pressure. It is developed from the adiabatic relation

Specific volume, vs = Z, . -.1545

MW
Ts

144 X P,
ti3/I b (6) P, V, = P,V, = constant (131

Certain types o f compressors closely perform according to adiabatic cycles; other

1
Density p = - lb/ft3 (7) types, notably the uncooled multistage centrifugal compressor, do not. Deviatio~l
vs from adiabatic compression results i n a polytropic cycle, where the value of thi:
polytropic exponent, n, is substituted for the adiabatic exponent, k. For a know11
ICFM =
MMSCFD X lo6 .-.
14.7 -
T,
0 -
2, or assumed value of polytropic efficiency, Q,, the relation between the two
1440 P, 520 1.0 exponents can be expressed by:

ICFM = I b l m i n X vs or lblminlp 19)

 Process Equipment Series Volume 3

and

Summarizing then, either of these may be used for preliminary sizing of compressor
horsepower:
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

weight flow, Iblmin X head, adiabatic
adiabatic gas HP = - (15)
33,000 X adiabatic efficiency
weight flow. Iblmin X head, polytropic
polytropic gas HP = (16)
33,000 X polytropic efficiency
I t is important t o remember not t o mix adiabatic and polytropic values i n a given
! calcuation: either use adiabatic exponent k and adiabatic efficiency, or polytropic
exponent n and polytropic efficiency. Adiabatic efficiency may be defined as:
Although first applied i n process use over f i f t y years ago, the centrifugal com-
pressor has come into greatest popularity i n the past thirty years and is today the
preferred type for most process applications. Current U.S. manufacturing programs
from major compressor builden include single and multistage compressors i n sizes
from somewhat less than 500 cfm inlet flow to well over 100,000 cfm. High
pressure centrifugals have been installed on many gas pipelines, process plants and
gas injection plants, ranging up t o the highest pressure installation in a North Sea
gas plant at approximately 10,000 psi.
Fundamental Principles

The centrifugal compressor consists of one or more impellers attached t o a shaft,

Compressor calculations may also be performed using enthalpy differences as a
means of determining adiabatic head. From charts or tables for the given gas or gas
mixture, find enthalpy at inlet, h, and at discharge, h z , then:
adiabatic head = (hl - h,) (778) or (Ah) (778)
I n polytropic compression the actual discharge enthalpy h z ' w i l l differ f r o m the
adiabatic value; such discharge point must be determined by including the com-
pression efficiency:
rotating inside o f a pressure-casing which has stationary diffuser passages with or
without vanes, or a scroll-type volute shaped much like a centrifugal pump casing.
The rotating shaft and impeller impart energy into the air or gas due t o the velocity
of the impeller, then the high velocity gas moves through stationary diffusers or
volutes i n which the velocity is reduced before exit from the stage or the cotn-
pressor casing.
The basic function of the compressor impeller can be seen from examination of
Figure 2.3, simplified velocity diagrams for a typical impeller w i t h backward.
leaning blades. Velocity triangles are shown for the entrance and the exit of t h ~
(18)
impeller. The velocity components c (absolute fluid velocity), u (peripheral velocty
of rotor), and o (fluid velocity relative t o rotor) are resolved into velocity triangles
at inlet and outlet. The ideal head generated by an impeller can be expressed in the
form known as Euler's equation:

Uz CU2 - UI C">
Head (ideal) = (22)
9

Temperature rise during a compression cycle may likewise be found either by The peripheral velocity is easily calculated from the rotor dimensions:
calci~lationor from pressure.enthalpy charts or tables.

Thus these triangles are used only for theoretical determinations of basic
 Clzapirr 2. Richard F. Neerken Process Lquipmrnl Series Volume 3

and can be shown t o decrease as the blade angle decreases in backward-leaning

impeller designs.

ROIATION

Figure 2.3. Impeller velocity diagram,

relationships of blade angles and prerotation at inlet. Assuming an impeller with n o

inlet swirl, c,, = 0 and the basic equation for head becomes:

Flow

Since c,, = U 2 - w,,? or U2 - c",

-- 2

tanp, Figure 2.4. /deal and acrual heads.

then

The above relationships are theoretical; actual impellers produce significantly

less head because o f inefficiencies due t o disc friction, slip, incidence losses (at
off-design conditions), and other factors. Figure 2.4 shows theoretical heads and
actual heads for radial-bladed and backward-curved impellers. I t illustrates the fact
- In .i radl.ll-bladed impeller, wherefil = go0, the expression becomes:
that the radial bladed impeller produces higher head but has a curve shape which
tends t o be flat, whereas the backward-curved impeller curve shape has greater slow
and a wider range o f stable operation. Both impeller types are in wide use in
commercial machines today. Although it is helpful to the process engineer to have
an understanding of the basic fundamentals, selection of each impeller for a g1vi.n
application must be left t o the compressor designer.
 .
...
.- .
Head Coefficient and F l o w Coefficient
I r . l ? t Flow H s n p e AYrrsiF ;,o:.l !,!I:
ICFM or biS l e n d CoefflclentC 1 1 ~ ; e l l e r :>:n::ia!,
17r.?es
.. .
500-7.500 0.LH 13-lt

1 . 5011-7, 5 0 0 0 . b ~t o U.511
.. /.- I .
~ . o o o - ~ ~ . ~ ~ o 0.50 to 0 . 5 2 '1-.,.

t .C00-1E.Ooo 0.51 t o 0.5. 11. - ,! t

~,,cw>-j~j.ooo 0.57-to 0.51 39- I:,

70.11W0-t,0. 0 0 0 rJ.5.j L C 0.56 .jt .!..'

h0.U00-100.000 0 . 5 4 to 0 . 5 5 ,
,L [., . ,:

Figure 2.5. Prelimii>ery selection data for cenriiluyai comirierrois.

:
H w d pcr stage (actual) .g
(281
u;
~11111TIB f l o w c u e f f c ~ e nmay
t be determined at the inlet or exit o f each impeller. A t
uthsl thdil the d r s g n rated condition, similar valttes o f and qI can be found.
~ c s u l t ~ ning the display o f a given stage or an overall machine performance curve i n
several manners (Figure 2 . 7 ) , showing f l o w versus head or f l o w versus pressure,
both f o r one single speed, also f l o w coefficient versus head coefficient (dimension-
lc:ssi ~ v l i ! c h 1s LISUIUI in generating performance curves at varying speeds or o n
;iItt!~n:iw g.is c o n d i t i o ~ i sin the same compressor. These curves also show efficiency,
: I I I s s i117dexit flow angles f o , off-design
i t l t 1111~1
~ : i ~ i i i i i i ) ni sv i l br l c %
tiiiii, ~ i ~ t i f n u i b
nl,a i l ~ !~ ~ i c i d ~ i n Ic~t !S S C
higher,
S resulting n
v,iy11!1ilvu1.1l1c ! l f ~ c ~ u n cthrouglioor
y thi! stable apelatin(] riinge.
F i , b.~chwti~il-lu:iz,~n<] closurl impt!lli:~swhich arc LMXI in conventional m(iltistagc
~:U~I~I)I~:SCOIS, irnpallc~ peripht!lal slx:r:<l, U. will raoge thom app~.oximalely7 5 0 t u
900 ft.lsi!c unless h i y h r r molecula~wcight gas raquiros lowcr speed. Single stage and
I i x wiiculs m.ly i l t i l t s h~glir?,viilucs o f U. A q o i c t check o l the relation of
~ . i r i ~ ;ti y
 I M P E L L E R T I P S P E E D . FTISEC
.
rachal bladod design, usually with prcrol;~lionor tndut:w varws rn;lk~li$l11 it^!,,,,
dimensional (Fiyurc 2.12b) produces hcads lo 20.000 I t ibllb. Sim,lar d o w j r , i i r ,.
slightly curved blading and inducer blading (Fiyure 2.12~1.H~ghcrrtrrii<]thim;ilt..
als such as titanium may be employed in small machines, allowing hgher ~ ~ ! ~ , i ! l ~
t i p speeds and resulting i n higher heads. Small industrial high speed desigris a r i ~ i ! : ,
S:mplc Calculations available today, making this type in one form or another a very versatile mach~l:,.
Many process applicatiorls require higher heads or pressures than a singlc st.jiq
Fi!lurt. 2.9 shows a typical prciminary calculation for a multistage compressor machine can produce. Multistage compressors thus have become the most widi:.,
11511x1 till: owriill p i ~ l y t r o p i chead inuhod. The: gas is the same as the example in used throughout industry. Many different design arrangements are available I!) i i ~ m
F I ~ J U I C2 . 2 . Figure 2.10 shows how a calci~l;~tionis made on a pure gas such as widely varying service conditions. The most common type is the uncoolvd
c,irbof, il~oxide, u t i l ~ z i n ga pressurcenthalpy chart to determine values of head. "straight through" variety (Figure 2.131 where as many as eight or ten impelrirr , t i #
i ~ w c f r volumr.
: and temperature. arranged on one shaft, running at the same speed, and each producrny ajipiorl
mately the same head. Head per stage will vary to a certain extent a s the vol~imc,
TYPES OF CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS flow through a given machine is reduced and succeeding stages or irnpi.Ilr:l-s . ~ I c ,
(:,,IIIilu~i.11c : u ~ ~ ~ ~s ,;,I,:
i ~ sb us l~t ~ designs. The single^
I I ~w,~i.:itajlt: a11,1~mk~ltistiige designed for lower volume flow and hence exhibit somewhat lower head ~ o i , f l ~
si,iqi, ~.,,~n,,~s,ss,j~11,ir OIIC ~ r n , > ~ ! l l usu,r//y
~y ~ ~ w r h u /(om
~ i g a bearing dssemMy and -
cients and efficiencies. Figure 2.13 shows the caslng split h o r i ~ o r r t a l l ypar;,lli:i I ,
, : ~ ~ l i i~n c.Il v d i ~ diffuscr
~ t ~ asrc~nblysim~l;!~ to a largi: centrifugal pump (Figure the shaft, with a flat joint held tight by numerous casing studs. Figure 2 1 4 siiiiv,,.
2 . 1 1 ) Sucl? types a r c commercially available today in sire ranges from about 1000 similar type machine where the outer casing is a cast or forged barrel, h ; l v . ~ ,
ICFM to 150,000 ICFM. The enclosed. backward 11:aning.two-dimensional impeller horizontal joint. The rotating eemcnt is inserted from the outer i:r!d d ~ l r J , I '
( F I ~ L 2~1~2 a
c ) produces adiabatic heads up to about 12.000 f t lbllb. The semi-open vertical casing jolnt is made to withstand higher prussures ;is wi!l as i n ,,~O.J~I.
 Flow, c f n a t i n l e t 4500

S p e c i f i c volune. f r 3 / l h ' 0.774 0.72 , U/va

.~ -
:
~

Weight flow, l b / m n 5815 , E\PL*tiATIO'.

, ~~.~
: ~ ~~

A d i a b a t i c exponent 0.178 2475 : 55% o f r a t e d

Impeller diameter U / 19" Figure i IiHead c o e f f l c i e n t , y

~
-~--.. - li
0.56 Llfr's d a t a
AT RATED COIUITIOX
- - - ----l,Efficienc::, 0.705 ,. ,,
!I ?IP i
Head c o e f f i c i e n t , : 0.50 Figure i
P i
i i f o i y m a p ~ z bead
!i
Figure 6
\
Polyfropic e f f i c i e n c y q
O T
P o l y r r o p i c exponent C
! ~
i 0.252
~
Equation 11
:
i__p~ COSIIITIOF
I
/j%pproXimate f i o u , ICFH 5175 (!IS\ of rated
R a t i o o f compression
P t
j 3.0 ~d/Pr linead I
I:;.
0.3 nfr.5 d a t a
P o l y f r o p i c head
-- 42070 Equation 12,
qp ,,

I
using polytropic llEfficiPnc?, 0.69 .,
~~.

I
~

expOneO:

I
Figure 2.9. Cenrrifugal compressor calcularioion
P o l y r r o p l c head 36180

- polyrropic head m e t h d
Equatlon 1 2 a

P." Olagram :'

Clvcn
: Frame s i z e

j Impeller d i a t s r . D
X X YI

p-,, D,agram :' IKead coefficient, /-

, ,. , Nunber of stager

i, Impeller t i p Speed U
6 1 \ . ~ i l ; \ o f e I ' Rornfing speed N
P-,i ll>rgra
acoustic velocity u,
,, ..
' .'Preuda,' Warh NO.
 ' a 3 u ~ l c qlelxe i a l l a q fiu!plnoicl s l l l j l pot,
Jalladw! q3ea Aq pJ3npold l s n r q l le!xe a q i aar6ap a61el e o l fiu!z!jenba s r i ~ l l'ljeqs
awes a q l u o suo!l3a~!pal!soddo u ! 6ui3e4 slal(adw! 4 1 1 ~p a 6 ~ ' e ~ale ~ P ' ~ 0 1 , 2161~1s
Ailensn 'sa6els 6 u ! p a a 3 3 n ~- ~ a l l a d u lXIAI
l uo~lniis-alqnopG l o ;rpls otlo illiiw I L ~ I C M O ~ I
43!4~ JO 43ea 'swealls OM$ 0111! p i i p ~ n ~~po l aqij q l ! '26eis
~ ~ S J I;1~11 ) u o AIII'H~I,
'lalladw! ~ 0 1 4 - a l q n oep 10 asn :a41 s! x1A1 a6rls1ljnlu a q l 01 u o ! l r i P n ~ , ? ~ I I O L I V
~ 1 ! 1 1 1 , ' I , ' ~ ~ I / 1)\,':1 ,,,/I l / t > . 1 % 2
- I n 0 JeJ sa6c1uenpc aql 'i;,AaMOt( StiO!ll!3!~dd,! ii/L'lli>3 L i ( '60,dltl 11111- 5 1 ; ) ) 0 < ) . 1 l i l i l l
10 uo!lellelsu! pue Alddns l o slso3 a w snld ' s a r r o u l a p n o plic j a i u I I ~ O ~ I I I I I ~ ~ V
q i ! sufi!sap
~ 6u!se3 (0 SOD ~ a q h ! qapnl3u! s a f i c ~ u c n p '3!lcqc!pc
~!~ o i Alasolo m n i n
s w r o ~ l a duo!l3as l o a6els q3ea re @sap s!ql Aq pasealnu! s ! Anux3!l,c t~oiss;iiduios
lle>anO s ~ a l l a d w !aalql r o o ~ l oi dnorfi q3ri) 10 ialladw! i l o w ilaannlaq Iillljcu~,
se6 10) SJa1003Jallll q l ! ~ 'su0!13as o l u l p o p l n ~ paq urn SI-IOSLilld1U~D ;,iii:tsll(tlpJ
f i s c 00s
l n o q e ueql raq6iq aq II!M a.lnss.,~d i,fi~cqss~p aql 4 1 w n l x l u i s ~ l ioi seb A i l i ! in1 . ? r i A l
jajieq a w nsn o i Ql3Pld O O ~ I L I O SSI 1 1 'm1~:2rfi 1 0 "A,OLs! i i l n l x l u i si'n :ill1 1 0 111111110:1
il;lfiolpAq a q i I ! Risd 052 002 : ~ n o q ?s i ~ . ~ ~ m~ :n ~p:lsc
j ~ d aq )SI,LLI fiu!srn i ? , I A l 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~ /
i o ]!Ids A~~w!IK'Aaqt l c q l s:8ij!:,nds ( P s ~ s s . w ~~r!firijrrtcr.yj
~ u ~ ~ r o l ( L C ) I""!'
-uel~
alni!lsul u i n l j o l l n d u e 3 ! I . r w ~3 4 1 ,'firyl:w srli lil;lA,ilrl o l r:ls . 1 ~ 1 1 1 ~ 1 1 ,110111
11

Figure 2. 17. Modular type lowpresrure air blower.
tion by the specifying engineer or the designer t o ensure a completely adequate
system. American Petroleum Institute Standard 614 (Reference 5) has been written
to guide users i n the requirements of complicated lubricating and seal oil systems
for special applications. Numerous diagrams appear i n the appendix of API-614
which can aid the engineer i n considering many optional arrangements.
Shaft Seals
Equally important i n the design o f the centrifugal compressor i s the type of
shaft seals t o be used t o prevent excessive leakage of the compressed gas t o atmos-
phere. Seals may be classified i n t o four basic types:
0 Labyrinth type
0 Restrictive-ring (carbon-ring) type
0 Oil-film and pumping-ring type
0 Mechanical-contact type
Labyrinth or restrictive ring types may be used only when some leakage of air or
gas can be tolerated. 0il.film and mechanical contact types are normally used for
Process Equipmenr Series Volume 3
Figure 2.18. Compresson arranged in r e r k
any process gas or gas mixture. When even trace quantities of gas cannot be allowed
t o atmosphere, (such as i n gas mixtures containing hydrogen sulfide), buffer gas is
required, at a pressure somewhat higher than the sealing pressure. Buffer gas is
injected into the seal and forms a barrier between the compressed gas and the,
atmosphere. Source o f such buffer gas may be a problem, even requiring a small
additional compressor i n some applications, to supply a gas such as nitrogen at tht:
required sealing pressure. Increasing restrictions on gas leakage to atmosphere bc
cause of pollution restrictions has made the use of buffered-gas seals more w ~ d e -
spread. The specifying engineer as well as the designer of the compressor must
consider this subject carefully. Figure 2.19 and reference 4 show some views of
typical compressor shaft seal types.
For the oil-film and the mechanical-contact seal, oil is also required to form thi!
oil f i l m between seal faces or rotating and stationary members. Again, i t i s necer.
sary t o have a complete, self-contained oil circulating system similar to the lubri-
cating oil system. The seal oil must be at a pressure slightly above seal operating
pressure and frequently requires the use of high-pressure seal oil pumps, filters and
coolers. I n many designs, the seal oil pressure i s kept at a fixed static head diffcrcri
tial above the seal by the use of overhead seal oil tanks, thus automatically rcgu
lating sealing oil pressure even i n event of changing gas pressures. Contaminated s e ~ l
 oil, that i s , o ~ which
l has come into contact with the compressed gas, may need t o
be discxried o! reclaimed before reuse. Contamined or sour oil drain traps may be
used, together w i t h some external seal oil reconditioning facility, all a part of the
- complc?~ c o m ~ ~ ~ e s installation.
sor

Control of Centrifugal Compressors

Recalling that the centrifugal compressor develops head, n o t pressure, it is easy

t o understand how this type machine can be controlled either by throttling or by
vatying speed. Centrifugal compressors follow the affinity laws. similar t o fans or
cerltrifugal pumps:

The most effective way t o match the compressor t o the required output i s t o vary
the speed. Many centrifugal compressors are driven b y steam or gas turbines making
variable speed an inherent feature. Although i n the past most electric motor driven
machines have been constant speed applications, the variable frequency electric
tnoror dr~verhas made a new appearance i n the industry, and appears t o have much
application for the future.
Looking again at Figure 2.7, showing typical curves for a centrifugal compressor.
i t is readily seen what the effect will be if the speed i s varied and how the use of Figure 2.20. Variable inlet guide vanes for comprerror
head coefficient and flow coefficient will make i t possible t o find required speeds
for dilferent gases i n the same compressor. The most simple solution t o the surge problem is use of a bypass valve which will
I f fixed.speed operation is desired, the compressor may be controlled by blow off the excess capacity t o atmosphere i n the case of an air blower, or alr
f h ~ o t t l ihc ~ ~ dischxgo
~l (least efficient), throttling the suction (more efficient), or compressor application, or return the excess gas t o the suctlon source or a suction
use of v w d b l e inlet guide vanes (Figure 2.20). The latter method uses stationary vessel with or without cooling on the way. Since the temperature of the yas I S
vanes ahead o f the first stage impeller t o provide pre-rotation o f the gas stream increasing during compression, if much of this gas i s bypassed back to suction
flowing into the compressor. This i n turn will cause a variation i n the shape of the without cooling, the gas suction temperature will rise to an unacceptable value in a
head-capacity characteristic as the vane angle is increased, and will result in con- very short time. Surge control systems may be designed or purchased from firms
slderable power savings (Figure 2.21). Inlet guide vanes are most effective on single- who specialize i n such designs (Reference 6. 7). The added cost of such special
stage tnachines, b u t may have limited effect on multistage machinesdepending on systems can often be justified i n a very short time because of the savings in oper-
the n u ~ n b r o r f sets of guide varies installed. ating costs and the increased dependability o f such a custom designed system.
A i w t h r r asvect o f compressor control which must be considered i s that o f surge
c o n t ~ o l(01 anti-surge control). Every centrifugal compressor of whatever size or A X I A L FLOW COMPRESSORS
design will l i m e a minimum flow limit, known generally as its surge capacity. Below
Dynamic type compressors also include axial flow machines, in which the flow
this capacity the operation is unstable and will cause rapid deteriation, increase i n
of air or gas is parallel t o the shaft axis. These types utilize two-dimensional flow
v~bratioria ~ i dprobable failure of the machine i n a short time. Operation at or near
analysis rather than three-dimensional analysis as required by radial flow centrifugal
the surge region is unstable and must be avoided, except as experienced during
wheels. For industrial or process use, the axial flow compressor is generally applied
startup or shutdown cycles where the compressor may be allowed t o pass through
only for very large flow volumes (at least 75,000 ICFM or higher) and is most often
the surge region as it comes up to speed.
used on air, although it has seen limited application on certain gases. Efficiency of
 140
Y
g 120
the a x a l f l o w is generally higher than the large centrifugal o f comparable size. The
$ I00
cost i s usually also higher b u t can generally be justified i n view of the power saving.
The axial colnpressor stage follows the same basic relationships of head,
temperature rise, capacity and power determinations as previously given for centri-
fugals. Head per stage i n an axial machine is usually n o t more than one-half the
amount for a centrifugal. I t is c o m m o n t o f i n d axials applied w i t h ten or fifteen
I 0
'

3
,-
80

60

stages on one shaft (Figure 2.22) when the required pressure rise demands that g 40
rn.irlv sr.igt:s. Probably the Ialyest apl,lic;itio~l f o r t h < : axial f l o w compressor is i n the E
W
i : ~ x n l r u r l i i ~gas
l l ~ I I I ~ I I I ~eithc!
:, f o r industlial use or as a n aircraft engine. Several a 20
, pjixcsses I,, the h y d ~ o c a ~ b opn~ o c r s s i n gindustry, notably f l u i d catalytic
c ~ . x k i ~ imake
i, wlde use o f the axial f l o w type. The process or specifying cnginerr 0
40 SO 60 70 M1 9 0 100 110 120 130 140 I W
should l o o k carefully at the axial f l o w compressor i f the volume o f alr or gas t o be
PERCENT DESIGN 'IOLUME
compressed i s at or near 100,000 ICFM or above.
Axla1 compressors are readily controlled b y v;irying the stationary (or stator) Fiquix 2.23. Aniai liow ocrlurmorice curve.
 blade settings, analogous to the inlet guide vanes on centrifugals. Due to the two-
dimensional flow, i t i s easier t o use adiustable stator blades on many stages i f
desired. It is common t o find five stages of a ten-stage axial each with its own set of
adillstable stator blades, thus giving a fairly wide capacity control range t o a
machine type which is somewhat narrow in i t s basic design. Figure 2.23 shows a
typical axial-flow performance curve.
DRIVERS FOR CENTRIFUGAL A N D AXIALCOMPRESSORS
Three types of drivers are commonly used for dynamic type compressors. Most
common is the electric motor at fixed speed. Steam turbines and gas turbines are
the other t w o types.
Electric Motor Drivers
S~ncethe centrifugal compressor operating speed is almost always 3 6 W rpm or
above, the two-pole induction motor may be used f o r direct connection t o a 3600
rpm machine, or i n conjunction with a gear speed increaser for higher speeds.
Four-pole or six-pole motors are generally used when gear speed increasers are
requ~red,as they are somewhat less expensive and more readily available i n larger
slzes above about 1000 HP. Speed increaser gears are usually parallel shaft, single-
~ c d u c t i o ntype, either double or single helical configuration. Epicyclic gears are also
used, notably by foreign manufacturers, and this type w i l l often show a cost saving
over pat allel shaft type. It i s n o t the purpose of this chapter t o cover the subject of
drivers and gears i n detail. The reader is referred t o available standards (references
8. 9, 10. 1 1 ) for aid i n sizing or specifying a motor or gear.
S t e a m and Gas Turbines
As ment~onedearlier, turbine drivers offer the advantage o f variable speed opera-
tion, plus sometimes a more dependable or available power source for remote
installattons or where electtic supply lnay be subject t o interruption. Steam tur-
bines to drive centrifugal or axial compressors are usually multi-stage turbinesdue
to siie and speed requirements. Small centrifugals, especially the modular type air
blower, may utilize standard single stage turbines.
Part of any specification for a steam turbine driven compressor must include a
cluai st;atrment of steam conditions, both at inlet and exhaust. I t is surprising how
many process engineers ignore this until pressed for an answer. Just as the com-
- pressor cannot be sized or built without knowing both inlet and outlet conditions,
~n:ithercan the turbine. Consideration should be given to use o f a direct-connected
turbine or a t u r b ~ n ew i t h speed increaser gear, usually only desirable on smaller
units as a means of saving on first cost. Lubrication requirements o f turbines should
be considered when specifying or engineering the total installation; it is quite
common t o combine lubrication requirements for compressor, turbine and gear ( i f
used) into one lubrication system. Pneumatically or hydraulically controlled tur-
bine governors provide the most dependable method for utilizing the variable speed
feature which every turbine offers.
Gas turbines used t o drive compressors are of two types: expansion gas turbines
and combustion gas turbines. They are really both closely related except for the
addition of the combustion chamber and fuel system in the latter type, which
produces the h o t gas at a pressure high enough for it to expand through a gas
expansion turbine t o produce power. The combustion gas turbine is usually a large
machine and has excellent operating records driving pipeline compressors and gas
compressors i n gas treating, gas injection and uas ~rocessingfacilities.
Expansion turbines may be the hot-gas type, as used i n a combustion turbine, or
may be cold-gas, radial inflow turbines, usually applied t o smaller loads and often
when theobtaining of a low temperature from the turbine discharge will serve a use-
ful purpose i n the overall chemical process. Again, the reader is referred for further
details t o numerous references for gas turbines. (references 12, 13. 14).
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS
Reciprocating Compressors
Reciprocating compressors cover a range o f capacity from the smallest flow
required, such as a utility air compressor i n a service station or a verysmall plant, up
through sizes about 5000 ICFM. I n large sizes for new installations, rotary or c r n t r l ~
fugal types will be utilized today t o avoid what some consider t o be excessive
maintenance on reciprocating machines due to piston rings, valves and packinqs.
Many other users have found the reciprocating type t o be their standard for de-
pendable service and continue to install this type on new applications.
Small sizes may have single-acting cylinders and be air-cooled, resulting in mimrt~,
of oil vapors from the crankcase with the air or gas being compressed. This type s
not recommended i n process service or for instrument air service where oil in the
compressed air would not be permissible. Several variations of the air-cooled design
have appeared, where a double acting crosshead is inserted between the crankcase
and the air cylinder, making the design "oil-free."
Small single-cylinder process types (15 to 200 HPI having water.cooled cylinder
and arranged either horizontally or vertically (Figure 2.24) may be used for instru-
ment air or process gas. The cylinder is double-acting type, with a separate packing
box and distance piece, thus making it possible t o have oil-free air or to conduct
leaking gases away from the packing under slight pressure.
Larger reciprocating compressors for most process applications will usually have
horizontal, water-cooled cylinders. More than one cylinder i s generally required.
with machines having four, five or six cylinders being quite common in process use
(Figure 2.25). Cylinders are placed on opposite sides of a frame and crankshaft,
giving a close approach t o a balanced design and comparatively low forces and
 PROCESS REQIIIKEUEHT5 [Ci 1: LXPUYATIOS

Gas Hydrogen . Hydrocrrhon U i r i u r e Figure 26

W l e c u l a r neighc. m C r i n k l h a f t speed. rpm

S p e c i f l c Hear Ratio, k lumber o f rragcr

Flo*, MlSCFo

S u c t i o n pressure, p r i a Cylinder c l e a r a n c e . P
I
Temperature, *F

nischarge pressure, p r i a

. I~ORSEI'OWER CILCULIITIO\ gcr c y l i n d e r , c f n / ilJ

Comprerrlblliry factors:
\ t IIICCiO"
zs
I discharge Zd
 "HEAD
+ CRANKSHAF
VE . capacity at inlet conditions, ICFM
~ 130) END
cylinder displacement. CFM

PACKING OR
The i:ylindc:~ d~splacementcan be calculated once the size of cylinder, speed of "STUFFING B O X
~ o t a t > o nand
, piston stroke are known.

PISTON R O D M O V I N G TOWARDS CRANKSHAFT:

FORCE - LB ICOMPRESSIONI - (Pd) (Ahe) -

(,Ace)

M,my lotmulas 101 volumetric efficiency have been suggested, determined from
PISTON R O D M O V I N G AWAY F R O M CRANKSHAFT:
tht!o~y or from actual observed results. The following is adequate for preliminary

FORCE - LB ITENSION) = ts)Phe) - (.d) (4.)

that the actual values for a given application be not more than 75% t o 85'h UI1 1 7 , .
w h u r clcarmce 1s exptrssed as a decimal. published maximums. I f the values calculated on a preliminary selection 81,. I.,.
high, then the size (diameter) of the cylinder must be reduced, two cylirldui, I: . G
F r i ~ r n rLoad or Rod Load instead of one, or a larger compressor frame with greater lramr ratInq r:;iimi,~' 1
must be chosen.
The con,presso$ flame or pistol, l o d has a litnit to the forces that can !d
d u l i ~ r g the compression cycle. In its simplest form, the actual loadings can be
Compressor Speed
comouted f r o m the known cylinder diameter and the pressures acting on the
piston. This neglects the frame loading resulting from the reciprocating weights and Limits on rotating speed and average piston speed should be specifled lo a v w i
imotor, oi the machine. selecting a design that operates too fast and gives excessive wear and rna(r\tel!dllt.i.
F o r ;i cioriblr acting cylinder. when the piston 1s moving inward toward the
c ~ , ~ n h s I ~ ,the
~ f tframe
, load in complr:ssion is: stroke (~nchesi
average piston speed I f t l m i n ! = rpm X X 2 ( :j '.,
12

The general limit in use today for process service is 800 t o 850 f t l m n lor l h i b ~ ~ ,
pistons and 700 t o 750 f t l m l n for non-lubricated, carbon or carbon-l~llicdti.Ili,u -
ring types.

Control of Reciprocating Compressors

Because reciprocating compressors are positive displacement type. a ~ I L W I ,

F g u ~ c2.29 illustrates the baslc relationships ajid terminology. Values so calculated
machine will produce an increased pressure over the rated pressure in cvrint 0 1 .r
niusl be checked against manufacturer's published frame limits; i t is recommended
change i n downstream conditions. Closing a valve, changing anothcl CJ<OL..'>
 Chapter 2. Richard F. Neerken
1 Process Equipment Series Volume 3

variable, shutting o f f a reactor or other process item downstream o f a compressor

can cause the pressure t o rise t o a dangerous level. A relief valve or high pressure
shutdowii may protect the machine from failure but may also upset the process or
cause waste or tieedless plant downtime. Compressors will therefore be equipped
with some form of capacity control, basically one or more of the following:

Extc~o;,l bypass of air or gas from discharge back t o compressor suction

sotrlcr, bvith or without cooling
Cylinder unloaders
Cylindtar clearance pockets
Varii~bluspeed

Most reciprocating compressors are driven by electric motors so variable speed is

normally ruled out. Bypass type arrangements are necessary for close regulation and
minute-by-minute process variations, b u t are wasteful o f power. More economical
c o ~ ~ t rmethods
ol include the use of cylinder unloaders and clearance pockets.
Cylinder unloaders are manually or automatically operated devices on one or
both cnds o f a cylinder, designed t o unload or h o l d open the cylinder suction
v.,lv,:s. Thus the compressor does not work on that portion of the stroke. For
ex;~mulo, mlct valve unloaders could be placed on the head end (outer end) of a
~ : y l i O d ~rle, d ~ c i r qthe net output o f that cylinder b y approximately onehalf when
the ilcvices wele actuated Unloaders are usually supplied as a means of totally
~ ~ ~ ~ l o . i;I~compressor
ling for startup, but prolonged operation with unloaders o n one
elld o f a cylinder may cause problems o f frame load, valve life, o r pulsation damp-
1 Figure 2.30. Variation in campressor capacity with increased clearance.

ing.
Clea~ancepockets are additional volumes of clearance built i n t o or bolted o n t o
;I cylinder head or valve cap, either head end or crank end f o r both) t o increase the
cylinder clearance. Reference t o equation 32 w i l l show how increased cylinder
clearance results i n reduced volumetric efficiency. Figure 2.30 illustrates this rela-
tionship graphically, and Figure 2.31 shows a typical cylinder w i t h b o t h automa-
t i c d l y operated unloaders and a manually operated valve-cap clearance pocket.
Retlief valves must always be provided i n the piping immediately downstream o f
any rec~urocatingcompressor. They should be sized for the full output capacity of
the compressor, set t o open at 10 t o 15% above the rated compressor discharge
pressure.
Piils;itson rlampe~s are generally installed with reciprocating compressors on
piocrss se~.vices, to smooth out the pulsing flow generated by the reciprocating
Illston. Thrsr (nay be i n the form of volume bottles or special devices w i t h internals
designed to absorb or cancel some of the pulsing flow. It i s common t o specify that
the pulsations i n the piping leading t o or from a compressor shall not exceed 1% of
the opelatiog pressure i n pressures up t o about 400 psig; lower values are expected
and required i n pressures higher than this. These devices require a pressure drop as
the gas passes through: careful calculations for sizing reciprocating compressors w i l l
~ , c l u d r;~lli>w:mcusfor such pressure losses.
Var~ableSpeed Drivers Lobe-type 12-lobe or 3-lobe1
Vane-type
t i I S r e the most coinmoll type of variable speed driver applied to
~ucip~ac,i:inijcornplessors. Figure 2.32 shows a typical integral type gas engine Screw-type [wet-screw or dry-screw)
Liquid-ring type
wlitxc
C O I ~ ~ ~ S S O I . i h c engine mtl compressol. cyli11del.s are attached to the same
I r j r n u .ii,d cr.inksh'ift. Thlr type i s widely used in gas t!ansmission and oil and gas
p~oduction.

Figure 2.33. Lobe-type rotary blower.

figure 2.32. Gas e t w n e driven recipra'ating comprerror

Steam turbines have been applied to reciprocating compressors by use o f single
01 double-reduction gears t o reduce turbine speed. Although many successful in-
sr,illations have been made, caution should be used when specifying this type drive
31~3ngZlnt?lltas cons~derableadditional analysis of torsional vibrations, couplings,
ti l l y w l i ~ d zI S i c c j ~ l ~ r e d .
ROTARY COMPRESSORS
l % l <,lIi,:i l w m 0 1 posltiv<: ~ l i s , , l . ~ ~ : ~comcwt:ssut
! r ~ ~ ~ : ~ ~is~ thc rolrlly comprrsso! or
blowel, ill ,nhich a r o t a t i ~ l yelement within a casing displaces a fixed volume during
e x h ~ e v o l u t ~ o nMall"
. different types are-in use today, which can be grouped into
i o w basic categories:
Most widely known is the lobe-type (Figure 2.33). Two figure-€ shaped I<,!cw;
(or variations from this basic concept) mesh together at relatively slow s p w t i ,
driven by timing gears attached t o each shaft. This type is available in very s n l ~ l , '
sizes. from approximately 2 ICFM. t o largest sizes of about 20,000 I C F M 1 1
basically a low pressure machine, producing up to approximarely 15 USIS)~4s
blower,and is widely used as also a vacuum pump. The three~lobetype will ~ I U O L L . .
slightly higher pressures, to abocit 20 psig. Casings are normally modc fhwn i,:.
iron, which limits this type for certain applications where steel casrjgr ~i,,,y I,,,
required because o f ha~ardousconditions. The lobe:-type blower hnds wdimt ,>j,lj88
cation har~cllingair or irirrt yai, although in certain a~,iilicattons it is ~ s i ,w ~ r i ,
used as a gas pump on natural gas.
The second type is the sliding vane compressor, having on? offset rotol l i i l ,
slots in which vanes slide in and out during each revolution. A i r or gas is trapped
within the casing and its volume gradually reduced as the pressure rises t o discharge.
This type call produce up to 50 psig per stage and is also available i n two-stage
arrangements for pressures t o about 125 psig. Volume flows range u p t o 2500
ICFM. A dlsadv;int.iqa of this type for some process applications is the fact that the
sliil$ngvanes rerlrliro some lubricant to be injected into the casing and trace quanti-
ties of this oil will thus appear i n the compressed air or gas.
2.34.Screw-rvpe r o t a r y compressor.
Fiyt~e
The rotciry screw type compressor has become more popular in the process
~ndust,iesin recent years. Although the design was introduced i n Europe before
World War II, U.S. ~nanufacturersdid not build this type i n great quantities before
the 1950s. Today the rotary screw type i n the "wet-screw" or oil flooded version
has taken over the portable, construction air type machine almost completely, and
also occuples an important segment of the refrigeration and air conditioning com-
pressor market. The dry-screw type has had some process applications and i s gradu-
ally becoming more widespread. Both types are similar in design, utilizing twln
screws which mate together and are driven thorugh timing gears. Lower speeds (to
3600 rpm) are used in the oil-flooded types, while the dry-screw types operate LIP
t o 12.000 rpm in smaller sizes. Figure 2.34 shows a sectional view of a typical screw
type machine. Casing working pressures are limited t o 250 psig to 400 psig, thus
making this type usuable only in lower pressure applications.
The w e t x r e w or oil-filled machine will produce higher pressure rise per stage,
with the heat of compression being absorbed by the oil which is injected into the
machine for lubrication and cooling. The majority of this oil is removed after the
compression cycle is over, and normally cooled and returned for re-use. The procuss
designers should avoid this type however, if oil carryover into the process gas
cannot be tolerated.
The liquid-ring pump or compressor i s correctly classified as a rotary, posrlve
displacement type. I t consists of a circular or elliptical vaned type rotor turnny i n d
circular or oval-shaped casing, i n which water or other sealing liquid is also present.
Centrifugal force causes the liquid to form a ring around the periphery of the casing
when in operation. The air or gas travels inward towards the center of the vaned
rotor, gradually decreasing in volume and increasing in pressure until i t passes
discharge ports and leaves the casing. Liquid still present in the air or gas is separ
ated and either recirculated or discarded. This type i s most often used as a vacuum
pump, down t o absolute pressures o f 3 t o 4 inches o f mercury. It may also be used
as d compressor for pressures up to about 100 psig (basis two stages in scrir:~).It has
been successfully applied on certain difficult gases such as chlorine, hydrogeii sul
fide, acid gas and so forth. Stainless steel construction is available in most slzrs.
Rotary Compressor Calculations
The rotary compressor fills only special needs such as low pressure r s r , low
capacity requirements. Calculation methods are n o t as widespread in the industry a i
for reciprocating and centrifugal machines. Adiabatic head, weight flow. inlet
capacity calculations may be applied in a similar manner t o other compressor types.
however a widely recognized source of information on efficiencies for these types IS
not available, and most preliminary size estimates must be based on manufacturers
catalog data. A sample calculation for a lobe-type gas blower, using data from a
U.S.manufacturer, i s shown in Figure 2.35.
CONCLUSION
A great deal of material exists in published literature today relatlng to com
pressors of all types. The reader is referred to certain references in this chapti!r, olio
t o other readily available material to investigate further almost any asvect o f corn
pressor theory, design, selection or performance. References 15, 16. 17, 18, r:t 31.

Tl?r w i t e r acknowledges with thanks the information, photographs and data
~ i u i v c df m n the following manufacturers of compressors and blowers: Allis-
C/I:IIIIII~ISCO., C U D Q ~ ,1 n d ~ ~ s t r e sDrt:ss~~-CIa,k,
l ~ i j ~ ~ ~ s o l l - I i Joy
. i ~ i ~M
\ Y m I h i ~ j ~ l i r tAl1.i~
,.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
. DI~SSCI-Roots, Elliott, Hoffman,
i .a ~ ~ ~ i f i i c t u r ~Nash
n ( ] , Engineering. Transamerica DeLaval,
Copco, S u l i r ~B ~ o t h e ~LId.
NOMENCLATURE
Ace Area, crank end
A, Area, piston rod
C Absolute fluid velocity
CFM Cubic feet per minute
Specific heat at constant pressure
Specific heat at constant volume
Diameter
Temperature, degrees Fahrenheit
9 Gravitational constant
GHP Gas horsepower
h Enthalpy
H Head
ICFM Inlet cubic feet per minute
k Ratio of specific heats
CP Molal specific heat
I MMSCFD Million standard cubic feet per day
MW Molecular weight
n Polytropic exponent
N Speed, revolutions per minute
P Pressure
psia Pounds per square inch absolute
wig Pounds per square inch gauge
0 Flow
R Gas constant
Ratio o f comprussiori
Absolute temperature, degrees Rank~ne
Stroke of reciprocating compressor
SCFM Standard cubic feet per minute
t Temperature, degrees F
T Temperature, degrees R
U ,u Impeller peripheral velocity
"s Specific volume
Acoustic velocity of gas
Volume; volume flow rate
Volumetric efficiency
s Weight flow
Compressibility factor
Impeller blade angles
Differential
Head coefficient
Efficiency
 NGSMA - Natural Gar Procesrorr Suppliers Arroc8arion. Tulsa. OK 74103
Density
API - American Petroleum Institute. 2101 L Stieer N.W.. Washington, D.C. 20037
Flow coefficient A G M A - American Gear Manufacturers Arraciation. 1330 Marrachurettr Ave.. Warhingron.
F l u i d v r l o c ~ t yr e l a t i v e to r o t o r D.C. 20005
ASME - American Society of Mechanical Engineen. 3 4 5 East 47th Street. New York. N Y
Subscripts 10017
N E M A - National Electrical Manufacturers Association, 2101 L Street. N.W.. Warh8ngron.
1. 2 Inlet & Discharge D.C. 20037.
s, d Ditto
Reduced
C Critical
ad, adia Adiabatic
PO~Y Polytropic
P Ditto
m Meridional
U Peripheral

REFERENCES

1. NGSMA Data B o o k . 9 t h Ed.. 1972.

2. Coinp,erred A i r :and Gar Dam. C. W. Gibbr. Editor, 2 n d Ed.. 1 9 7 1 publirhed b y lngenoll-
H;,Wi C".
3. " C ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~C hemri r s tind ~ l Tlieir
~ l ~ Applicarion
~ y t o Problems Involving Prerrure-Volume-
Energy Helalion for Real Garer" Research Bullelin P7637. publirhed b y Worthingron Corp..
1949.
4. API 6 1 7 C e n t r i f u g ~Comprerrorr
l for General Refinery Services 4 t h Edition. 1979.
5. AP1 6 1 4 Lubrication. Shaft-Sealing. and Conrrul Oil Systems for Special Purpore A p p l l c b
t ~ o n s .1st Edition. 1973.
6. M a g l i o z r ~ .T. L. "Conrrul System Prevenlr Sulg$ng i n Cenrrifugal Comprerron. Chemical
Enq!nrcr#ngMII~JZ~OP.May 8, 1967.
7. St.,,oselsky and Liidln. "lmp,oved Surge Control for Cenrrilugal Comprerrorr. Chemical
E#~!linecrirlq M q ; ~ z # n eMay
. 21. 1979.
8. API RP 541 "Recommended Pr;aclrce for Form-Wound Squiuel-Cage Induction M o r o n 2 0 0
HP ilW Laryel, 1972.
9. ANSI!NEMA MGI-1978 Matorn and Genera~orr
10. API 6 1 3 Specla! Pulpore Gesr U n i l r fof Refinery Services. 2nd Edition. 1977.
11. A G M A 421 ' ' P i i ~ r ~ cf uer High Speed Helical and Herrin(lbanc Gear Units"
12. API 6 1 6 C o m b u s t ~ o nGar Turbines f o r General Refinery Servlcer 2nd Edition. 1980.
13. Sawyer's Gar Turbtnc Engineering Handbook. 3 volr.. 1972 publirhed b y Gar Turbine
Pui,l,c.it,'>ns ir,c.
14. A P G I 2 Socci;il Pu,p,,rc Slram Twl3iner 1"s R r l r n e ~ ySt!rv#cer 2nd Edltiun. 1979.
I!,. Ssllrel, L.. F . "GJS .md A l l Curnpters#o,~ M a c h i ~ w r y , " McGrow-Hill. 1961.
16. S ~ ~ h , ~I.~ sF. l . "GJS M;ich#nery" Gulf Pul,llrhirq Co.. 1977.
17. Siep.!nufl, A. J. "Tu8boblowers" John Wlley & Co.. 1955.
18. A d v m c e d C e n l # i f u g a lCo~nprersurr.4 papers b y Turbomachinery Commirree o f ASME Gar
Turbine Diwrion, published b y ASME. 1971.
19. E d m ~ r l e r .W. C. Applied Hydrocarbon Thermodynamics. 2 volr.. 1961 and 1974. publirhed
b y Gulf Publishing Co.
 CHAPTER 3
API Standard 671 - Couplings
These specifications are written by user engineers with the lnput of rnatiufac~
C E N T R I F U G A L COMPRESSORS
turers and engineering contractors; thus, these standards represent a weaith of e h
perience and are a very good base from which to start your turbomachinery speclf, .
M. P. BOYCE
cations.
Bovce Engineering International lnc
Many decisions, regardless of details contained in specifications, have to be mad?
Houston. Texas
by the engineers i n advance. Some of these may be his company's philosophy on
various units and others could strictly be job oriented.
INTRODUCTION
Layout
Cciltr~liiq,~l
comwessots are an integral part of the oil and chemical industry.
They a c used extensively because o f their smooth operation, large tolerance t o The general topography of the plant must be known t o the engineer so that tila
urocrss fluctuations, and their higher reliability as compared t o other types of proper site selection can be determined. Determination of whether the urut w ~ o l u
com,~r~~ssois.Centrifugal compressors range i n all sizes from pressure ratios of 1.3 be grade or mezzanine mounted i s very important in determining the f o u r i d a t i r ~ ~
kiei it:lyr to plussure ratlos as high as 1 2 : l on experimental models. We will limit characteristics. Enough space should exist for the ductiny so that the inlet ctirr::,
owselves to disc~~ssion of pressure ratios below 3.5:l since these are ones used tions t o each stage allows the flow to enter without large distortions of veloc8lv o!
cxtc~isively , t i the oil and chemical industry. The proper selection of these com- pressure. Accessibility requirements should be kept in mind so that ~ i i p ~ .( I,V~~ :
ii~t!sso~s I S ;I complex and very important decision since the successful operation of maintenance work on the unit could be performed with relatve ease. L o c ~ ~ t #u, I ~ ,
(nliu~yI~IJIIISdepmds up011the smooth and eificient functioning o f these units. To the oil system for the unit is a very important aspect of compressor installatrjm I
u ~ l s u ~the
u bust selrctio~,and consequetitly the proper maintenance of centrifugal is advisable t o locate the oil reservoir away from the base plate w ~ t hthe bcirtcvr,
; r s s s , !he riic]inr:er must lhave a w ~ d e k~lowledge of many engineering sloped toward the low drain point. and enough space should be provided so lhal llli
ilsc11~111,~'s. return oil lines can enter the resi!rvoir away from !he oil pump suction. Thri L V O I I ~ ~.I
greatly reduce disturbance of the pump suction and also help n kui!i;i~~<)
11
SELECTION OF A COMPRESSOR reservoir re ten ti or^ time to around ten minutes.

Environment

Dot.ril oolnpl rssor spec~f~cations c;in vary from customer to customer, some pro- The environment i n which a machine I S to operate is as imixxlant a f e c t u ~1; . 8 1 .
v t d ~ i i ionly basic informat~on,sucii as pressure, flow rate, type o f gas, driver, and other. I n many cases, this factor is often uverlooked or described in a word l i h r . : , ~
~111, ~ : o ~ i d i t i ~to
~ iiis ,lengthy document detailing types of bearings, rotor response, such as "extreme cold climate." The vendor needs to know much more. Hi: mw,!
Itrbrtcation system, acceptable tolerance on performance, etc. T o do the latter, the know what extreme cold means (usually below -25"Fl, what thri traoitlli>l,
englneer must be very conversant with comprssors and their total support systems. weather is since, as a practical matter, this weather creates more problems bcxiicts~
A ~1.11 tlnq point for the specifications are the various American Petroleum Institute more equipment is exposed t o i t and fewer precautions are taken since opi:at~v<t
slx!c~f~cat~ons for turbomachinery. The following are some of the applicable problems are either not recognized and are glossed over. A l l cold weather appli:,,
poblcatuns: tions need t o have some icing protection, especially in the air inlet suppl~es.F u i !
supply ventilation, pneumatic controls, actuators, all need to have some dry~i:r:0 1
Al'l Sll~~~G c 1l 1
. ~ ~Gc~,ti~i)l
~l P U I ~ U SSlualn
C! T u r b i ~ x !101 Rcfincry Services
de-icing. Many types of de-icing systems exist. The two most commoo t v l m u . t .
4Pl S l ~ , d . i ~ 612
d - Specla1 Pilrpose Stealn T ~ l r b i n efor Refinery Services
exhaust gases or compressor bleed air. Tropical climate presents its own st:, i : s I ) :
API Stdtid;~id613 - Hgh-speed Special Purpose Gear Units for Refinery Services
problems, such as excessive corrosion, high moisture content, and h y h aml)i,r,'.
API ~ i l .- Lube alld Seal Oil Services
S t . i ~ ~ l , i614
temperatures which increase the horsepower requ~redand the cooling capacity ,,I
API Sr;nrdard 616 - Combustion Gas Turbines for General Refinery Services
the lube oil system. Desert locations require specjal f i l t e r i ~ a t i o nsystems so .I\ I S
API Stlimiiird 617 - Centr~fugalCompressors for General Refinery Services
prevent erosion of the blades and special sealing on joints to prevent ~ I I V r l l :h,
API Stalldad 670 - Non-contacting Vibration and Axial Position Monitoring
small micron sand particles from entering the lube system, etc.
Svsrrms

Machine usage is a very important environment consideration since intermittent
usage can be the most severe kind of service. The aggressiveness of the gas t o be
handled and its temperature are very important aspects on the choice of materials
to be used.
Type of Compressor
In rnally cases, it is not obvious what type of compressor is needed for the
applrcation.Therearcmany typesof compressors o n the market as seen in Table 3.1.
Some o f the more significant types are the centrifugal, axial, rotary and recipro-
cating. The positive-displacement type compressors are used for intermittent flow
in which successive volumes of f l u i d are confined i n a closed space t o increase their
pressures. The other broad class o f compressors are rotary type for continuous
flow. I n these types o f compressors, rapidly rotating parts (impellers) accelerate
fluid t o a Ihqh speed; this velocity is then converted into additional pressure by
qrxlunl decelulation i n the diffuser or volute which surrounds the impeller.
Table 3.1. Principle Types o f Compressors
,:,,,,l~l~Kss~~l:!~
I I
LIQUID HI: I. I C A L AXIAL
PISTON I.UBE FLOW
The positive-displacement type of compressors can be further classified as either
reciprocating or rotary types as shown in Table 3.1.The reciprocating compressor
has a piston having a reciprocating motion within a cylinder. The rotary positive.
displacement compressors have rotating elements whose positive action results in
compression and displacement. The rotary positive-displacement can be further
subdivided into sliding vane, liquid piston, straight-lobe and helical-lobe type com-
pressors.
The continuous-flow type compressors, can be classified under dynamic or
ejector type, entrain the inflowing fluid using a high velocity gas or steam jet and
then convert the velocity of the mixture t o pressure in a diffuser. The dynamlc
compressors have rotating elements which accelerate the inflowing fluid, and con-
vert the velocity head into pressure head. Partially in the rotating elements and
partially i n the stationary diffusers or blade. The dynamic type can be further
subdivided i n t o centrifugal, axial-flow and mixed-flow compressors. The main flow
of gas in the centrifugal compressor is radial. The flow of gas in the axial com-
pressor i s axial and the mixed-flow compressor combines some characteristics of
centrifugal and axial compressors.
It i s not always obvious what type of compressor is needed for an application.
Of the many kinds, some of the more significant are the centrifugal, axial, rotary
and reciprocating. Figure 3.1 will aid in a selection of a compressor. For very high
flows and low pressure ratios, art axial-flow compressor would be best. Axial-flow
compressors usually have a higher efficiency but a smaller operating region thar a
centrifugal machine. Centrifugal compressors operate most efficiently at medium
flow rates and high pressure ratios. Rotary and reciprocating compressors (posit~vr?~
displacement machines) are best used for low flow rates and high pressure ratios.
This chapter deals with the centrifugal or mixed-flow type of compressors so the
following discussion i s concentrated on these compressors. There are many applica-
tions in a centrifugal compressor as seen in Table 3.2.
The centrifugal compressors range i n size from pressure ratios of 1.3:lper stage
t o as high as 12:2 on experimental models. In a typical centrifugal compressor the
fluid i s forced through the impeller by rapidly rotating impeller blades. The velocity
of the f l u i d is converted i n t o pressure, partially i n the impeller and partially in the
stationary diffusers. Figure 3.2 shows a section of a typical multistage centrifugal
compressor used i n the process industry.
A common method o f classifying centrifugal compressors is based on the num-
ber of impellers and casing design. Table 3.3 shows three general types o f centrifu-
gal compressors. For each type of the compressor, approximate maximum ratings
of pressure, capacity and brake horse power are also shown. Sectionalized casing
types have impellers which are usually mounted on the extended motor shaft and
similar sections are bolted together t o obtain the desired number of stages. Casing
material is either steel or cast iron. These machines require minimum supervision
and maintenance and are quite economic in their operating range. The sectionalized
 JUO!lellUa3UOJ
a10 U O J I ) f i u ! z ! ~ a l ~ a d
u o ! l e x ) ! ~ n dlay3!u pue laddo3
AJDU!L(JBUIpue slool l o j
 Process E y u i p m e n f Series Volume 3

Table 3.3. lndurtrial Centrifugal Compressor Classification Bared on Caring pressure types w i t h overhung impellers are used for combustion processes, ventila-
Derign tion and conveying applications. Multistage barrel casings are used for high pres-
sures for which the horizontally split joint is inadequate. Figure 3.4 shows the
Approximate Maximum Ratings
Approximate Approximate Approximate barrel compressor i n the background and the inner bundle from the compressor in
Pressure Capacity Horsepower front. Note that i n most cases once the casing is removed from the barrel i t is
Caring Type PSlG Inlet C F M Requirement horizontally split.

A. Sect~onalired
Uruallv Multistage 10' 20.0001 600'
8. Horironrally split
Slrlgle stage
idouble rucrionl 15" 650,000' 10.000'
Mullisrage 1,000 200,000' 35,000
C. Verrically split
Single stage
iringle sucrionl
Overhung 30' 250,000' 10,000"
Pipeline 1.200 25,000 20.000
Multirrage over 5,500 20.000 15,000

. ~ a ~ eo nd nir or airnoruhsric i n r o k e condirionr.

Figure 3.4. Barrel type compressor showing inner casing in foreground and barrel io
background (Courtesy of Nliotr/.

Compressor Configuration

T o properly design a centrifugal compressor, the operating conditions, the type

Figure 3.3. Multistage centrifugal compressor (Courtesy o f Elliott/
of gas, and its pressure, temperature and molecular weight must be known. The
corrosive properties of the gas must be properly identified so that proper met&
lurgical selection can be made. Gas fluctuations due t o process instabilities must bu
pinpointed so that the compressor can operate without surging.
Centrifugal compressors for industrial applications have relatively low presuri!
ratios per stage. This is necessary so that the compressors can have a wide opcrattrq
range, and stress levels can be kept at a minimum. Due to the low pressure ratios lo,
each stage, a single machine may have a number of stages in one "barrel" to achevr
the desired overall pressure ratio. Figure 3.5 shows some of the many config-
 urations. Some of the factors to be considered when srlect~rnga configu~a;:w ' .
meet plant needs are:
1. Intercooling between stages can considerably reuuct tne power L O ' I ~ L ~ , . , ~ ? L
2. Back-to-back impellers allow for a balanced rotor thrust, and minimi&
overloading the thrust bearings.
3. Cold inlet or h o t discha~grat the middle ot the case roduci!s 01-sl.a! ;ind
lubrication problems.
4. Single inlet or single discharge reduces external plping problems.
5. Balance planes that are easily accessible i n the field can appreciably i r d u c t .
t field-balanciny time.
Series tlow, fwo cooling poinrr 6. Balance piston with no external leakage will greatly reduce wi:ar WI 111~

thrust bearings.
I
l ILL 11 7. Hot and cold iections o f the case that are adjacent to each other will r e d u u
thermal gradients, and thus reduce case distortion.
8. Horizontally split casings are easier to open for inspection thar, vl.!rt~cal;
split ones, reducing maintenance time.
Parallel flow, suction in end* 9.Overhung rotors present an easier alignment problem because shai!u;,ri
alignment i s necessary only at the coupling between the compresm a l w
driver.
10. Smaller, high.pressure compressors that do the same job will reduce found2
tion problems b u t w i l l have greatly reduced operational range.

Parallel flow. rucfion in center
Serial f l o w , two cooling poinrr
Arrangements
series flow, one cooling Point The general configuration o f the compressors and their drive trains must ht.
evaluated t o f i t the location, environment, and type of compressor selectc!d. A
decision must be made as t o whether the units are to be i n series or paralli:l Thj;
decision requires a knowledge o f the flow and discharge pressure required. In n l r h
cases, a number of casings are connected together t o form a "compressor t r a ~ r l . "
This is nothing else but the connection of various compressors in series. The l m i ;u
the number of connected casings is due to the rotor dynamics of the couplfd r w : .
Series flow, one cooling point. I n the arrangement, one must also decide what type of mounting is desirable M L ~ !
suction on ends, cool ends turbomachinery is mounted on structural steel platforms which are usually i r f r ~ r m u
t o as base plates or skids. These platforms are then mounted on a mass of coric~,,:.,
at the job site by mounting them on sole plates or through direct grouti~l!, % I
forms should be considered part of the foundations and great care should tic: ~,I.I.G.I!
i n their design. Insufficient rigidity of these platforms can allow the ro!.ilIi,;,
machinery to excite them.

Driver Selection

The three main typcs of dr~veson compressors arc! 11 rli:om t u r b ~ r \ i : i ,Zr I;.!,
fl!jiirr 3.5. V ~ i i o i i cr u n l r y u r ~ i r i o i i roicr?iilirtugal compicsrorr ro meat nceds turbines, and 31 electric motors. The decision o f which d r v c 15 the bast i u r i : i l :i
t w ~ 1

01 ,I,,! ,,r"c,~.s$i>l:,"~s.
always an easy decision. The selection o f the drive depends on many factors such as
location, process. and u n i t size. I n remote locations, gas turbines are mostly used
due t o their l o w maintenance and the ability t o prepackage the units. Their light
w r g h r makos them also a m u s t for offshore platforms. I n petrochemical plants, due
to the ~ ~ o c e ssteams created, steam turbines are widely used. I n this manner, plants
car> i l t ~ l l lhuir
~ ! t:r~tx(~y- t h u s operating at an overall high plant efficiency. Electric
motors d ~ i v c[nost o f the smaller f l o w compressors, usually through a speed increas-
ing qeat system. Figure 3.6 shows the typical ranges for the various drives. Also
f r o m this tigute, one can note that the higher the flow, the lower the speed. This is
due t o 1h1: fact that at high flows the compressor diameter must be large; therefore,
the speed must be reduced t o maintain the same stress levels.
Figure 3.6. Application chart for cerlrnfugal compressors.
A E R O - T H E R M O D Y N A M I C S O F C E N T R I F U G A L COMPRESSORS
Thermodynamics
TI,? r : ~ x r q y trailsfor t o the r o t o r can bc obtained f r o m the first law o f thermo-
11vn;lmcs. T h e first law applied betwee!) t w o stations can be w r i t t e n as follows:
where:
is the rate o f heat transfer per u n i t mass flow
w i s the rate o f shaft work per u n i t mass flow
h is the enthalpy o f the fluid
V is the velocity of the fluid
I f the energy transfer t o the fluid is considered as being reversable and adiadaba~
t i c (i.e. losses such as due t o friction in the f l o w passage being absent, along with no
heat transfer) the w o r k energy u t i l i l e d t o raise the enthalpy of the fluid from its
initial t o final state can be w r i t t e n as:
The above relationships will give a negative value i n the case of a compressor and
a positive value in the case of a turbine thus indicating that input or output shaft
w o r k respectively is equal t o the increase in the total enthalpy rise across the
turbomachine.
T h e mechanical energy available t o the rotor o f the centrifugal compressor from
its prime mover i s given b y the Euler Turbine equation and can be w r i t t e n as:
w = u , v,, -U2 vo2
where UI and U 2 are the peripheral velocities at the inlet (mean) and exit diameters
of the rotor, and V,, and V, are the tangential components of the absolute
velocities at the inlet and exit respectively.
Efficiencies
1. Adiabatic Efficiency - The work in a centrifugal compressor under ideal
conditions occurs at constant entropy as shown in Figure 3.7. The actual work
done is indicated b y the d o t t e d line. Therefore the isentropic efficiency o f the
compressor can be written i n terms o f the total changes in enthalpy:
This equation can be rewritten for a thermally and calorically perfect gas in terms
of total pressure and temperature as follows:
 Q
@ = -7 (Flow Coefficient) (111
ND

H
$ = --(Head Coefficient) (121
NZ

The above are some of the major dimensionless parameters. I n many cases for
the flow t o remain dynamically similar all the above parameters must remain con-
stant, however, this i s not possible in a practical sense so one must make choices.
I n seclecting turbomachines the choice of specific speed and specific diameter
determines the type o f compressor which is most suitable as seen i n Figure 3.9. I t is
obvious from this figure that high head and low flow require a positive displace-
ment type unit, while a medium head and medium flow require a centrifugal type
unit, and high flow and low head an axial flow type unit. Figure 3.10 shows a
blow-up o f the centrifugal compressor section and can be used as a reference for
selection o f centrifugal compressor units.

v ; ~ ~ i i xdim~!ns~onluss
~s paramt!trrs which art! based on the dimensions, such as Mass
(M!, L w q r h ( L ) arid T i ~ n e( T ) . Based on these we cat1 obtain various independent
parameters such as density (p), viscosity 1/11, speed ( N ) , diameter ( D ) and velocity
(V!. This leads to forming various dimensionless groups which are used in fluid
tnrchanics of turbomachines.

PVD
Re = - (Reynolds Number) (8)
ii

N3 = ~f i Speed)
(Specific (9)
~ 3 1 4

W11sla H is thc ; l d i ; h t i c head. Q is the volume rate, and N the speed

Figure 3.9. Compressor map.

Flow coefficients, pressure coefficients can be used to determine varlous o f f

design characteristics. Reynolds number effects the flow calculations as far as skin
W h u r D i s the d~amete!of the impeller.
friction and velocity distribution are concerned.
It must be remembered when using dimensional analysis in computing performanoe
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~
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HEAD

c o t ~ s ~ s oft s two basic sol~ftions1 ) the inducer which is very much like an axial flow
loto,. ; i d 21 the radial blades where energy is imparted by centrifugal force. The
flow enters the impeller usually i n the axial direction and leaves in the radial
i i ~ ~ c c t f o Ths
n . velocity variations from hub to shroud resulting from these changes
H I llcm < ~ I I < Y : ~ I O complicate
~K the desig~iprocc:dure fot centrifugal compressors. C .
li. W u 11.1s p~ssuntcdthu tIil.ee dimensiorlal theory in an impeller, b u t it is difficult
i i , x,lv,, I<,(ihc! fluw III ;In impt?llr!r uslrlq the above theory without certain simpli-
l i e d c u i ~ i t t u i ) s .J. D. Srao~tr,T. Katsanis. F. Dallenback. M. P. Boyce. Y Senoo
.ind SO on have dealt with it as a quasi-three dimensional solution. It is composed of
two solutions, one i n the meridional surface (hub-to-shroud) and the other i n the
stream surface of revolution (blade-to-blade). These surfaces are illustrated in
Flgu,c 3.21
By the application of the previous mentioned method using a computer proyram.
i t is possible to achieve impeller efficiencies of more than 90%. The actual flow
phenomena i n an impeller is much more complicated than the one calculated. One
example o f this complicated flow i s shown in Figure 3.22. The stream lines ob-
served i n Figure 3.22 d o not cross, but are actually in different planes. Figure 3.23
shows the flow i n the meridional plane, note separation regions at the i l d u c i : ~
I section and at the exit.
Figure 3.22. Flow map of ,mpe//er plane
I
As mentioned previously, experimental studies of the flow within impellci~
passages have shown that the distribution of velocities on the blade surfaces I S
rather different from the distributions predicted theoretically. I t is likely that the
discrepancies between theoretical and experimental results are due to secondary
flows from the pressure losses and boundary layer separation in the blade passages.
High performance impellers should be designed, when possible, with the a ~ do i
theoretical methods for determining the velocity distributions on the blarlr S O I ~
faces.
Examples of the theoretical velocity distributions in the impeller blades ol a
centrifugal compressor are shown i n Figure 3.24. The blades should b,! so di!sig~,i:ci
that there are no large decelerations or accelerations of flow in the impeller s111ce
this would lead to high losses and separation of the flow. Potential flow s o l u t o r , ~
predict the flow well i n regions away from the blades where bouniary layer effi:i.ti
are negligible. I n a centrifugal impeller, the viscous shearlng forces create: a bou~)(i
ary layer with reducr?d kinetic i:ni:rgy. If the kinetic cnvrgy IS riiducnd hi:lc,vi ,,
certain limlt, the flow i n this layer becomes stagnant t h w icivarrcs.
 z/b = relative rneridional channel w i d r h
v'/i = relative blade spacing

Figure 3.23.Flow map as reen in meridionel plans.

Inducer

The function o f the inducer is t o increase the fluid's angular momentum without
increasing its radius o f rotation. I n the inducer section the blades bend toward the
direction o f rotation as shown i n Figure 3.25. The inducer is very much an axial
rotor and changes the f l o w direction from the inlet f l o w angle t o the axial direc-
tion. I t has the largest relative velocity i n the impeller and i f not properly designed
can lead to choking conditions at its throat as shown i n Figure 3.25.
There are usually three forms o f inducer camber lines in the axial direction.
These are circular arc, parabolic and elliptical. Circular arc camber lines are used i n
- - - ?/C A M B E R
BLADE
compressors with low pressure ratios while the elliptical produces good perform- LINE IN
CYLINDRIC SECT~ON
ance at high pressure ratios where the flow has tronsonic mach numbers. A A
Due to choking conditions i n the inducer many designs incorporate a splitter
blade design. The f l o w pattern i n such an inducer section is shown i n Figure 3.26a.
T h s flow pattern indicates a separation o n the suction side of the splitter blade.
Other designs include tandem inducers. This consists of the inducer section being
slightly rotated as shown i n Figure 3.26b. This modification by Boyce and Nishida
gives additional kinetic energy t o the boundary which is otherwise likely to
separate.
J - ;y3)
t-

iz2
w
ZK
0

o 'w
=
07

,i-
+3
0, Pu?

2
0lLz e2
11
D
L" LO- ii
 I n a s~;itioriary impeller the f l o w could well be expected t o f o l l o w the blade
shape and exit tangentially t o it. Here, of course, a very high adversepressure
gradent d o n g the blade passage and subsequent f l o w separation are n o t considered
to be genual possibilities.
Inertla ;,,xi centrifugal focces w o u l d cause the f l u i d elements t o move closer t o
imd ;ilong the l e a d ~ n gsurface of the blade, towards the exit, and once o u t o f the
bliidu passage where there is n o positive impelling action present, these fluid
elements tend t o slow down.

Causes o f Slip

The cause o f the slip factor phenomenon that occurs w i t h i n an impeller is n o t

known exsctly. However, some general reasons can be used t o explain w h y the f l o w
is changed. These are:
1. Coriolis Circulation - due t o the pressure gradient between the walls of t w o
adjacent blades. Coriolis forces, centrifugal forces, and follows the Helmholtz vor-
ticiry law. The combined gradient that results causes a f l u i d movement f r o m one
wcill t o tlie o t h e ~and vice versa. This sets up a circulation w i t h i n the passage as seen
ill F ~ g w c 3.28.
i Because of this circulation, a velocity gradient results at the impeller
Figure 3.29. Boundary-layer development.
exit w i t h a !net change in the exit angle.

2. Boundary Layer Development - The boundary layer that develops w i t h i n an
i~npellerpassage causes the flowing f l u i d t o experience a smaller e x i t area as shown
In Figure 3.29. This is due t o small, i f any, f l o w w i t h i n the boundary-layer. F o r the
fluid t o e x i t this smaller area, its velocity must increase. This gives a higher relative
exit velocity. Since the meridional velocity remains constant, the increase in relative
velocity must be accompanied w i t h a decrease i n absolute velocity.
3. Leakage - F l u i d f l o w f r o m one side o f a blade t o the other side is referred to
as leakage. Leakage reduces the energy transfer f r o m impeller t o f l u i d and decreases
the e x i t velocity angle.
4. Number o f Vanes - The higher the number of vanes, the lowerthe vane
loading and the closer the f l u i d follows the vanes. With higher vane loadings, the
f l o w tends t o group upon the pressure surfaces and introduces a velocity gradient at
the exit.
5. Vane Thickness - Because o f manufacturing problems and physical necessity.
impeller vanes have some thickness. When the fluid exits the impeller, the vanes n o
longer contain the f l o w and the velocity i s immediately slowed. Because i t is the
meridional velocity that decreases, both the relative and absolute velocities dr.
crease, thus changing the e x i t angle o f the fluid.
T o combine all these effects, consider a backward curved blade impeller. The
exit velocity triangle f o r this impeller, w i t h the different slip phenomenon changes
is shown i n Figure 3.30. As this shows the actual conditions when the compressor i s
running may be far removed from the design condition.
Several theoretical and e m p i r i ~ a l ' e ~ u a t i o nhave
s been derived for the slip factor.
Some o f the widely used of these are the theoretically based equation derived by
Stodola and Stanitz, all of which assume the inviscid fluid-flow through the
impeller.
 Stanitz's solutions were for n14 < <
B2 nl2. This equation compares well wlth
experimental results for radial or near radial blader.

Diffusers

Flyurc 3.30.E f k i or8 exit velacify triar,gIes by various parameters.
Diffusing passages have always played a vital role in obtaning good perfotrnallci.
from turbomachines. Their role i s t o recover the maximum possible k i i i e t ~ cani!!riv
leaving the impeller at a minimum expense of loss in total pressure. The cfficii!rlw<
of centrifugal compressor components has been steadily improved by a d v a r ~ c ~ m
their performance. Significant further improvement in efficiency, however. w:!I
only be gained by improving the pressure recovery characteristics of the diffusinq
elements of these machines, since these elements have the lowest efficiency.

6. Slip Factor Due t o Stodola - The second Helmholtz law states that the
v o ~ t i c l t yo i a frictionless fluid does not change with time. Hence, if the f l o w at the
mlct to ;in irnpelle~ is irrotational, the absolute flow must remain irrotational
t l ~ ~ o u i r l i i xtiht e impcllrl-. As the impeller has ; I n angular velocity w , the fluid must
I I , I c y w li:lativ~:to t h irnprllc,.
~ This fluid motion is called the
I , I . Thus it thole wcta oo flow thruugh the impeller, the fluid i n the
i m , x l l ~ :climmels
~ w w l d rotate wlth ;in ar~gularvelocity equal and opposite to the
THROAT
~mpeller'sallgulai velocity.
The apploxlmate the flow Stodola's theory assumes that the slip is due t o the
(A1 S T R A I G H T - W A L L , RECTANGULAR DIFFUSER
irldtivtr eddy.
The ielatve eddy i s considered as a rotation of a cylinder of fluid at the end of
the blade passage (shown as a shaded circle) at an angular velocity of -w about its
own axis. The Stodola slip factor is given by:

THROAT
Whe~,? 0: is the blade angle, Z the number of blades. Wm2 is the meridional velocity
EXIT
. i l ~ iU : the blade t ~ pspeed. Calculations using this equation have been found t o be
gc~lu d~l y lower than experimental values. (0) STRAIGHT - WALL. CONICAL DIFFUSER
7. Stnntir Slip Factor - Staniti calculated blade-to-blade solutions for eight
Figure 3.37. GeornetNc classificvoon o f dilfurerr
i n [ ~ c l l e ~and
s concluded that, for the range of conditions covered by the solutions,
U 1s a function of the number of blades ( 2 ) and the blade exit angle is
approxitnately the same whether the flow is compressible or incompressible.
 The performance characteristics of a diffuser are complicated functions o f the
d~ffusel-goometry, inlet flow conditions and in some cases exit flow conditions.
F w r e 3.31 shows typical diffusers classified based on their geometry. The selection
of 311 olltlmuln channel diffuser for a particular task is difficult since it must be
cliosar~ f ~ n ma n almost ~ n f i n i t e number of cross sectional shapes and wall
conflguarions. I n radial and mixed-flow compressors the requirement o f high
performance and compactness leads t o the use of vaned diffusers as shown in Figure
3.32. Figure 3.32 also shows the flow regime of a vane-island diffuser.

CHANNEL
DIFFUSER
PRESSURE I
SURFACE
SUCTION
SURFACE /

Figure 3.33. J e t h a k e flow distribution from impeiler.

channel-type diffuser the viscous shearing forces create a boundary layer wlth
reduced kinetic energy. I f the kinetic energy is reduced below a certain limit, the
flow in this layer becomes stagnant and then reverses. This flow reversal cauri:r
separation i n a diffuser passage, as mentioned above, which results in eddy losri!s,
mixing losses and changed flow angles. The separation should be avoided or delayed
t o improve compressor performance.
The high-pressure ratio centrifugal compressor has a narrow stable operatfig
range. This operating range is due t o the close proximity of the surge and choke
DJUSTMENT flow limits. The word, surge, is widely used to express unstable operation of a
compressor ingeneral. "Surge" will be defined as the flow breakdown period dur~ng
SEMI-VANELESS VANE LEADING
SPACE EDGE RADIUS unstable operation. The unsteady flow phenomena during the onset of surge in a
high-pressure ratio centrifugal compressor caused the mass flow throughout the
Figure 3.32.Flow regions o f the vaned diffuser compressor t o oscillate during supposedly "stable" operation. The throat pressure,
i n the diffuser increases during the precursor period almost up t o collector pressure.
Matching the flow between the impeller and the diffuser i s very complex because P, at the beginning of surge. A l l pressure traces, except plenum pressure.
the flow path changes from a rotating system into a stationary system. This suddenly drop at the surge point. The sudden change of pressure can be explained
complex unsteady flow is strongly affected by the jet-wake of the flow leaving the by the measured occurrence of back flow from the collector through the impeller
, impeller as seen i n Figure 3.33. The three-dimensional boundary layers and during the period between the two sudden changes.
srconda~yflows i n the vaneless region, and flow separation at the blades also effect
the overall flow i n the diffuser. Scroll or Volute
The flow in the diffuser i s in many cases assumed t o be o f a steady nature, i n
order to obtain the overall geometric configuration of the diffuser. I n a The purpose of the volute is t o collect the fluid leaving the impeller or diffuser
and deliver it t o the compressor outlet pipe. The volute has an important effect on

P E R F O R M A N C E C H A R A C T E R I S T I C S O F C E N T R I F U G A L COMPRESSORS
The calculation o f the performance o f a centrifugal compressorat b o t h design
:~ndo f f design conditions require the knowledge o f the various types o f losses
t!ncountrred in a centrifugal compressor.
The accurate calculation and proper evaluation o f the losses w i t h i n the
c e ~ i f r i f u g a l compressor is as important as the calculation of the blade loading
lpaliilneter, since unless the proper parameters are controlled, the efficiency drops,
tht! evaluation o f the various losses is a combination o f experimental results and
theory. The losses are divided i n t o t w o groups: 11 losses encountered i n the rotor
.id.2 ) losses encountered in the stator. T h e losses are usually expressed as a loss o f
I l w t or enthalpy.
The losses are usually expressed as a loss o f heat or enthalpy. A convenient way
to express them is in a non-dimensional manner w i t h reference t o the e x i t blade
. The theoirtical total head ava~lableiq,o,l is equal t o the head available f r o m
t l v c ~ > c r g equ:ltion:
y
~ ~ l ut.h: e h ~ a wd h ~ c his lost due to disk f n c t i o ~ i( A q D F ) and due t o any recirculation
ofl the tlir h c k i n t o the rotor f r o ~ nthe diffuser..
( . \ i ~ , ~
Thai x ~ a b a t i chead that i s actually avallable at the rotor discharge is equal t o the
tli<wrctical head minus the heat due t o the shock in the rotor @qSh), the inducer
loss (Aq,,>I, the blade loadings. (Aq,,, I the clearance (Aq,) between the r o t o r and
the shroud. and the viscous losses @qSf) encountered in the flow passage.
Therefore, the adiabatic efficiency i n the impeller is:
I ,lit ot the over-all stage efficiency must also include the losses
r ~ , c i , u n l r ~ e dI,, the dlffuset. Thus, the overall actual adiabatic head attained w o u l d
be l h c actual j d ~ a b i i t i chead o i the impeller minus the head losses encountered i n
tllc d f l u s u r duc t o wake caused b y the impeller blade (Aq,), the loss of part o f the
kini!t!c head at the exlt o f the dffuser lAqe,,l, and the loss of head due t o the
Proccss Eyuipmenr Series Volume 3
frictional forces (Aqosf1 encountered in the vaned or vaneless diffuser space
Thus the overall adiabatic efficiency in impeller is given b y the following
relations hi^: '
The individual losses can n o w be computed. These losses are broken up intu two
major categories: 1 I losses in the rotor, and 21 losses in the diffuser.
Rotor Losses
The rotor losses as mentioned previously are divided further into varlous cati!
gories. The following i s the analysis o f each of these losses.
1. Shock in R o t o r Losses - This loss i s due t o the shock occurring at the r o w
inlet. The inlet o f the rotor blades should be wedge-like so as t o obtajn a weak
oblique shock and then should gradually be expanded t o the blade thickness so .IS
t o avoid another shock. I f the blades were blunt, this would lead t o a b l o w shock
which would cause the f l o w t o detach from the blade wall and the loss to bc much
higher.
2 . Incidence Loss - A t o f f design conditions, flow enters the inducer 41 ;ill
incidence angle that i s either positive or negative, as shown in Figure 3.35. A
positive incidence is that which causes a reduction in flow. Fluid approachf~ig;)
blade w i t h incidence suffers an instantaneous change of velocity at the blade irilrit
t o comply w i t h the blade inlet angle. Separation o f the blade also creates a loss
associated w i t h this phenomenon.
3. Disk F r i c t i o n Loss - This is the loss due t o the frictional torque on the back
surface o f the r o t o r as seen in Figure 3.36. This loss is the same for a given size disk
whether it is used f o r a radial i n f l o w compressor, or a radial inflow turbine. I n
many cases, the losses i n the seals, bearings, and gear box are also lumped in w ~ t h
this loss, and the entire loss can be called an external loss. I n this loss unless rhr! yiil,
is o f the order o f magnitude o f the boundary layer, the effect of the gap p ? t ! 1,.
negligible. A p o i n t o f interest that should be indicated here i s that the disk f r c t i i ~ ! ,
in a housing is less than that on a free disk. This is due t o the existence o f a "Cow"
which rotates at half the angular velocity.
4. Diffusion Blading Loss - T h i s loss arises because of negative velocity gradvr:t\
i n the boundary layer. This deceleration of the flow increases the boundary l : v +
and gives rise t o separation of the flow. The adverse pressure gradient, w l i c h r;
compressor normally works against increases the chances of separation and qvi:;
rise t o a rather significant loss.
 rulccs 01, the imilcller wall which are mostly due to turbulent friction. This type of 5. Exit Loss - The exit loss assumed that one half of the kinetic energy leaving
loss is i r s u ~ l l ydemmined by considering the f l o w as an equivalent circular cross the vaned diffuser is lost.
sectioti wiih a hydraulic diameter. The loss is then computed based on the well Losses are a complex phenomena and as discussed are a function of many
known 1)ipr flow pressure loss equations. parameters such as inlet conditions, pressure ratios, blade angles, flow etc. Figure
3.39 shows the loss distributed in a typical and centrifugal stage of pressure ratio
Stator Losses below 2:l with backward curved hlades. This figure is just d guide lint! a t ~ dshould
be used as such
1. Rccirc~datiogLoss - This loss occurs dui? to the back flow into the impeller
cxlt o l ;,
compfessor and is a direct function of the air exit angle. As the flow
Through the compressor reduces, there i s an increase in the absolute f l o w angle at I,>,,

the exit of the impeller as seen in Figure 3.38. Part of the fluid is recirculated from
11111 illu use^ to the tmpeller and its energy is returned to the impeller.
'8,)

Figurc 3.38. Recirci,/ating loss. Flgure 3.39. Losses in a centrifugal compressor.

2. Wake Mixing Loss - Thls loss i s duc to the impeller blades, causing a wake in Performance Characteristics
1 I i ~ .v;lnelrsssi);ice Lxhuid the l o t o r . This loss is m ~ n i m i r e di n a diffuser which i s
A Plot showing the variation of total pressure ratio across acompressoriis a
s y n i ~ i w i~ t ~J l O u l l d the axis of rotation.
function of the mass flow rate through i t at various speeds is known a s the per
3. Vaneless Diffuser Loss -This loss i s experienced in the vaneless diffuser due t o
formance characteristics of that compressor. Figure 3.40 shows such a plot.
r l l i f r i c I ~ waid the absolute flow angle.
The actual mass flow rates and speeds are corrected by factor ( mhland i l l
4. Vaned Diffuser Loss - Vaned diffuser lossas x s based on the conical diffuser
r c s t 1t~su11.;. They jre 3 fw,ctiot\ of the impellet bladi! loadlng and the vanlesssspace
-& respectively, i n order t o take into account the variation in the inlet c o n r j ~ t o r t i
of temperature and pressure. The surye line is the line which joins the po81~ti irr~
~ . i i i u s1.11o Thcy dso take into x c o u n t the blade ~ncidenceangle and the skin
different speed lines where the compressor's operation begins to be unstabli!. A
11 c t ~ o iduc
l I n the vanes.
compressor i s said t o be in surge when the main flow throuqh the cumiirr:rsu!

reverses its directionand flows from the exit t o the inlet, for a short time interval
during which the back (exit) pressure drops and then the main flow assumes its
proper direction. This is followed by the rise i n back pressure causing the main flow
to reverse again. This unsteady process, i f allowed to persist, may result i n irrepara-
bit? dxn.qc to the machine. Lines of constant adiabatic efficiency (sometimes called
the efflctency islands) are also plotted o n the compressor map. A condition known
as choke o i commonly known as "Stonewall'' is indicated on the map which shows
the maximutn mass flow rate possible through the compresor at that operating
speed.
Surge
s o r IS a phenomeno!i o f considerable interest and is not yet fully
C < ~ ~ n i i ~ t ! sSLlrlJC
o n d c r s t w ~ i .t s s ~ n t i a l l y ,~t is ,I s1tila11011
of ~ ~ ~ m a operation
blt:
i*. a v o l d c d H I both drstgn a r w ~ ( ~ e r a t i o rSutger. has bee,i traditionally defined as the
lowel litnlt of stable operattoll o f a compressor and involves the reversal o f flow.
T h s rvcts,il of flow occurs because o f some k l l ~ dof aerodynamic instability w ~ t h i n
I\?? systum. Usu8lly i t 18 part o f the colnprcssor that i s the cause of the aerodyriamic
Process /iqiiip,,ierii Series Volu,ne .i
instability though i t is possible that the system arrangement could be capable of
magnifying this instability. Figure 3.40 shows a typical performance map fol C<
centrifugal compressor showing efficiency islands and constant aerodynam~cspeeo
lines. The total pressure ratio can be seen t o change with flow and speed. Usuallv
compressorrare operated at a working line separated by some safety margln from .
the surge line.
a
Usually, surge is linked with excessive vibration and an audible sound; v e t , therr
have been cases i n which surgu problems which are not audible have caused lailurcs.
Extensive investigations have been conducted on surge. Poor quantitative umvt:~
sality of aerodynamic loading capacities of different diffusers and impi<lli!rs 2nd . I ( ;
inexact knowledge of boundary layer behav~ormakes the cxact p r e d ~ c t i oo~li I l a n
in turbomachines at the design stage difficult. It IS, however, quite evident that lhi,
underlying cause of surge is aerodynamic stall. The srall may occur n i:tthr!l t t h
impeller or the diffuser.
When the impeller is the cause of surge, the inducer is what actually causes l h i ,
stall. Either a decrease in the mass flow rate or an increase In the rotational speed 0 1
the impeller or both can cause stall i f the compressor is operating at the surge h i t ! .
Stalling the diffuser occurs i n basically the same way as i n the inducer. A
diffuser usually consists of avaneless diffuser, a pre.diffuser section before thc
throat containing the initial portion of the vanes, the throat and a diffusion passage. .
The pre-diffuser accepts the velocity generated by the centrifugal impeller and
turns the flow from thevaneless space t o the restriction of the diffuser passage at the .
throat and beyond. When the pre-diffuser stalls, the flow will not enter the thlo:it
The discharge volume senses this drop i n flow pressure and discharges through the
diffuser. thus causing flow reversal and surge. As before, stalling of the pre-d~ffuscr
can be accomplished i n two ways - by increasing impeller speed or decreas~ngthe
flow rate.
Whether surge is caused by a decrease in flow velocity or an increase in rota-
tional speeds, either the inducer or pre-diffuser stalls. Which stalls first is difficult to
determine, b u t findings have shown that for low pressure ratio compressor the suryr:
initiates i n the diffuser section while for units with single stage pressure ratios abovi
3:l the indication is that surge is initiated in the inducer.
Surge Detection and Control
Surge detection devices may be broken into two groups: l l static surge detectlor!
devices, and 2) dynamic surge detection devices. To this date, statlc sulge detecticj~,
devices have been widely used and more research work i s still to be done befurti 11
dynamic detection device can be used. It i s probably the dynamic surge d e t ~ c t o i l
arid should therefore
device that will meet the requirements and hopes of many engrleers lor a cmrrr<>l
device that could anticipate stall and surge and hence prevent its 0ccvrri:rtu
Obviously, detect~ondevices must be linked with a control dewcr which w o t ~ l i l
prevent an unstable operation of a compressor.
 Static i u i q t ' i l e t r c t ~ o ndevct:s are those whlch attempt to avoid stall and surge by
thc rnedsiilement o f some compressor parameters and ensure that a pre-decided
I 5 1 rxcetided. When the parameters meets or exceeds the limit, some
r o i l l r o ; i r t t i ~ i , 1 li,ken A typical pressure ortented anti-surge control system i s
s l i o w ~H ~I F$qu!t!3.41. The pressure transmitter monitors the pressure and controls a
. device wlijch inlight open a blow-off valve. A temperature sensing device corrects
the effect of flow and speed for the effect of temperature. A typical
lhc w x i ~ x l sf o ~
flow otientiid device is also shown in Figure 3.41.
reaches the critical situation of surge. This is done using a boundary layer probe.
Boyce has obtained a patent for a dynamic surge detection using a boundary
layer probe which is presently undergoing some actual field tests. This system
consists of specially mounted probes i n the compressor to detect boundary layer
flow reversal, as shown in Figure 3.42. The concept being that the boundary layer
would reverse initially before the entire unit would be in surge, and since it is
measuring an actual onset by monitoring the flow reversal i t is not dependent or1
the molecular weight of the gas and i s not effected by the movement of the surge
line

-
. F,!ww .?. <I. PW.S.W~V
;,,xi flow o,,eort!d m # , - s w g e courro/ svsreo!.

TI,,, I!,IOL>II,III: L I U ~ I , ~101 ,ill stailc S L I I ~ ~deteclion dwces IS that the actual
,>11~~1<)111~,1,401 l l u w II,VIIISIII ( s c ~ r q c )is #not b<:iiig d ~ r e c l l ynlonitored. What is being
I I ~ W ~ I ~; i l O I C V I,I.II;IITI~IUI~
l . OIIICI that :11(! reI8tcd to sulge and the control limits are
Figure 3.42. Boundary layer surge predfcrion technique
set i t om p;ist cxpei ie~rceand a study of the compressor characteristics.
D y n a m c swge detection and control methods are currently being researched
tuil.~y.H u e , ;in attempt is made t o detect the srarf of a reversal of flow before i t
 Ill,:i ~v~.l<lr1g. 111 F~gure3.45e. an electron-beam techntque is used t o weld on the
sh~ourior the hub. This technique i s still i n its infancy and work needs t o be done MODE FORM
r i i p u ~ f ~it.
c t Its major disadvantage is that electron-beam welds should preferably
bc, st!assud i n tension, but for the configuration of Figure 3.45e, they are in shear.
The coi~f~gur;ltions of Figures 3.459 through 3.45j use rivets. Where the rivet heads
plottude into passage, aerodynamic performance is reduced.
Materials for fabricating these impellers are usually low-alloy steels, such as AlSl
4140 or A l S l 4340. AlSl 4140 is satisfactory for most applications; A l S l 4340 is
used for large impellers requiring higher strengths. For corrosive gases, A l S l 410
st;iiiiless steel (about 12% chromium) is used. Monel K-500 is employed in halogen
atmospheres and i n oxygen compressors because of its resistance t o sparking.
Tit;,niilm impellers have been applied t o chlorine service. Aluminum-alloy impellers
1i;tvti bean used i n great numbers especially at lower temperatures (below 300°F).
W r h f ~ c wdevelopments i n aluminum alloys, this rage is increasing. Aluminum and
utmriurn . I I ~sometimes selected because of their low density. This can cause a shift
H I rht, cuticlil speed of the rotor, which may be advantageous.

ROTOR DYNAMICS Figure 3.46. Mode forms for various bearing rliflners.

TII~, ~ m i ~ v r m r noft the i o t o l and its effect on the entlre performance o f the unit
i s t l i l most important aspect o f centrifugal compressordesign. Most compressors
twl.ly, wliicli ale used in the petrochemical industry, are built i n accordance with
API 617 spt~cificarions.The natural frequency o f the rotor cannot occur in the
v.11 i;lI,l<! si~m!dra11gc 01 the comp!cssor. Maliy of thl: newer high speed compressors.

O / I L ? I: i t t i ;$bow?I l i e i ~first critical. Shafts which operate above their critical are said t o

la* " f l u x i ~ l c ! shafts." API specifications call for the first critical to be at least 15
IIL,II:~IOI LII~OW JIIY operating r p w d and the second critical t o be at least 20 percent
O V ~ I the ~n;iximutn continuous speed. I t is desirable that the first critical not be

a r o u ~ ~half d the design speed; otherwise, a problem known as "oil whirl" may be
induccri. 011 whirl is a major cause of instability in turbomachines. It may occur i n
111~: jowndl beallngs o l 111 the seals i n which the shaft and the stationary seal are
s u ~ ) a i ~ l tby ? d a f i l m of fluld.
I n rho case of the newer flexible rotors which operate in many cases above the
f i r s t critical and i n many cases above the second or third criticals, balancing is a
~m.llot i~toblcrn.Figure 3.46 shows the various modes that the rotor shaft undergoes
.is i l i).isses rlirougli these criticals, note that the mode shapes are also effected by Ffgorr 3.47. Rotor response curve.
i
thr: bi!.$l[ng stiffness. High-speed balancing of these rotors i s sometimes a must for
smooth o r x ~ a t i a n .This inevitably means field balancing since there are only a few All rotating machines vibrate when operating, but the failure of the bearings s
i
iigs w h c h can balance these rotors at design speed, and these also operate i n a due mainly t o their inability t o resist cyclic stresses. The level of vibration a i r n t
vacuum chamber. Figure 3.47 is a typical rotor response curve for a four stage can tolerate i s shown i n the severity charts as shown in Figures 3.48. 3.49. a ~ i d
rotol. Herr the rotor is operating above the first critical, but the steepness of the 3.50. These charts are modified by many users to reflect their critical machlnc5 i r l
c u ~ v cnear the design point i s a cause for concern. Modification of the rotor and which they would like t o maintain much lower levels. These charts should only t , ~
<.ti,inil~in bt:;iring stiffness moved the slope from design point. used as guidelines, note that the absolute levels are effected by the speed of 1 1 ~
 !
D-

A-
DangerOYI - Shutdown
.
Abnormal will d e r e r o r a r ,
Inspect as early ar
angero our - Shutdown poraible
~ b n o r m swill
l deterlorats P- Problems - K e e p close
IIISPBEt BBdV watch
possible
N- Normal
-
Problems Keep close
watch
Normal

0.01 -

.. 1, , !d 10 LOO 1.000 1.000 10.000

ir.ii,,.i:CY, i!i

Figure 3.48. Severiry chart.

Figure 3.50. Severrry chart.

---
(_
, -- ~~ -
I 0-

A-
-
oangerou$ Shutdown
Abnormel will dererlorate
Inspect sr earlv es
can be classified i n t o three major categories: 1) casing and foundation. 2) focci.,
generated b y rotor motion, 3) forces applied to a rotor. Tablc 5 b y Rc~qer( R i l l ? )
is an excellent compilation o f these lorces.
prrssibls
1. Casing and Foundation Forces -These farces can be due t u f u u r , d i i t ~ w
P- problems - ~ e e p
close instability, other nearby unbalanced mach~nery,piping strallls, rotallon 111 ~ I , W I , ,
watch
, tional or magnetic fields, and excitation o f casing or loundation nalural l i ,
-./,' N- Normal quencies. These forces can be constant or variable with impulse loadings. The i:lfi,i:t
. . o f these forces on the rotor b e a r i ~ i gsystem can be large for example rnplrtq S ~ I ; ~ I I , ,
can cause major misalignment problems and unwanted forces on the bearfngs.
2. Forces Generated b y R o t o r M o t i o n -
These forces can be c l a s s f ~ r i lI I ~ I C I
/ . ! major categories: 1 ) forces due t o mechanical and material properties, 21 forces d u
t o various loadings of the system. The forces due t o mechanical and m a t e r a
properties are unbalanced which can be caused b y lack o f homogenity o f m a t e r a s
rotor b o w and elastic hysterisis of the rotor. The forces due t o loadings of thii
system are viscous and hydrodynamic forces in the rotor bearing system and varloui
blade loading forces which vary in the operational range of the unit.
Figure 3.49. Severiry charr. 3. Forces Applied t o a R o t o r - These forces can be due to drive rorqiles.

~ n a c h i i xThe velocity chart figure i s the only one which is least effected b y this
couplings, gears misalignment and axial forces such as due to balance plston a ~ i d
thrust unbalance. These forces can be very destructive and in many cases result ir,
-
p~oblem. total destruction of a machine.

Forces Acting O n A R o t o r Bearing System R o t o r Bearing System Instabilities

There are many types o f forces which act on a r o t o r bearing system. The forces Instabilities i n rotor bearing systems may be the results of different f n r c r i ,

~necl!;iu~~sms. However, one can divide these into t w o general and distinctly dif-
ferent crilrqories. The forced or resonant type is one i n which the frequency o f the
oscillat~ons1s dependent on outside mechanisms. The second category being the self
t i s c : I ~ ~instal!ilities
i these are independent o f outside stimuli and are independent of
f I i < ,I h m ~ ~ ~ mCi h~dy~.i i c t ~ ! r i ~ toi cf sthese forces can be seen in Table 3.6.
T;8bla, 3.5. Forcer Acting on Roror.Bearing Systems (Ref. 1151.
Source of Force Dercription
Hydrodynamic forcer, rtatlc
H y d r o d y n a m c forcer. dynamlc.
O l ~ ~ i l l l l li4iistlc
al 111:8111
Sriffners reaction forcer
Tr;lnlient torquer
Heavy applted rotor force
Pwcers Equipment Series Vulu,ne 3
Table 3.5. Forcer Acting on Rotor-Bearing Systems (Ref. 1151 (Continued)
Source of Force Description Application
Misaligned 3-r-more rotor-bearng
assembly.
Gravity Non-vertical machines. Nan-slutto1
applicationr.
Magnetic field, stationary or Rotating electrical machinc,ry
rotating
Application
Axial forcer Turbomachlne balance pfitor>
Cvcl!c forcer from propclle~,u!
fan. S e l k x c i ~ r db e m n q lorct";.
Pneumatic hammer.
netic field
Imprerred cyclic ground-or foun- (Conciudcdi
dation-motion
Air blarr, explorion or earthquake. Table 3.6. Characteristics of Forced and Self Excited Vibration
Nearly unblanced machinery.
Blows, impact
Forced or Self Excited or
Present in all rotatrng machinery.
Resonant Vibration Instability Vibration
M o t ~ o naround c u r v e o l varying
radtus. Soace ap~llicalionr.
Rotarycoordinufed unalynes.
P ~ ~ w e rol y f r o w r material which
FrequencyIRPM
Relilfionshlp -
N F NRpM 0' N o r
rational fraction
Constant end relatlvelv indrpw
dent of rotating rpecd
a~lpei~ws when rotor I S ~ v ~ l i c a l l v Ampl$tudc/RPM
rli:formrd tn bending, torrionally Relatronrh~p Peak in narrow lbanrlr 01 Blorsom8ng at onrer and c < r n c < c w
11, t l ~ i d l y . RPM to increase with increar8rlq Ri'M
C r n ~ s t ! u c t ~ odna m p l n g a r ~ r i n gf r o m I n 1 o f Damping Add. dampin<] Add. darnrmng may d l . 1 ~ i r l ;#
~cllativem o t i o n between shrunk Reducc arnpliludr hrgt~c:r RPM. W$llno! rrm~c:ts,8il'~
l i t t e d arremblier. N o change in RPM a r which affect amplitude
Dry-fricrion bearing whirl. i t OCCUIS
Vircour shear of bearings. System Geometry Lack of axial rym. external Independen~lyo f symmetry s,n;iIl
Fluid entrainment i n turbo- forces dellsct8n t o m a x ( w m e t r < c
machinery. Windage. system. Amplitude w d sell
Bearing load capacity prapagare.
Bear~ngrtiffnerr and damping Vibration Frequency A t or near ahafr same
properlies. Critical or Natural frequency
Rotors with differing rotor lateral Avoidance 1. Crittcal Freq. above 1. Operating RPM below onset.
rliffnerrer running speed.
Slotted rotors, electrical 2. Axirvmetric 2. El~minater1nrtabll8tv
machinery, Keyway 3. Damping Introduce damping
Abrupt meed change condltionr
Significant i n high-speed flexible
rororr with disks. 1. Forced or Resonant Vibration - I n forced vibration the most usuai d r v n q
Accclerarcng or constantspeed
Operation frequency in rotating !machinery i s the shaft speed or multiples of this sperd. T h s
Internal comburtion engine torque becomes critical when the frequency of excitation is equal to one of the natiJr;ll
and force companentr. frequencies of the system. I n forced vibration the system is function of thr f t i , .
M#ral#gned couplings. Propellers.
Fans. Internal combustion quencies that can also be multiples of rotor speed which can be exicted b y fir:
engine drive. quencies other than the frequency of the speed such as blade passing frequrnui:,.,
Gears w i t h indexing or positioning gear mesh frequencies. and other component frequencies. Figure 3.51 shows th:lt
errors
Drive gear forcer for forced vibration the critical frequency remains constant at any shaft speed. T t h
 VIBRATION

SY N C H R O N S
V I B R A T I O N --

VIBRATION VIBRATION
AMPLITUDE FREOUENCY

5 2
m

5 %
-
I * "
u

ONSET
SPEED
 . Hysttitctic W h i t -- This type of whirl has been diagnosed as occurring in pads have been found effective i n inhibiting oil whirl instability. Changing the o ~ l
t l c ~ x b l v~ o t c ~ duu
r s p r i m a i ~ l yto shrink fits. temperature can also sometimes get the machine out of an oil whirl condition.
W h w 2 ~ o i i ~ deflection
al i s imposed on a shaft, a neutral strain axis is induced d. Aerodynamic Whirl - Although the mechanism is not clearly understood, i t
nomi11 to thv direction of flexure. From first order considerations, the neutral axis has been shown that aerodynamic components such as compressor wheels and
of s t l e s s I S c w ~ , c i d a ~ lwith
t the neutral axis of strain, and a restoring force is turbine wheels can create cross-coupled forces due to the motion of the wheel.
d r v t i l o ~ e dperpcndiculal. to the neutral stress axis. The restoring force is then The acceleration or deceleration of the process fluid imparts a net tangential
ipalnllrl a i d o p p o s i ~ ~theg ~rrducedforce. I n actuality, internal frictionexists in the force on the blading. If the clearance between the wheel and housing varies circum-
shaft which causes a phase shift i n the stress. The result is that the neutral strain ferentially, a variation of the tangential forces on the blading may also be expected.
and ntmtlal stless axis ale displaced so that the resultant force is not parallel t o the resulting i n a net destabilizing force. The resultant force from the crosr.coupling of
~ l v f l i ? c t ~TIrt:
~ , ~t:u,qenlial
~. m m p o n s n t which is ilorm,ll to thi! deflection results i n a angular motion and radial forces may dr:stabilhzc the rotor causinri a whirl m o t c > ~ l .
~ I I ~ iIl Is t , ~ b ~ l ~AS
t y . whirl beyims, t h c~e ~ i t r i l i ~ y aforce
l component Increases thus e. Whirl Due to Fluid Trapped i n a Rotor - T h ~ stype of whirl occurs w h u ~
musing I'iryer defli:ctiot,s which result i n larger stresses and still larger whirl forces. liquids are entrapped inadvertently i n internal cavities of rotors. The fluid does not
T h s 1yw: o f increasing whirl m o t o n may eventually be destructive. remain i n a radial direction b u t has a component i n the tangential direction. The
I t u f t m iequires some unbalance initial impulse to start the whirl motion. The onset of this type of instability occurs just above the first critical and below twlce
cirzu~lti;il rrffect is caused by interfaces of joints i n a rotor (shrink fits) rather than the critical speed.
c l ~ i f t ~ It Os the ~matclinlo f the rotor. This type of whirl phenomenon occurs only at
j o t , i t ~ o n d speeds above the first critical, i t may disappear and then reappear at a BEARINGS FOR HIGH SPEED MACHINERY
lrglier ri~eed.To reduce t h ~ stype of whirl some success has been achieved by
Journal and thrust bearings are among the most important components to assurf!
o , i IIIIIIIIW~01 sc:ixui~tt: p i ~ IS.
~ c ~ c i i ~ i : ~1111: l ~ ~ ~ s t ~ ~the
c t ishiink
n j j fits, providing some
maintenance free running of high speed turbomachines Bearings in these machirm
lock u p of ,~ssarnL>Imi
ulclila~~ts.
range from simple journal bearings and flat thrust bearing to multiwedge designs for
I,. D l y Frlctlon Whirl - Dry flictioil whip is (!xpriienced when the surface of a
both thrust and journal bearings. Some of the many factors that enter into the
~ < , t . ~ t r , q sh;?ll i:oinm i n t o cnlitact with an ~ltiltlb~icatt:d
statiorrary guide. This can
selection o f such bearings are:
t.,kr jrl.ic:a i n ;In unlub, ~catedjournal, contact i n radial clearance of labyrinth seals,
and loss of clearance i n hydrodynamic bearings. 0 Speed range of shaft
This phenomenon occurs when the contact is made between the surface and the 0 Maximum misalignment that can be tolerated by the shaft
rotciti~lgshaft, the coluomb friction will induce a tangential force on the rotor. This Loading of the compressor inlets
f r c r o n forcu is ;iprpoximately proportional to the radial component o f the contact 0 Oil temperature and viscosity
i o ~ c t ithus ciiutinjl a comlition for instability. I t should be noted that the whirl 0 Foundation stiffness
detiictto!i is counter t o the shaft direction. 0 Axial movement that can be tolerated
c. Oil Whill -
This instability begins when fluid entrained i n the space between Type of lubrication system and its contamination
the shaft and bearing surfaces begins t o circulate with an average velocity of one- 0 Maximum vibration levels that can be tolerated
half of the shaft surface speed. The pressures developed i n the oil are not symmetric A l l rotating machines vibrate when operating, but failure of the bearings is
about the rotor. Due t o viscous losses of the fluid circulating through the small mainly due t o their inability t o resist cyclic stresses. The level of vibration that a
clearance, higher pressure exists on the upstream side of the flow than on the unit can tolerate i s shown i n the severity charts as shown in Figures 3.48. 3.49, a~rd
downstream s~de.Agatn a tangential force results. A whirl motion exists when the 3.50. These charts are modified by many users t o reflect the crit~calvalues for their
- t;mgpnti;il force exceeds any inherent damping. It has been shown that the shafting machines.
Inust ri,t,itr .II app~oximatslytwice thc critical speed for this to occur. Thus the
- to~ RPM IS closc to 0.5 fo, oil whirl. I t should be pointed out
~ ; i t l ~ 0r1 I I I ~ I I I I I I C Journal Bearings
hurt, tIr;~t tlris p t ~ c ~ l o ~ n r is n o~~, >
o trostiicted to tho bearing but also can w c u r in
The journal bearings for turbomachinery has a fluid film that carries the luail.
st,:,Is.
Film thiclmrss in most apr,lications range from 0.0003 in. for qasr:i to 0.008 i l l . f o l
Thu most obwous way to prevent oil whirl is to rfstrict the nlaximum rotor
hydrostatic oil lubricated bearinys.
s i x r d to less than twice its crit~cal.Bearing designs ilicorporating grooves or tilting
 Figuiu 3.53 shows a number of joutnal bearings in which a positive supply of
IhLmc.mt i s fed to the beari~lgat all times. The circumferential grooved bearing
i,o11n,1lly has the 0 1 groove at half the bearing length. T h ~ sprovides better cooling.
but reduces load capacity by dividing the bearing into two parts. The cylindrical
I,~,;~I~IKI, ust:<l H I turhnes, has a split construction with two axial oil feed grooves at
111c! s 1 ) I l . TI,,, I ) I ~ : S S U ~ C ! d i m bc!d,iri(j IS used w h c ~ ( b
! ~ : ~ r i nstabtlity
g is required.
2. Thermal conductivity backing material to dissipate heat developed in the 01'
film.
3. Thin babbitt layer. centrifugally cast to a uniform thickness of about 0.005
in. Thick babbitts greatly reduce bearing life. Babbitt thickness of about 0.01 .
in. reduces bearing life by more than half.
4. Oil film thickness can be varied by changing the number of pads, directin~jthe,
load onto or in between the pads, or changing the axial length o f the r i a d 011
film thickness is critical when making beating stiffness calculations.

Thurst Bearings

The most important function of a thrust bearing is to resist the unbalaricrd lorci,
developed i n the working fluid of the machine, and to maintain the rotor i n 11,
Position within the prescribed limits. A complete analysis of the thrust load n>ij$i
be conducted. Compressors with back t o back rotor greatly reduce thi? load o!.
thrust bearings.

TAPERED-LAND
THRUST BEARING

(A
l%t' must L.olrlnluo bed, ing i s the t l l t ~ o qpitd typ~!,whose inost important feature
i s st,II .il<)~>ment whe~,the b e w n q I S used wlth spht:rical pivots. This bearing offers
llie gccr;itest i,cre;isu III fatigue life because of these advantages:
1. S1.11 d1911111g f o ~
optimum alignment and mfrlimum limit.
 F q u i r 3.54 sliows a numbel of d ~ f f e l e n ttypes of such bearings. When properly
dusqni!(l, thu tapered-land thlust bearing as seen in Figure 3.54a can take and
SIII~~O'I d l w d equal to that of a tilting pad thrust bearing. With perfect alignment.
11 i:,lil ~n,.ltch the Io,~dof avrn a s d f uqu;lli/ing tilting pad thrust bearing. Figure
3.5411 1s .I I I O ~ I c ~ j u . l l ~ / i n ttlting
g p x l thrust b e i l r i ~ ~that
g pivots on the back of the
.iIi,l~f
~l.i<l ;, !xII;BI line. Fiqurc 3.54~:is 2 noc t!quali/ing liltirlg pad bearing whose
[,ails .IIC sul,l,ortcd <,I, s p h c ~ c i p
~~l v o tpoittts. Sillco this slows the pads to pivot i n
m y direction. al~gnment is n o t as serious a problem as i n the other two types.
Figure 3.54'1 is the Kingsbury type self equalizing thrust bearing. This bearing
v i ~ t u a l l y t:liln,~;ltes the problem of misalignment. The major drawback is that
st;ii~I;iid des~grrsrequtre more axial space than do a rlon equalizing type.

MISALIGNMENT

Tilt. ;!mol,nt of inisalignment which can be tolerated depends on the types of

juitlt~dl a i d thrust bearings used. As previously mentioned, the tilting pad type
bearings greatly reduce the problem of misalignment. Figure 3.55 shows misalign-
ment i n both the journal and thrust bearing. The effect of misalignment on a
jour~,.il bcafirig is that of the shaft contacting the end of the bearing. Thus, journal
Lengtli is a criteria i l l the amount of misalignment a bearing can tolerate: a shorter
Journal a e a r l n q
Iwgt11 L ~ r ; l ( i ~ obviously
ig can tolerate more misalignment. The effect on the thrust
hc,~ii,i(l i s to load up m e segment of the thrust bearing arc and unload the opposite
s t ~ r j i ~ w nT
l .h s clft?ct i s (more pronounced at the higher loads and less flexible
i , t ' < l l li,(lS.

ill xilust lot rn~saliqimcnt, beyond correctirlg by using tilting pad bearings.

vawous inisnlignnient technques have been u s i d Initially, the smplest and most
conilnan tyhx o f alignment technique is used. which is the so called "cold align-
melit'' ~iiethod.Thfs is also usually referred to as a base alignment. Once this is
accomplished hot alignment checks are required; thus, h o t alignment is carried out.
Hot ,lli!]~,ment techniques measure the changes when the unit i s operational and
t < , m ~ i t , l . t ~yrowtli
u ~ t ~ stab~li/ed so th'lt accurate alignment data is done. The most
~ r c o i n m r n d r i itechnique I S to d o the cold alignment. using the "reverse indicator
!j1,1pl~ic;ll+ , l o t t i ~ q "J I I ~the hot a l i g ~ l m ~ by
n t thv US,, of m~challicaltechnqiues such
.is "Aci:ohgn" ot "DOD Bws" o~ o t l i e ~hot olgnment techniques such as optical or
I;isrl tecli~i~ques.
Tilt, ~cvsrscindlcaro! gi;ipli~cal plotting trclinique is nol.mally done when the
UIIII I S cold T h s i s d o ~ ~ bye first l a y i ~ i gout the di:sired h o t operating line on a
I I . This is the line which shows the final desired operating equilibrium The heart o f this technique i s a mechanical instrument with built n dial indcdti>i
c o ~ ~ i i l i ~Then s . desired c d d posltion of thu shaft i s plotted. Figure 3.56 shows
~ ~ i the t o measure displacement from precfse and reference marks. Thus, after thi! ~ r u r ; r l
sucli ;i cli;~rt. TIIC ,rctual posftlons o f tlic shaft In the field are then taken. This cold alignment, the train is ready for start up. Bench marks arc estahlishcil i i t well
~ ~ l i u l r n a t ~i so n
plotted and the d ~ l f c r e n c rcumputcd and the shims added to the end and each side of each unit of the traln as close to the couplinq: ;as posst>li:, i i ~
I T l i ~ spiocudufa i s then rupcatcd aftel hilt checking the alignment. To most units, this is the bearing housiny as seen in Figure 3.57. The t r a n ir t h w
~nilhct i l t : I i o t :ilig$,ment checks, a mechan~cali ~ l i g n m w lprocedure
t is recommended.
 VECTOR B VECTOR A
- ,-
\ /
FINAL

INITIAL
SHAFT POSITION

1 I COMPRESSOR 1
Figure 3.58. Graphical deiermirlation of shaft in hor poiriior~
relative to coldpositioi~.

-q- B E A R I N G HOUSING
The above outline i s simple, but in actual practice, one must develop t h s s k l .
Some o f the major problems encountered in alignment arc caused by pipe stiar,
This i s caused by the piping being off from the intake or exhaust from ;1 h:w
thousandths t o several inches. Many engineers take the attitude that they cdo~t<,t
understand how a small pipe like this is able to move a large piece of rnachiru: y.
The results are very surprising. Tension on pipe hangers can change t h r vibralzw
level considerably. Another contributor to the alignment problem 1s the gear caslll(j.
Thermal growth i n the new fabricated cases has been unpredictable in many a p p l ~ ~
cations. I n some cases. gear cases rise with a twist. This creates another problem
which is very hard t o correct. Short couplings also present a problem and mayntfy
misalignment problems. Some users are now specifying that the coupling spacer will
be at least 18 inches long. The above has been a general cursory outlook olr
alignment techniques. Alignment of high speed machinery must be accurate: othi:~
wise, major problems will arise. Sometimes, to prevent major shutdowns for c o r ~
rection, heaters are added t o one or the other legs of the unit t o align them w h ~ l i
Figure 3.57. J y p i c , ~ l p l ~ c ~ m eofn rbenchmarks o n foundar,or. running. This technique i s not advised as a cure, but as a temporary relief wht!rt
and brarrng hourrng.
shutdown is possible.

rt,~<texl
UI, JIKIupr~;ltad$;I des~gnor near design conditions as much as possible and COMPRESSOR SEALS
~ ~ ~ ~ n p c ~ ~ l u ~ ~ ' 10
s ~stabilize.
l i e ~ ~ /Another
I o w ~ ' set
d o f readings are taken as shown i n
FI:)(I,C 3.58. Thus, the actual thermal growth can then be plotted on thegraph and The internal seals that prevent leakage around the impellers are usudliy
11c:w cumectlofis can be computed. The technique outlined above i s used on new labyrinth type, as shown in Figure 3.59. They have a series of circumferc~lt~d!
imachinrs, and on old machines, a reverse technique can be used. First, a h o t knife edges that are positioned closely t o the rotating impeller. If damagi!d ay
. i l ~ q ~ ~ m echeck
irt i s made, then a cold check, followed by the mechanical reverse rubbing erosion or corrosion. these knife edges will lose therr effect<vcncss.In sor!v

~ , ~ I c ; i t o~<~;,dings.
t T h ~ siniormation IS plortud and realignment measurements taken.
j r j l s ai-P used The oil or l i q u ~ df i l m seal consists of two stationary bushings that
surrounc the shaft with a clearance of a few thousandths of an inch. Oil at a
nornlrlal late of 10 gpm I S introduced between the bushings at a Positive Pressure
hlqhef tharl that of the process gas, and leaks i n both directions along the shaft. The
c,ll i s rcrmoeti in tha seal housing by "0" rings. To limit the inward oil leakage, the
d l f t : r ~ ~ ~ /t>~I ~isislu I . ~ X: I O S S the inner bushing i s only a few pounds per square inch.
The inner leakage rate varies from 1 to 4 gph, depending on the size of the seal, but
IS independent of the gas pressure being contained.
T h ~ sleakage is collectcd i n a chamber that is usually separated f r o m the gas
stream by a labyrinth seal. Overflow of oil from the leakage chamber and its
si~bsncluaotwllciing the cumpressor is the biggest problem.
Mechanical contact seals have two major elements as shown in Figure 3.61
These are the oil t o process gas seal, or carbon ring, and the oil to uncontaminated
seal oil drain seal, or breakdown bushing. This seal can maintain a lower inner
leakage ratio w i t h higher oil t o gas differential pressure.
I n operation, the seal oil pressure i s maintained at about 25 to 50 psia over the
Process gas pressure against which the seal i s sealing. High pressure oil enters the
seal cavity, completely filling it. Some of the oil (ranging from 2 to 8 gph) s forced
across the carbon seal face, and flows out the contaminated oil drain. The mecham
cal seal's great advantage over the oil film seal is that i t has a minimum effect on
rotor dynamics. On the other hand, when the oil film bushings lose thmr lri:i,
floating feature. they can upset the stability of the rotor when operating at h q h
speeds.

BALANCING

I n large rotors operating at super critical speeds, balanc~ngof the rotor b o c a m r i

very important. This i s particularly true since stresses caused by unbalanced rotof,
are proportional t o sequence of the frequency of rotation. In perfectly balanced
rotors, the vertical axis of the rotor should be located on the axis of rotation. In
reality no rotor is perfectly balanced and the unbalance is caused by various facti~cs
such as non-homogeneous material, misalignment of beari~igs and c o u p l ~ ~ q s .
thermal gradients, hydraulic and aerodynamic faces, etc.
I n the rotor, the exact locatior~of the unbalance cannot always ba foood The.
only way to locate any unbalartcc is to study the v~briltloriof the rotor. B , i l j ~ ~ c ~ i ~ i l
of the rotor is done in two stages: 1) the static balance and. 2) the dynarnlc
balance.
The purpose of static balance i s to make the center of gravity of the rotol
approach the center line. Static balance is usually performed by placing the rotoi
on a set of frictionless supports; the heavy point usually has a tendency of r o l l ~ n g
down. Noting the location of this point helps determine the amount of unbalanci:.
Dynamic balancing i s more complex. The rotor i s placed on its supports and by
noting the vibration pattern, the location and amount of unbalance can be deter-
mined. Balancing i s then done by placing correction weights at the appropriate
locations in plates perpendicular to the rotor. A better balance is obtained by
ROTATING CARBON RING I F L O A I I N G BnBB1TT-FACED placing weights i n as many planes as possible.
SlEEL RlNG
' ROI,>TNC. S l A L RING It is common practice t o balance individual components such as impeller wheels,
j S 1 , \ l I % N A R Y SI E E V E J SI:AL IYIPER RING Couplings, etc. and t o then mount them on the shaft and the final balancng per^
i 5P9iNt IRETIIINER i) S E A L OIL D R A I N LINE
lli R U F i i R G A S l N J E C T O N P O R l formed, i f then an unbalance exists, correction is then usually made to the last
:> S l ' l i l N C
I, A N l l t ' i l N l , % h l l N A l 1 I1
<;,ili I 1 IIYl'A!iS UI11t I C E impeller installed. The best technique for high speed rotors is to balance thrirn
<?It i l l l A l N not in low speed machines. but at their rated speed. This is not always posslbli: r l
the shop; therefore, i t is often done in the field. New facilities are being b u t t whtch
can run a rotor in an evacuated chamber at runniny speeds n a shop. F l y u r c 3G2
shows the evacuation chamber and Figure 3.63 the control room.
 different than those which occur during a standard production balance.
This is a primary consideration since flexible rotor balancing must be per-
formed with the rotor whirl configuration approximating the mode in question.
2. The oeprating speed(s) is i n the vicinity of a major flexible mode resonance
(damped critical speed).
As these t w o speeds approach one another, a tighter balance tolerance will bi!
required. Of special concern are those designs which have a lower rotor bear~ny
stiffness ratio or bearings i n the vicinity of mode nodal points.
3. The predicted rotor response of an anticipated unbalance distribution is sig.
nificant.
This type of analysis may indicate a sensitive rotor which should be balanced
at rated speed. It will also indicate which components need to be carefolly
balanced prior to assembly.
4. The avai!able balance planes are far removed from locations of expected
unbalance and thus relatively inetfective at the operating speed.
The rule of balancing i s to compensate in the planes of unbalance whei,
possible. A low speed balance utilizing inappropriate planes can have an adversi,
effect on the high speed operation of the rotor.
I n many cases, implementation of an incremental low speed balance as the
rotor is assembled will provide an adequate balance, since compensatiorrs are
being made in the planes of unbalance. This is particularly effective with desiqns
incorporating solid rotor construction.
5. A very low production balance tolerance is needed in order to meet rigorous
vibration specifications.
Vibration levels below those associated with a standard production balanced
rotor are often best obtained with a multiple plane balance at the opuratrng
speed(s).
6. The rotor on other similar designs have experienced field vibration problems.
Even a well designed and constructed rotor may experience excessive vibra-
tions due t o improper or ineffective balancing. This situation can often occur
when the rotor has had multiple rebalances over a long service period and thus
contains unknown balance distributions. A rotor originally balanced at h ~ g h
speed should not be rebalanced at low speed.
Influence coefficient methods present by far the best method for balancing in
the field or even shop balancing. An additional advantage of this method is the fact
that rotor can be balanced at many speeds and planes in one attempt.
The method of influencecoefficients i s based on the principle that the deflection,
Zi, at plane i i s a function of the unbalanced forces or:

Z. = e.. P.
I II 1 1341
Higli speed balanc~ngshould be considered for one or more of the reasons listed
below: The matrix of ei,, is called the influence coefficient matrlx or c o r n p l ~ a ~ ~ c : ~ ~
1 Thii .ictudl field rotor operates with characteristic mode shapes significantly
couplings than with gear couplings on certain types of units. A rather specific
control i s placed on the disc deflection range, and the equipment has to be adjusted
axially to suit with more accuracy than with gear couplings, Some units are uery
difficult t o move once they have been set. A gas expander, for instance. Where this
is a problem, however, arrangements can be made t o permit repositioning the
coupling by remachining the components for one time per coupling fitup. or by
adding a spacer plate.
The application of a disc coupling therefore almost completely eliminates the
very generation reeducation of coupling users in the intricacies of the design itself ~-
once the coupling is designed, becausc in order to design it. the couplinq chxacti!r
istics must be determined and adjusted to suit the connecti~igrotols. Furthairnoii.
there are no changes or wear taking place in the coupling characteristics throughout
the life of the unit.
One of the main features of the disc coupling is its know,) axial deflectirg lo;ld
value. When compared to the varying unknown slidng friction factor in the g c a ,
coupling, this feature eliminates the greatest concern of the user and to a,, equal
extent the designers of the rotating,equipment.
I n most cases, both the disc, and the gear couplings can be applied. The d f f i ? r -
ence between them can be noticed, but even though one has advantayes over thr!
other, both will succeed as couplings. The one overriding difference to users is the
obvious promise that the disc coupling will be less susceptible to usage than the gear
coupling, and that i t will require less attention.

LUBRICATION SYSTEMS

API Standard 614 covers i n detail the minimum requirements for lubrication
sytems, oil type shaft sealing systems, and control oil supply systems for special
purpose applications.
The major components of a typical oil system are reservoir, oil pumps, oil
coolers, oil filters, alarms and shutdowns, and thermometers
The reservoir should be separate from the equipment base plate. I t should lx:
sealed against the entrance of dirt and water. The bottom should be sloped to thc
low drain point and the return oil lines should enter the reservoir away from the oil
pump suction t o avoid disturbances o f the pump suction. The working capacity
should be at least five minutes based on normal flow. Reservoir retention time
should be 10 minutes, based on normal flow and total volume below mi~limurn
operating level. Facilities for heating the oil should also be provided. I f therrno
statically controlled electrical emersion heating I S provided, the maximum watt dr:t>-
sity should be 15 watts per square inch. When steam heatinq i s used, the h i : i l t ~ ~ , (
element should be external to the resrrvolr.
The oil system should be equillr~cdwith a main 011 pump, a standby a n d f o r
critical machines, an emergency pump. Each pump must have its own drvur aod
check valves must be installed on each pump discharge to prevent reverse flow
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lic.ir rhc u i t o 160°F ti, tlicrm,~lly exercise the pipe. Tap the piping to dislodge sensitive to operational errors and wear slightly before falure. They are also ,not 2s
4uLms. csp!cialIy ;ilonq the horizontal sections. Flush through one complete susceptible to scouring as hard gears.
tmnprfalurc cycle, then shut down and install the telltale screens and flush for an The most common used bearings for gears are journal arid tilt pad bearnys
xlditronal 30 minutes. Remove screens and check for amount and type of debris. Thrust bearings vary from ball bearing to self equalizing tilting pad bearings. The
Repeat the p!eced~ngprocedure until the screens are clean after two consecutive gear housing i s usually made of steel. I t should be stress relieved before final
it,spt,~ticlos.O b s t : ~the ~ prcs~orcdrop across the filters during the flushing opera- matching. Housing should be rigid enough to prevent misalignment. Also, sufficient
t i o n 110 liut allow the pressure h o p t i ) exceed 20 psig. When the system is con- cleaning should be provided to prevent oil chok~ng.Lubrication in gears serves 4 s
sidereil clean, empty the oil reservoir and clean out all debris by washing with a two fold purpose that o f lubrication and cooling. The most recommended lube oil
ilcte~qcntsolution followed by a fresh water rinse. Dry ~nteriorby blowing w i t h dry is the AGMA No. 2.
.lir , i t l c l Y ~ C L I L I I T I I~I'u
W ~ I ~ L I I . R ~ p l i x rfiller clemrnts. Remove jumpers and replace While installing the gear unit, care should be taken to allyrr the unit propecly.
orhcr!s. Return controls to thetr ~ i o r m a settings.
l Refill the oil reservoir with the Misalignment of gears can cause unequal distribution o f teeth loads and distortfor!
s;ime oil used i n the flush if lab tests indicate if is satisfactory; otherwise, refill with of gear elements. Before startup, gear face contact should be checked. T h ~ sshould
I,k!M!Liil. be about 90%. Gears with modified helix angle may pose problems, and in such
This procedure w I I allow the fastest poss~blecleanup of the oil system, mainly cases, the manufacturers recommendations are useful.
due to the high flow velocities obtained during the flush. The objective is t o carry The system may influence the gear operation. Particularly critical speeds
tlie debris into the reservoir and filters and the turbulence from the high flows (torsional, lateral and axial) must be accounted for. Coupling lockups pose another
along with the thermal and mechanical exercising of the piping are the main factors problem. I n addition, the gear must be able to handle the maximum load expected,
rircessary for a fast and effective system cleanup. and not just the design value.
Gear noise is causedsby a variety of factors. Extra heavy cast iron or double wall
GEARS housing are useful i n reducing noise. Acoustic enclosures are useful in reducing
noise. When installing gears, in addition to cold alignment, hot alignment is ntxcs~
c;c,.>ns ;IIV u l l e o l thc inost used conf~lingsbetween the driving and driven com-
sary. High speed gearing must be treated with care or the user is in for a o n q
~ l j i ~ ~ ImI ~~t ~ .I gO c:m~ select~on
C ~ can causc majol problems. Gears often form the
unhappy association.
wc.ihcst link in thcwholachain, mainly due to the fact that this is the only item that
1s ~ ~ y l i ~ tu
i ~ ,lpl,~iltl!
cd w l l h metal pdits ill close contact. The performance of a gear
CONTROL SYSTEMS
s rlept!ndt!nt 011 many factors, some of these are:
The controls for most compressor trains consist of two major systems: on<! 10,
1. Pressure Angle the lubrication system, and one for the compressor. For the lubricatiori systcrn.
minimum alarms are: low oil pressure, low oil pressure trip (at some p o n t lowel
Decis~onsregarding the ptessure angle need to be made early during design. The
than the alarm point), low oil level in the reservoir, high thrust bearing metA
length of time of action and contact ratlo are directly dependent on this factor. The
temperature, and high oil temperature. Each pressure and temperature srnsjnq
noise generated is dependent inversely on the contact ratio. Values selected for
switch Should be in a separate housing. The switch type should be single pole, double
ptesswe angle range from 17-22'.
throw, and furnished as open (deenergized) to alarm and close (energize) to t r p
Pressure switches for alarms should be installed, with a "T" connection for presswe
2. Helix Angle
gage and bleeder valve to test the alarms. Temperatures should be monitored 11,
T h i Ili,li\ .II,/~II, I , U I ~ ~ , 110111
C 5 1 ~ 120" I~IIt h s111(11t!
~ hcl~calgcal and from 20 to the oil piping t o and from the coolers, and at the outlet o f each radial and thrci,.i
.I!;' !I,,, ( l c ~ i ) ~ , , II,:I~~~,LI : ~tI lSiwc ~morcaccurate and less
gt,,t~. TI,,, SI,VI,!~ h t ~ l ~~ cC ~ bearing. Bearing-metal temperature should also be measured, since problerns will
OIW,,. ti, 1:01111110g t l ~ r u s t .Th,y J I ? ,tlso less LIXII(?IISIVC dlthough they require expen- show up much faster in the metal temperature than in the oil temperature.
slvc t l u i ~ s l i s I thc Iical lo;,rl o l the thlust bearings makes them less Pressure gages should be provided at the discharge of the pumps, bearirig hi!ati*ir.
i!lficicnt. The double helical gear are caster to manufacture, but cutting the gear control oil line, and seal oil line. Each atmospheric 0 1 1 d r a ~ nline should be equlpjxx
loeth i s i n w e rxprnslve. They are more eftlclent and do not require expensive with steel nondestructive bull's eye flow indicators, pos~tionedfor viewing throuqti
thrust bearings. the sides.
Gc.iis a e also available in varying hardness. Medium range gears are not too
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40 a ~ n l 3 l dalaldwo3 e 'slalaworaja3oe pue saqord h l ! u ! x o i d j o u o ~ l e u ~ c j u r oI+nBulsn

Aq ' s n q l . s w a ( q o ~ dl u a w ~ ~ f i ! l e s p~ ~
i ui e: ) t l o w ~ e q q n sBunenol L)! iualla3xa ;I P seqold
Al!w!xold 'pasn Alrado.ld u a y ~. s q l " l Aiiruix<,lil s q l h q ir:m!6 si-M LlOili'DIl)I11
o u 46no41 uana palln330 scy arnl!e) 3!qdollsele3 , 5 8 8 8 3 :11110S 111 ~IllilwUli!ll?S!III ~ ~ 1 0 5

ale=!pul s3!uowleq puoaas PUP '1.114~I!O a i e ~ ! p uSa!Duanbal) n ~ u o w l e q q n sL I ~ H

'~,7~2~~~~~>1>~
qsaw lea6 l o Gu!ssed apelq re q3ns s w a l q o ~ d h3uanba.ij yB!q dv yold I O U
o p s a q o ~ da l l 1 - a q o ~ da y l $0 uo!lesoI a q l l e ] p q s oq1 JO 1 u a l ~ i ) ~ oi l w
l 1 1 Altm MOW

s a q o ~ dA l ! w ! x o l d l e q l s! sla3npsuerl luada4)!p OM^ 10) uosea a q l p ) ~ s a h t i n sir:i:iq

aney slalawolala33e pue s a q o ~ dAI!U!XOJ~ q1oq 'slshleue u o ! l e l q ! n ~ o 'snlls!laI
j
-3erey3 a 3 u e w ~ o p a dpue uogerq!n 4104 10) apew aq ue3 s!shleue 1111) e '.1a1111~~11
SIL!I
U( 'pap!nord aq plnoqs a t i e y x d uo!ieluawnusu! alaldwo3 e 'lossaJdwo3 aql l o j
29. i i l ~ i r r W , ,I<., and Johrrrm I. A,. "Pelioimance E f f e c t o f Fuilv Shrouding a Centrifugal
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30. G ! n r l w ~ g .A.. Riiler, ill.K.. and Polarlcr. J., "Effecrs o f Performance of Changing the
! > l v , r , i m o l W o r h 8etwc:en lhcrease of Anguiar Velocity and Increase of Radlus o f Rota.
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31. ~?\I>.IIV,I:., "The Fric810n LOSWI 01 Slesm Tu8bmt: Discs." Brown Boveri Review. Val. 21,
1934. 11. 120.
32. Bullock, R . 0.. and Fsnger, H. 5.. "Surging rn Centrifugal and Axial-Flow Comprerrors."
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33. Shepherd. D. G.. "Pr,nciples of Turbomachinerv," The MacMillan Company, N.Y., 1057.
34. Slockmun. N. 0.. and Kramer. J. L.. "Method for Derign of Pump Impellers U r i n g a High
S w r d D # g # t aComputer.''
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35. Sranltz, J. D.. and Ellis, G. 0.. " T w o Dimensional F l o w o n General Surfaces of Revolution
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49. Drlnmey. R . A,. and Kavanagh. P., '7ra8lronic Flow Analyrn 8 " Axial F l o w Turbo-
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1963.
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67. Schlichring. H.."Boundary Layer Theory." McGraw-Hill Book Co.. N.Y., 1968.
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pressow.'' The Macmillan Co., 1964.
72. Stepanoff, A. J . . "Turboblowerr." Wiley, 1955.
73. Batman. J.. "Derign and Derelopment of a Family of Natural Gar Compressorr lor a 3000
h p Gar Turbine Engine." ASME Paper No. 72-GT-10.
74.Speer. I. E., "Design and Development of a Broad Range Htgh Efficiency C e n t i i i u W
Compressor l o r a Small Gas Turbine Comprersor Unit. ASME Paper No. 52-SA.14.
75. Flaheny. R.. "A Method for Estimating Turbulent Boundary Layers and Heat Transfer in
an Arbitrary Pressure Gradient." United Aircraft Research Laboratories Report OAR-G51.
A u g 1968.
76. Rerhatko. E.. and Tucker, M., "Approximate Calculation of the Comprerribis Turbulrnl
Boundary Layer w i t h Heat Transfer and Arbitrary Presrure Gradient." NACA Tn 4154,
1957.
77. Schlichting. H., "Application of Boundary-Layer Theory 8" Turbomachinery," ASME
Tranr. Vol. 81. 1959. P. 543.
78. Bovce. M. P.. and Bale. Y. S., "Duffusion Lass i n a Mixed Flow Comprerror, Paper No
729061, lnterrocietv Energy Conversion Compressor Impeller." NRCC ME-220. Otlnwa.
Jul. 1966.
79. Fowler. H. S.. "An lnvertigation of the Flow Procerrer i n a Centrifugai Compresror I m
peller." NRCC ME-220, Ottawa. Jul. 1966.
 60. B o v c r . M. f'., Schllle,. R . N., and Oesa,. A. R., "Study o f Caring T r e a t n ~ e n tEffectr i n 104. Alford. J. S., "Protecting Turbomachinery f r o m Self-Excited Rotor Whrl." Journal P:
4 x a Flow Compresrorr." ASME Paper No. 74-GT-89. Engineering f o r Power, ASME Transactions. Ocr. 1965, pp. 333-344.
81. B O ~ C P . M . P.. and Derai. A. R.. "Clearance Lorr i n a Cenrrifugal Impeller." Paper No. 105..Newkirk, B. L., "Shaft Whipping" General Electric Review, Val. 27, p. 169. 1924.
1:191?G. IP!oc, of i h r 8 t h lntetsocetv Energy Conversion Engineering Confetence, Penn- 106. Hourmann, J. G., Turbomachinerv Specifications. Proc. Firrt Turbomachnery Syml~..PO.
iv1v.1,ri.i A u i i 1973. 1). 638. 77-78, Texar A & M Univ. College Station. Texar 1972.
! 8 , M. I,,, ;and Oi.ml, A. Fi.; " A T h e o i e t ~ c a lA n a l y w o f Non-Isentropic F l o w o f a 107. Davis, H. M., Centrifugal Comprerrar Operation and Matntrnance. Proc. f r r r t T u l b u
C m ~ , ~ ~ i ~ : wV L~S l tC
! OY Gas
S In Ndrruw l'arragrr," ASME Trans.. Vol. 16. N u m l x r 2. Apr. machinery Svmp. PP. 10-25, Texar A & M Uoiuers~tv,College Stnrlon. T r x a r 1972.
1913. 1,. 132. 108. Wilcock. D. E. S. and Boorer. E. R., "Bear~ngD r s q n a n d Ap~,l~cat$on. M c G m w - H i , I+L,;
8 3 . l ' ~ ~ w I l1~S.. ~ ~ " E, x f x ~ h r r l r ron the F l o w Procerrer $ nSlmple Rorating Channel$." NRCC York, 1961.
ME-229. Ouawa, Jan. 1969. 109. Gunter, E. J., "Dynamic Srabilitv o f R o t o r Bearing Svrtemr. N A S A Sp-1 13, 1966
8 4 . Spnoo, Y , and Nakarr, Y . , " A n A n a l y r ~ sof F l o w Through a Mixed F l o w Impellei." ASME 110. Herbage, B. S., High Speed Journal and Thrust Bearing Design. Pioc. F r r r Turlx:
P;ii,rr N o . I l - G T - 2 . machinery Symp.. PP. 55-61. Texar A & M Univ. College Station. Texar. 1972.
6 5 . S v w o , Y., and Nakase. Y ., " A Blade Theory of a n lmpullar w t r h an Arblrrarv Suiface o f 111. Bovce. M. P.. and Hanawa. D. A,. Development of Tcchnwues f o r M o r > ~ t o r ~ rilsih r~<i
Hevolut~on." ASME Paper No. 71-GT-17. machinery, Proc. Gar Turbine Operarionr and Maintenance Symp., Edmonlml, C;jn:3rl,,
66. K a r r a n s . T., "Urr o f Arbltrarv Qua$$-Orthogonalrf o r Calculating F l o w D m r i b u t i o n i n the 1974.
M e ~ i i f i m aPl:int.
l 01 a Turbuinaclxne." N A S A TND-2546. 1964. 112. Bovce, M. P. and Hanawa. D. A,. Parametric Study o f a Gar Turbine, J. E n g Power UI.L
! : I I>I~,II>, V. I>. anil M8cllrl. O. J.. " A n Analysis o f F l o w rn Rotarrng Parrage o f Large Radial 1975.
In11.t C~mwIiig;,l C o n ~ l ~ r e r s ua1r T o p Speed o f 700 Feet Purrecond." N A C A T N No. 2584, 113. ClaPP. A. M., Fundamentals o f Lutmcationr Relating to Opeiarlon and Maintenance , > !
1'451 Turbomachinery. Prac. Firrt Turbomachinery Svmp. pp. 67--74. Texar A & b l Unlv. C c I s ~
88. 81.1t. A,. " i ~ i l r o d u c u u r ll o the T h r m y o f F l o w Machlnrr." Pergamon Prerr. 1966. lege Starion. Texar. 1972.
8 9 . Sov,;in. G., a n d Klomp, E. 0.. " F l u d M e c h i i n m o f h t e r n a l Flow." Elrevier Publishing 114. Cameron, J. A. and Danowrki. F. M. Some Meta!lurgrcvl C o n r ~ d e r a t ~ o n, rn C i : ~ i , w I ~ 8~ ~ : .
Co.. N . Y . 1967. Comprersorr. Proc. Second Turbomachinery Svmp., PP. 116-128. Texar 4 5 M 1111,.
!lo. Ku,,,l~,,, A. M . . i n d Scl?rf/cr. J. O.. ' ' F o u w i ~ t 8 o n r o f Ai:~odvn;~rmcs." John Wlley &Sons. College Station, T e x a r . 1973.
N . Y . 1950. 115. Jackson. C. J.. Cold and H o t A l g n m e n t T r c h n ~ q u e rl o r Turbamachncry, P ~ O CS~.CUII,I
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!I? 11.11~.m>, A. ti. / t i i ~ l o l I ," S ~ r n ~ x l s # DII t m Fully Scl)arint!d Flows.'' ASME Fluids Energy. tionr Proc. Sixth Turbomachinery Symp. pp. 145-148. Texas A & M Urliv. College SI;~L~,II,
I .: I 1 ' 1 1 . 1 1 1 I , M y 1 8 70. 1964. Texar 1977.
I I s , . 11.. 'TI><, 1 1 > w . t ! O # n ! ~ ~ n r r o ~Boiln<l;lry
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9 4 . Shuutn.in A. $1. a,?d Ariderron. J. 11.. ' 7 h r Us,: 01 Cowxerror Inlet Prewhirl for the 118. Boyce. M . P., Morgan. E. and Whltc. G. S,mular~ono f Rolor D y r w l w r 01 l l t ~ i !;I,,.,I l~
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95. Dean, R . C.. ' T h e F l u i d Dynamic Design o f Advanced Centrifugal Compresrorr," V o n 119. Bovce. M. P.. H o w to Achieve Online Availability o f Centrifugai Comprers~rg,Chemc;il
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98 S m o o . Y . , PI al, "VSCOUI Effectr on Shp Factor of Centrifugal Blowerr," A S M E publica-
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!l!l. .S.i#l b r , r 'A. &,r TriiLurii E,r!priseiirig H . m i b n o k -- V o l I . 1 1 . I l l .

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o f~ S
ihc F t r ~ Turbomachinery
l
S v ~ l v o r i u mT , r x a r A & M Unrv. College S i m o n , Texas. October. 1972.
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 CHAPTER 4

THE LIQUID RING VACUUM PUMP

A. M. D A V E
Nash Engineering Co.
Norwalk. CT

INTRODUCTION

V d c u ~ m itcchliolugy is an essential part i n most major industries l i k e chemical

p~occssiny. f ~ l t e r l l l g . power generating, p u l p & paper, textile production. and
i i t i i ~ yolhurs. I n today's market, vacuum producing equipment includes l i q u i d ring.
~ ~ : c i j ~ t u i : ~ ~~t io, ti q a .r ylobe or piston and sliding vane pumps, centrifugal blowers,
~ 1 1steiiln d jet ejectors.
The liquid ring i)!1171/) consists of a single rotating element generally called
"rotor." Pumping is accomplished b y means o f a rotating r o t o r chamber (bucket)
c r ~ t m i l ! j31111 l i m i ~ i qa solid ring o f liquid. The liquid ring p u m p is n o t new: it has Figure 4.1. Single acrjng conical design liquid ring pump (Photo couriesy of Ndsh Enyrri-
eering Companyl.
1)1!t,11 11s1:<1 sui:cessfully since the r u n of thc century. This chapter w i l l provide

i l s ' i ~ c t ,,I i!rltm>i.,tio~ro ~ tlic i t ~ i ) c l ; ~ t i np>

g lriciplc, si:lectlon, installation, operation and
I,,.III!!,,II.~~I<:,, 0 1 ihi: li,/oicl 111!1 p1111111.
I r<lt>nI 1 1 1 1 ~ 1p1111>ps .ilc in,mut;ictutcd i n cunicill. llat sided, and cylindrical design.
It,,. L:LIIIII:,I/, Ililt si<l<!(t. 01 ~ y l i ~ ~ d rt li ~~sac rl i t x sthe shape o f stationary port. I n a
~.o,i~i:;iI dt,:i~qil, p011s i l ~ cI o c a t ~ l d011 ii COIIICIII surtace which fits i n t o matching
I.ijwrci I,mr: i i t the l o t o r . T h e unassumbled view of a conical t y p e is shown in
Fiqitlc 4. I . S ~ l l i l i i ~ 111 l y a flat sideti design, the p o r t plate fits close and parallel t o
! u r o coil s h ~ c x ~ d swhich , have (matching ports between the blades as illustrated in
F i g i l ~ e4.2. The f l a l sided design of a liquid ring p u m p is usually less expensive t o
~ni.i~luf,+ctuie than the conical design, b u t the flexible p o r t design i n a conical t y p e
.I
cxliibits l o w internal pressure loss and capability o f handling extra liquid. Liquid
ring pumps are available i n single or double acting design, as illustrated i n Figure 4.1
;~nd4.3. Single acting i s less expensive and usually used f o r vacuum pumps. The
double acting balances hydraulic forces across the p u m p and thus has advantages as
Figure 4.2.
a compressor. The double acting completes W o inlet and discharge strokes during
(~.ichi ~ w o l u t ~ n A ~ l,l. l i q ~ j i dring pumps have essentially thesame principle o f opera-
! t i i n , 1ty.11~11tss ot lIit?ir design. R o t o r chambers contain a liquid compressant, usually water (4). As a result o f
centrifugal force, water follows the contour o f the casing as it rotates w i t h the
PRINCIPLE O F O P E R A T I O N rotor.
Starting at "A," the rotor chamber is f u l l o f water. As the rotor moves c l o ~ k
i i > c p011,p consisls of a circular casing and a rotor w i t h a series o f blades wise, water recedes u n t i l the chamber is empty (5). As the rotor continues f u r t l l f : ~
p i o j e o t n y f r o m a h o l l o w cylindrical h u b through which a shaft is pressed. the converging casing forces water back i n t o the rotor chamber u n t i l i t is d y d l n itill
R o r o , l~ladesare shrouded at the sides t o f o r m chambers (buckets) such as (A). at (6). This cycle takes place once each revolution in a single acting pump. ~ITh,:
 operation is similar i n a double acting as shown in Figure 4.5. I t completes t w o inlet
and discharge strokes during each revolution o f the rotor and, therefore, i t includes
t w o internal inlet and discharge ports.
j
I BOD)

Figun, 4.3. U,iarrembled view of double aciing liqufd nng compressor.

SCHEMATIC SECTION A T lNLtT

AND DISCHARGF SECTORS

Figure 4.5. Typical cross recriori o f doublr acting compressor.

I n a liquid ring pump, the compression is a direct result o f the energy m p a r t e i i

t o the liquid ring as it is t h r o w n o u t centrifugally b y the rotor blades. This energy 1 5
a function of the rotor velocity ( R P M I and the specific gravity of the liquid corn.
pressant. A p o r t i o n o f this imparted energy is recovered as i t compresses the gas H I
the discharge cycle. T h e unrecovered energy is lost in pumping of the seal l i q w c
and f l u i d f r i c t i o n loses. I f energy in seal liquid is n o t adequate to )meet the c o ~ r i
Pression ratio, the liquid ring velocity slows d o w n prior t o the discharge p o ~ t
opening, and the p u m p loses its solid liquid piston iring1 in the rotor bucket. T h s
creates instability i n the p u m p due t o collapse of liquid ring. This is known as
"stall," and is usually accompanied b y an increase in power and noise and r e d u c t o n
in p u m p capacity.
Liquid ring pumps can be operated as a vacuum pump or as a compressor. I n
fact, vacuum p u m p is actually a compressor, compressing from a sub-atmospheric
condition t o atmospheric pressure.
Figure 4.4. The liquid Nng principle.
 C A P A B I L I T Y O F L I Q U I D R I N G PUMP

C i e i i e ~ i i l ~ icapabilir~es
~ti o f the liquid ring p u m p is indicated i n Table 4.1. L i q u i d
Vol m e
tinq p!t~iws art? available in capacities LIP t o 14,000 C F M (396 M 3 / m i n ) as a vacuum
p m , i > 0 1 ;is :I i:m,[,rcsso~. The vacu!)m range can be expanded u p t o 5 - 1 0 m m H g
Ails I l y o s ~ ~ Iuw
~ q~11por-prfssuresea liquid ( o i l or hydraulic fluid). A n air ejector
u n 1x1 !,r.lgixl w ~ t l li i q ~ t i c iniig l V U ~ I I S f o r V ~ C L I U I ~levels UP t o 20-25mm H g Abs.
T w u s ~ ~ i < l\ ltt, i y licltilci r i n g pumps ciin be staged in series when there are capacity
l ~ l ~ : i t i i t t c ~ lwirh
is i t i t e g r ~ lt w o stage unit, i f necessary. Typical performance of a
li<ltliil rln<lIIIIIII~i s i l l u s t r t ~ t w lin Figure 4.6.

AI'PIIOXIMATE CAPACITY OF LIQUID R I N G PUMPS

Figure 4.6. Typical pcrlormance curve of liquid nny pump.

0
A i r c a p a c i t y 50% R . H . S t d . Barometer & 60 F OWNER BENEFITS
~ ~ Water.3 1
L i q u i d ring pumps have only one moving part (rotor) and pumping is accom-
plished w i t h o u t pistons, valves, sliding vanes, and w i t h o u t any metallic contact
Si!i):lc S t n g c
between rotating and stationary element. I n addition, they provide ;1 continu;il
t o 2 . 0 " Hg Abs.
V.!<~ULUII LIP source of vacuum or pressure w i t h o u t pulsation.
C.lpacity up t o 1 1 , 5 0 0 ACFM (326m3/min) L i q u i d ring pumps provide significant advantages over other vacuum proriuc~rn;l
equipment when wet. contaminated, corrosive. and explosive gases are handled
Two S t a g e Proper Selection o f a vacuum p u m p system can reduce environmental poilutior! and
Vacuuni up t o 0.78" Hg Abs . energy consumption. Following is an explanation o f some of the owner benefits
C a p a c i t y up t o 1 1 , 5 0 0 ACFM (326m3/min) w i t h liquid ring pumps:
1. L i q u i d Compressor Cools the Gas - The gases being handled in a liquid rtng
Vncuuiil r a n g e c a n be e x t e n d e d by u s e o f low p u m p are cooled while the heat o f compression is absorbed b y the liquid com-
vnpor p r e s s u r e l i q u i d ( o i l o r h y d r a u l i c pressant and discharged i n t o a gas liquid separator. The separator removes liquid
f l u i d ) . A l s o a n a i r e j e c t o r can b e s t a g e d from the gas. I t is obvious that the cooling of a liquid ring compressor is dlrrcr
w i t h L.R. pump. rather than through the walls o f the casing as i n the other types of compressors.
Because of intimate contact o f gas and liquid, the final discharge temperature can
Compressor be held close t o the temperature o f the inlet compressant hquid and, thus. l i q i ~ i
ring pumps eliminate the need for after-coolers that may be required w i t h o t l i e ~
Single Acting - P r e s s u r e u t o 35 p s i g
(2.5 Kdcm g) 5 types of compressors.
2. Wet Gas w i t h Possible L i q u i d Carryover - The liquid ring pump can handle
c a p a c i t y up t o 1 4 , 0 0 0 CF'M
saturated vapor gas mixtures w i t h liquid carryover w i t h no adverse effect on pomp
performance, while this t y p e of service can be detrimental t o other types o f vacuIfrn
Double A c t i n g - P r e s s u r e ug t o 125 p s i g
pumps.
( 8 . 8 Kg/cm g )
c a p a c i t y up t o 300 CFM 3. Saturated Vapors - Saturated vapors are conder~srrlI I I 2 liqu~cln n y rmrnI>
when liquid compressant i s c o d e r than the saturated vapor illre t o fhc r : o m j ~ r i i \ s i r ~ ~ ~
( 8 . 5r113/min)
 Tabie 4.2. 4.3 and 4.4 Cost Comparison o f Steam Jet Ejector vs Liquid R i n y
Pump

HERE'S HOW O P E R A T I N G COSTS COMPARE

Table 4.2. Steam Jet Eiector vr. Mechanical Vacuum Pump

Vacuu~! leve I r e q u i r e d 20-ir~.llg 24-in.lig 2 L - I ,).I19 2k-i1~.~,'~!

Steam j e t e j e c t o r s :
100O p s i stuam i n l b / h r 'JLIU I,65C i . li!ll ;,,,,)I#

Heat load i n Btu/hr . . 924x10~ 1 , 6 9 0 ~ 1 0 ~ 3,380x102 2.!17~1xl\!'

Vacuum Pump:
ACFM required a t
vacuum . , . . . . . . 326 543 81 5 1,6X
Motor bhp required. . . 20 36 45 I31
Kilowatts required. . . 16.6 29.9 37.2 83.5
Heat l o a d i n Btu/hr . . 50x10' 93x10' 114x10~ 255x1~!'

H o w Steam and Electrical Costs Relate

Table 4.3. Cost per Hour to Remove 500 Iblhr Dry Air

Steam j e t e j e c t o r s :
F~gure4.9.Overs11 rhermal efficiency of vacuum pumps. Cost per 1,000 l b 20-in.Hg 24-in.Hg 26-in.Hg 28-in.tlg

determining the required cost t o produce steam vs k i l o w a t t usage of an equivalent

vacuum p u m p . Table 4.2 illustrates the comparison of induced heat load between
vacuum p u m p and jet. Table 4.3 relates operating cost per h o u r of steam jet vs
electrical cost o f an equivalent vacuum pump. Table 4.4 shows an average cost
comparison for sream at $3.011000 lbs and electricity at 2.5cIKWH. It shows the
operating cost of a vacuum p u m p is approximately one.fifth t h a t o f steam jet
ejectors. Generally, the pay-back period w i t h an installation o f a liquid ring vacuum
p u m p can result between 3-20 months.
9. Reduce Pollution - I n applications where steam jet ejectors are used t o
pcovide vacuum, o t t e ~ i t may contaminate motive steam b y m i x i n g w i t h a polluted Vacuuw puulp:
process steam. Gas is heated and this may result i n thermal pollution. T h e necessity Cost p e r k w h
of tleating contaminated condensate makes liquid ring pumps an attractive replace- 1.0~ SO.17 $0.30 50.37 S O . i:1
ment. T h e m e o f liqilid ring vacuum pumps i n Inany applicarions can reduce pollu- 15c 0.26 11.45 0 . :5C I .?';
2.0~ 0.3'1 0.60 0.7'1 I , i i i

tion and save the cost o f waste water treatment b y closed-loop recirculation of 2 . 5 ~ 0.63 0.75 0.43 > , OJ,
cornpressant liquid. 3.0~ U.51 0.90 1.11 ?.:.f,
And H o w Y o u Can Save W i t h a Vacuum Pump

Teblr 4 . 4 . Costs with Steam @ $ 3 1 1 . 0 0 0 ibr and Electricity @ 2 . S c I k W h

I Two S t a g e L ~ o u i dB l n q Pwnn

20-inllg 24-in.Hg 26-in.Hg 28-in.Hg

L q u d ~ i ~ pumps
i q have pressure I i r n i t a t i o ~ lu p to 125 psig (8.8k y / c m 2 g i . I n
nit xi^ i i s t ~ o c u sthey consume Inore energy than blower and reciprocating type
ijorllris. Ilur less than the stealn elector. A p o r t i o n o f the energy consumed b y a
l ~ ~ l c ~1111:)
i c l p1111l11 is i ~ : c w e ~ eidl l the omp press ion cycle. The rest of the energy is
co~,su~nt!tlu i p~in11111y the seal h q ~ l i dand overcoming f l u i d friction. Also, i t requires
.j const.mt w p p l y o f seal liquid, either on once-thru or recirculated seal basis.
L ~ c l t ~ ~~cii, l <piinips
) x e considered less efficient than the blower or mechanical
p111111>, h ~ l llli:t S L I P C I ~ O I . gils h a ~ l d l i n ycapabilities o f liquid ring pumps greatly com-
i,,,~,s.il$, lui the relatively lower efficiency.
Figure 4.10. Typical performance of a two stage liquid ring Dump vr two stag^
O P E R A T I O N O F L I Q U I D R l N G PUMP condensing steam jef.

1. Vs. Steam Jet - The typical performance o f a t w o stage condensing jet vs a

T h e liquid ring p u m p can be used for backing up steam jet ejector a x 1 stilt
l , ~ ~ I io ~g lt w o stage is i l l u s t ~ a t e din Figure 4.10. I t indicates significant capacity
provide substantial savings when compared w i t h a multi-stage steam ejector systt:,n
~iifleri'ncesat YacLlwn below design p o i n t or 24" H g Vac. The liquid ring p u m p is a
Reliability o f equipment is quite important to plant personnel. The liquW r l n q
c.<mst:lnl volume machine while a jet is designed o n a constant weight basis. As a
pump has been used successfully f o r years in condenser exhausttny in power ~ , l ~ r ~ i .
~ ~ w l rhc t . pro11Ic:ol lo excess leakage c a n reduce jet capacity significantly. L i q u i d
where reliability is of most importance.
~ l n gp i m p performance increases at lower vacuum. Liquid ring pumps show notice.
able capacity difference below 24" Hg Vac. The increased capacity at lower vacuum
-
2. Vs. Blower and Mechanical Pumps Liquid ring pumps have pressure I i r n t ; ~
t i o n of 125 psig (8.8 kg/cm2) and it is limited b y the energy o f l i q u i d ring. Blower'
cuts d a w n evacuation t i m e b y 213 as compared t o a steam jet. I n an emergency
and mechanical pumps are capable of achieving higher compression ratios and thi,v
cundirion, the ttme difference can be of value in either start-up or regaining lost
are considered more efficient than liquid ring pumps.
vacuwn T h e f o l l o w ~ n gadvantages are summarized:
T h e liquid ring p u m p is non-pulsating, which eliminates vibration p r o b l e ~ i ~
t is
111
1 . Automatron. Liquid ring v a c u u r p u m p systems can be easily automated
the need f o r mandatory receiver and heavy foundations. Since there is ~ r ! ,yi l l .
c o m i ~ a r r dt o special control valve arrangements required for steam jets.
moving element, rotating w i t h o u t metallic contact, there 1s nothing to we:?,. . ,
2 Sin,/~/ificd P i p i n q The liquld l i n g prtmp does n o t require high pessure insu-
align, or to be adjusted as may be required w i t h othei types. As discusse,I uadt,.~,
l.,l,Yl ,~,uIl~:,.
liquid ring p u m p does n o t need an after-cooler. I n addition, supcrioi y;is I ~ ; i t ~ r l i i ~
3. ill<,!,,, C~l,lsul".itllil
capabilities o f liquid ring p u m p greatly cu~nperisatefor lower e t f i c i e ~ l c y .
.I lil:dln~c<l w;ltul / l o l l u t o l l
5 l . 0 ~11\1;111.111011 c:0\1
ti Lmw ~ l u i s vp u l l u r ! o ~ ~ . T H E R M O D Y N A M I C CHARACTERISTICS O F L I Q U I D R l N G
7. Briltcr gas handling capability. Saturated vapors can be handled w i t h o u t pre- PUMP & R E L A T E D GAS LAWS
cwidonse~ I n a liquid ring pump, the cornpressant liquid and fncominqgas orva(Jo,s I J ~ I , ~ ~ : :
go intimate mixing. Gas reactions can tie ~ e r f o r m e d .i f required. by ai,l,!i,l,r~,~~,
selection o f liquid.
 COOIIII!~ is w l u o i the most obvious therrnodynalnlc functions of the liquid ring 3. D r y Gas - When dry gas enters the rotor bucket of a liquid ring pump, some
I . I t I S i~i<leuii a l ~ q ~ lcooled
id p ~ i m p 111
. t h ~ st y p e of pump, heat o f compression o f the seal liquid vaporizes and occupies some space, reducing ideal pumping capa-
I 1 1 o i condensation i s removed b y direct contact o f compressant liquid, c i t y . I f compressant water entering the p u m p is greater than 60°F il5'Ci, actual
111mefi>1t' ~ i i i i k i r n o mheiit transfer is obtained. This is in contrast t o water jacketed capacity is less than published curve. Table 4.5 illustrates general seal water correc-
i:~,f~ll~ca~ss<,~s whc!re lhcilt tlmsfers through the cylinder wall is less effective. I n a t i o n factors w i t h respect t o various seal temperature f o r a vacuum p u m p handling
r ! : i ; ~ t i i t y p e of compressor, it's possible t o have h o t spots w i t h i n cylinder d r y air only.
w ; ~ l lw1ud1 i-.ii>dtico~nposcor polyrneri/e the gas. The liquid ring p u m p c a n obtain
i o u , i ~ isotller~nal compression as compared t o adiabatic compression of reci- Table4.5. Typical Liquid Ring Vacuum Pumps
;)toi:atin<l w m p s 01 blowers.
T I S I i s o t l i r r n ~ a lcompression o f single stage liquid ring vacuum pump.
I 'I
Ih~?ill 20001111H!] ALls t o .itmospheric discharge, gives a temperature rise o f 3OC
uornpaicri t o ~jricooledadiabatic machines w i t h temperature rises o f about lll°C.
The isuther~nalcompression characteristics makes the liquid ring p u m p quite ideal
i?11~,1n cool . i ~ r or gas is r e q ~ l i r e d and
, eliminates the necessity o f an after-cooler.

C A P A C I T Y OF L I Q U I D R I N G PUMP

Tlh? sllape o t thu revolving rotating liquid ring is dependent u p o n speed of

rot3t1011,tlle con to^^!.^ o f casing and r o t o r blades, and the compression w o r k . I t
~lo,.s in<,t d c s c ~ i b c2 pcjrtern that can be clearly defined or measured, therefore i t is
,,(nr,ll.isiitiil 111i1t t!it: I ~ q u i t lring p u m p cannot be related similarly t o positive dis-
I , I I t y ~ x~ c c i l m ~ c i i t i n01
g rotary ~ L I I T I ~ S . Gerierally, l i q u i d ring pumps are
~usttxl .~ctu,il cic!livered capacity. Solnu suppliers test all pumps; others test none N O T E : This data applies t o Vacuum Pumps selected for handling relatively dry
.I st.itistictil sanplc o f production. Standard performance curves published b y air, that is, u p t o a maximum of 50% relative humidity, These factors do n o t
~ h i ~ l o l , i c t o ! i ?are
r s based om air 150%, R H . 1 at 760mm Hg Abs barometer. and 1 5 ' ~ apply for pumps handling saturated air and vapor mixtures. ( F o r Reference
tv;itl,~. A i ~ yu,iriatior~ o n these corrditio~isw i l l change the p u m p performance. The Only)
n ~ . ~ x i m i lv;icLiwn
~n that car1 be obtairiec b y the l i q i ~ i dring p u m p is limited b y the E X A M P L E : Wanted, a vacuum p u m p t o operate at 22" vac w ~ t ha capacity ot
u:lpol ji~c!ssilre of w m p l e s s i m t l ~ ( l i l i d . 1000 c f m at 22" vac. Seal water available at 100°F, barometer 30" mercury.
C a p m t y lot SO~IIC vendors is subject t o a 5% tolerance, while for others as high Correction factor from table is 1.27. Select p u m p f r o m standard Nash curves for
;is 10%: and horsepower varies f r o m 0% t o 10% depending u p o n manufacturer. This capacity o f 1270 c f m at 22" vacuum.
IS .in i r n p o ~ timt consideration in evaluating published curve. 4. Wet or Saturated Gas - Liquid ring pumps sealed w i t h water act as a heat sink
capable o f cooling and condensing vapors. If seal water in t h e pump is cooler thmi
PERFORMANCE the incoming vapors, pumping capacities will be greater than standard published
curve. As the vapors come in contact w i t h cool seal water, i t reduces volurne by
The l i i l l ~ ~ w cotir!itiwns
~~ig play a significant lola i n p u m p selection and have
condensing vapors before entering the rotor chamber, increasing pumping capacity
~ I i ~ f l l l l~litL'i:ls
t~! 011 ,I l i ~ l l l l t ring
l ~~~1111p's
perforlnallce:
A typical performance curve (Figure 4.1 1) shows the gain in capacity when satw
1. Opci..>tin:l Pressurc - 01,tv>,t1ng I,ressu!c ~l6:tcrniines whether sintjle stage, t w o
rated air-water vapor mixture is handled. The net pumping capacity o f a liquid rinil
I L r r v v . i l w ~ ~ I C S L I I ~s~:.ll,:tl,
' 111 wLiter s ~ i ~ lpum
l ~pa
s ~ req~iired.
c The operating
p u m p increases w i t h greater temperature difference between vapor and a seal water.
, ~ c w t , i ~i s! vfltv:tt:r! b y ~ h y s ~ cpropt!vties
al of liquid colnpressant (vapor pressure, sp.
5 . L i q u i d Cornpressant Temperature - High seal temperature n o t o n l y causes thc
< ) I .5p. l l t . d l 1 1 "ls<:osity).
incoming gas t o expand, b u t also raises the compressant liquid vapor pressure, thus
2. Gas Composition - The types of gases and vapors w i t h its composition decreasing pumping capacity. Conversely, lower temperature reduces volume o f
detei~minesif p u m p is required t o handle any condensiblevapors. During condensa- incoming gas t o allow more weight flow for a given pump. The higher the seal liquid
t o n o i vapors, the latent heat o f vaporization is given o f f t o the compressant liquid. temperature, the more vaporization occurs and occupies more space i n the bucket.
~ , i s ~ its
i g temperature and affecting p u m p performance. reducing pumping capacity.
 6. Solubility of incoming gases i n t o liquid compressant. The gassolubility affects
the p l l l n p selection as some o f the dissolved gases i n the liquid ring flashes back a t
the inlet o f the pump, occupying some space i n r o t o r bucket, reducing its net
lhandl~n(lcapacity. Soluble gases, like sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, and some
,,tlir~i.lh;ivc I , w n succossfidly handling i n a liquid ring p v m p w i t h proper considera.
I i O l l o l c,,,,;,cty loss.
7. Effect o f A l t i t u d e o n Pump Performance - The capacity o f the liquid ring
pump l e n i a n s constant for a pressure ratio unless the inlet pressure is above atmos-
p h r u c . Thc uperatlng pressure o f a vacuum p v m p is l i m t e d b y exerting barometer.
i t is . i t i s o l ~ t t ~ iilecessa~.y
y T O convert opeiatirlg pressures glven at altitude t o the

r~!lcrence seii level c o ~ ~ d i t ~ ouns s~ n gE q ( 1 ) . then compare required capacity w i t h

iPli iPl1
( P I ) at sea level : iP21 at altitude

Fiyuic 4, 1 I . increase in capaclry of liquid ring pump handling raruraredmixruie.

Calculation of Vapor Pressure Effect For:

a. Miscible Seal L i q u i d - when t w o or more liquids are miscible (example:

methanol and water), the total vapor pressure exerted b y the l ~ q u i dcompressant
(seal liquid) follows Roulte's Law, and matnematically stated in Eq-5.

P V t = PA X m F a + PB X mF, + ~. Eci-6

b. Immiscible Seal L i q u i d - when t w o or more liquids are immiscible lexam~)lc

benzene and water), the total vapor pressure exerted b y the liquid comuresiijnt 1 3
an algebric sum o f the individual vapor pressure as stated in E q - 7 .

Volume required at the p u m p inlet i s computed, considering vapol pleisuli.

effect at the p u m p operating tefnperature and assuming gas m x t u r e iollows l~ii.;rl
behavior.

Temperature Rise Across The Liquid Ring Pump

I n a liquid ring pump. ideally assumed, all heat of compression and heat ol
condensation is transmitted t o the l ~ q u i dcompressant due to intimate m i x ~ n yo f gdi
and liquid. Temperdtur(? rise c;ui h,! compute(i by simijlified hcat-mass t r , ~ r i \ l i i ~
calculations. Typical tulnlmdtlirc ~ i s c !acloss the ~ ~ ~ l i wr il t hp i j u t ,>rlv i : ~ m t l i : n ~ ~ i t ~ w
is between 1 0 - 15°F ( 6 8°C). T u r ~ l x r d l t ~ rc$se
e across the p u $ n l jc a n lx l ~ ~ w tI Q~ r ~
increasiny liquid cmrrprcsialit flow.
T h e curve presented i n Figure 4.14 provides the data to d c t e r r r l n r t h ~ .L ~ I ~ O L ~ ~ H
of free d r y air i n saturated air-vapor mixtures following Dalton's Law.
As an example: Given 3 0 lbs o f saturated mixture at 29 in, vacuum and 60°F
how much free d r y air is contained in the m i x t u r e ? Referring t o curve below rrx.
across the line corresponding t o 60°F mixture temperature until i t intersects the
curve line corresponding t o one inch absolute vacuum (equivalent to 29 in. q;"~gi':
vacuum). Reading d o w n f r o m the curve iine we have 0.68 lbs of water vapor per I0
of air. That is t o say, an air-vapor mixture at 6 0 ' ~and one inch mercury absoluli:
vacuum w i l l consist o f one pound o f air and .68 l b of water vapor; therefore $ 1 30
Ib o f saturated m i x t u r e under these conditions o f temperature and pressure t h e ~ v
will be 3011.68 = 17.9 l b o f free d r y air.

COMPRESSANT SELECTION

Water i s the m m t common compressant or seal liquid used due to its a v a ~ l ; d i l ~ l ' +
and suitable properties. However, other liquid compressants can be used w i t h t i l t .
following desirable characteristics.
 1. L o w Vapor Pressure -
The vapor pressure of a liquid compressant increases
w ~ t hincru~sin!) temperature. An increase o f the vapor pressure reduces available
bucker space and thus reduces net pumping capacity. I f the vapor pressure o f the

! !
compressant is lower than water at operating Dressure and temperature, it increases
pcln~l,in!l c,ip;~city. Capacity gain using oil as the seal liquid is illustrated i n Figure
4.15. For opurating pressure lower than 2 0 m m Hg A (0.78" Hg Abs), oil or h y -
GAS
lKET -2
d r a d i c f l u i d can be used as the compressant. I f the liquid phase o f vapor condenses
SOLENOlO VALVE
in the liquid ring pump, proper vapor pressure correction f o r miscible or immiscible
Iiq~Bidsmust be made.
LlWlD
a
-

-
2 . High Specific Heat Gcner;,lly i t is assumed that all energy (power) required t o
W R Y
oi,c~,itc ;i l i c l i ~ c l11119 ~LIITI,) is ~ t l t i ~ n a t e trarlsrnittetl
ly t o the liquid cornpressant i n
the t o ~ i nof heat. The telnperature rise across the liquid ring p u m p increases w i t h
~ ~ ~ ~ ) heat of the compressant. The greater the temperature rise, the
~ l e c w a s specific
L l W l O GAS I
y e a t c l the vapor pressure o f liquid compressant, and a corresponding reduction in
caoacity. Therefore, i t is preferable t o select compressant liquid w i t h higher specific
-
(QI SEPARATOR LlDUID
WTLET
lieat, i f possible.
3. Specific Gravity -
The liquid ring energy i s a function o f r o t o r velocity and a
Figure 4.1% Vacuum pump once through seal.
speclfic gtavity o f the liqrlid cornpressant. I n a vacuum pump, when the specific
! l ~ ; i v ~ t yn l the seal l i q ~ r i r iis greater than 1.0, the standard curve capacity remains
I HOWUVCI, this COIISLIIT~~S more power than shown in the standard cuwe.
Whi,!~sji~.i:ific !ql;ivlty is less t l i x ~1.0, c;wocity i m d vower remains unchanged. b u t
spc!?cI i n ~ j s tIbc i ~ l c r e < ~ s e
po~>ip tod p o v i d e adequate energy to the less dense c o m - BY-PAS5 VALVE

~~1c:ss,~111.
1 0 ,i ~OII,~I~CSSU\ the p c t f o r ~ n a ~ l cchanges
e w i t h a specific gravity o f the GAS
INET- -

--
Low Vanor Pressure Sealed Pwnp

!\ HD %
(VALVE

LlOJlO
OJTLET

Figure 4. 756. Compressor once through rcsl.

Fii)urc 4. 15. Caoaciiv gain of a liquid ring vacuum pump sealed with / o w
,vapor pressure liquid compressant
 I N Q U I R Y I N F O R M A T I O N SHEET 2. Partial recirculation system - may be employed where liquid compressant I S
i n short supply or desired t o reduce liquid consumption. Some of the liquid corn
Engr. pressant is recirculated through a specifically sized orifice w i t h o u t use of heat
I n q u l ~ yNo. Customer exchanger. This may result i n a 10-67% saving o f liquid compressant, dependins
D;its Ruc'cl. Due Complete u p o n the temperature of non-recirculated seal and operating vacuum. Partial recir
GAS H A N D L E D
~
culated seal arrangement is shown in Figure 4.16.Generally i t operates a t highe!
temperature than once.thru-seal and may affect p u m p performance.
Ail Other
Mol.Wt. Sp. Gravity Temp. 'FI'C. GAS DISCHARGE
C APACITY REQUIRED CHECK VALVE (PI1 V A C W RELIEF
-~
Ac:FM [i,~easutcd JI i~iletl Lbs./Hr.SCFM (Corrected t o 14.7 psia
INLET
s r ~ 60°F)
l Other Saturated ("0' 1 D r~
OPERATING CONDITIONS
~

P-t
~,,~111~,~~uus Intc~mttent CyclesiH~ ORIFICE SMENOID VALVE VENT
UNIOI* 6
A l t i t u i l ~ '( F t ' M e t e r s I A m b i e n t Temp (°F/oC)

;kJ Y
Inlet P i e s s u ~ "Hg l AbS " ~ Vacg Psia P s i g
LIWIDw
Othet Min. Max. Inlet Temp. -Y -*I+ -
Discharge Pressure (Psia) P s i g -Other
-
Min. Max.
I
S E A L OR C O O L I N G L I Q U I-
D GAS LlQUlO SEPARATOR LlOUlC
. OUTLET
Warel Other Temp "F/OC
Figure 4.76. Parrral recirc. real for liquid saving.
Autiil:~l)le at Psig. Once thru Recirc
P;iriml Reclrc Vapor Pressure P s i a l " Abs ~ a~t -'FI0C
Psi:a!"Hg Abs at -'FIQc ~ s i a / " Abs~ gat 'F/"c 3. Full recirculation real system - this type of arrangement is employed whew
~,,,:<.ll!c G ~ a v i t yL p n c i f i c Heat M o l . Wt. liquid compressant is i n short supply and/or the cost o f the liquid comrJress;riil
Viscosity Te~nperature(at ten temperatures) (other than water) necessitates the recirculated seal system. I t is often required 1 c
reduce liquid contamination or pollution and reduce cost o f waste treatment 111
ELECTRICAL
certain applications. Typical recirculation systems w i t h and w i t h o u t recirculatio~l
Availal,le power supply, Volts Phase H z . - pumps are illustrated in Figure 4.17. The liquid compressant is cooled through this
Control Circuit Voltage heat exchanger whereheat o f compression and condensation is removed and the11
MOTORS recirculated back i n t o the pump. Installation o f a compressor and vacuum punll>

Enclosure ODP T E F C S e v e r e D u t y E x p l o s i o n Proof - w i t h inlet seal sometimes d o n o t require a recirculation pump. However. a vacuum
system w i t h o u t a recirculating p u m p requires a careful piping arrangement I n
Se~vi<.r?
Factor Irisdation List Special Feature-
lower pressure drops.

C O.N~T.R O L Tank Mounted U n i t - V a c u u m Pump

F u t n ~ s ht m w,d m o w i t Moil ill M o u n t & Wire This arrangement requires n o external heat exchanger or circulating p u m p . Coiil
T)csc~~ b t ? Idly ing o f seal liquid is accomplished by natural heat transfer through the wall of th.:
SPECIAL R E Q U I R E M E N T S tank, piping, and pump. Typical piping arranyement is shown in Figure 4.18.
b l a t e r i d of Const: A l l Bronze A l l Iron B r o n z e Fitted -
Si~mloss - Std. Cast I r o n O t h e r
$:,-,.h S~,.ds (Sioylc:l idntlhle) T y p e T a n k M o u n t -
 CUFRESSm (PI1
BY-PASS VALVE- 0
GAS
0 IS M G E
- PKESSL'li
KEL I t i
LEV& VN~VI
CONTRa
R.EvuTIC [R RIEU1I\TIC I37
CECTRCNI C) ELECTRONIC

LlOJlO
CUTLET
INIICATCR
*C.W. GAS L l W l D O R A l N VALVE

HEAT M W G E R

IRA IN VALVE
Figure 4 . 1 7 ~ .C o m p r e ~ ~ o(generally
r reek. pump not req'dl..
Figure 4. 773. Full wcirc. real vacuum pump with centrifugal pump.

M E M VALVE, - --VACU

GAS
INLET

I
I I . GAS L l W l O
SEPARATDR

Figure 4. 78. Tank mounted vacuum pump.

G E N E R A L NOTES
1) Vacuum and pressure rellef valves suggested for pump and system
prmectron
21 Liquid level controls often iecommended to protect pump froln
operarlnq dry or o v r r f l o o d i r ~ g
31 B v ~ a r rcontrol valve ir neccsrsrv when requiaflon o l r v s l e m pressure
required

HEAT EXCHANGER OUTLET Water Conservation

Variations or1 recirculated seal systems are numerous. Seal water y I>,.
conserved b y using pre-used water or by re-using water after pump dischair),: FI,,
example:
 1. Feeding p u m p w i t h fresh water and discharging t o another s y s t e m
2 . Feivijny p u n l p w i t h pre-used water and discharge t o drain or discharge t o
allother sys1e111.
3 . F e ~ u l i n gseal water in a cascade manner, feeding discharge f r o m one pump
of<> ;~~wrht?
p !~ ~ n l ) .
4. iicciicularirqJ cooling towel warel f r o m il pllrnp t o tower, or recirculating
cooling rower water through heat exchanger f o r cooling circulating seal
liquid.

Typical List of L i q u i d R i n g Applications Are as Follows:

1 . Vacuurn filtration
2. Condenser exhauster
3. Centrifugal p u m p priming
4. Central vacuum and compressair f o r hospitals and laboratories
5. Deaeration
6. Recarbonation
7. Vapor recovery
8. Process gas compressor
9 , Vinyl-chloride monomer or butadiene recovery
10.Chlorine conpressing
1 I. Tail gas coinpressor
12. l ~ , s l r i ~ n ~: ci l ln Cl I I ~ ~ M ~ S S ~ I ~
Some o f the '+ppi~cationsare show,, schematically and b r i e f l y discussed o n the
tollowing pages.
TI?,. reference chart indicates applications o f liquid ring pumps i n various
indus1,ies.
F I L T R A T I O N : In this arrangement, the liquid ring pumD evacuates the filtrate Reference Chart

tecc~ver.Theconstant, non-pulsating vacuuni i t maintains results in the deposit o f an

w e n . ~ m f o l - mfilter cake. A sinall compressor supplies air for cake blowing. (Figure
4.19i11 AIR FOR CAKE
S O L V E N T R E C O V E R Y : Vacuum tunible drying draws solvent vapors o f f solids.
I n the vacuur~ip u m p , solvent vapors come in contact w i t h cooled solvent liquid.
The p u m p itself sewas as a partial condenser. Non-condensibles are separate o u t
i ~ i t : d i ; ~ ~ i i c d al y ,~ the
d recovered solvent is stored f o r re-use. (Figure 4.19b)
MC)ISTlIRE E X T R A C T I O N : Textile f d i c containing mosture comes o u t o f a
iv.irli IIO\; I I I ~ ~ p~isscsO V ~ I ;I slotted tube. The V I I C ~ L put1111
~ ~ draws moisture, along
i v i t l i B c ~ n s ~ d c ~ aamount ble o f air, f l o w the extractor so as t o maintain a continu-
LNIS V,ICLILIII, in the s y s t e ~ nA n y textile fibers that colne through i n the m i x t u r e
I ! I I . Tlicy can be rlisposu~lof when the separator is cleaned o u t COMPRLSSANl
periodically. (Figure 4 . 1 9 ~ ) FILTRATE REMOV
CONDENSER E X H A U S T I N G : Maintaining vacuum depends o n removal of air
 Figure 4. 19d
FABRIC

,j(~ti OII~III !jim?s that cannot be condensed. The liquid ring vacuum p u m p normally
opt?l-,ites in series w ~ t h an : air ejector at condenser vacuumsabove 27" o f mercury.
At l i w u ~v.ic:i~cwns, thc ejector is I~y-pass~111 i ~ ~ ~ t o m a t i c a l and
l y . the vacuum pump
I 1 1 y Ihuni thc c o ~ l d r n s edt ~ i~icrrascdcapacity. Automatic changeover
l k ' t w ~ w il i i q .111(1 l l i ~ l di ) j ~ t ? ~ r i t lis
o na major bencfit that the Nash exhausting system
i l l l k 3 ~ s.is cu!~iuari!ilw i t h s t ~ m 1ejectors which 111ust be iidjusted m a n u a l l y (Figure
4 ImI
P I I I M I N G A CUIIL~I~II~~II p1111111lucated above 11s suction level IS kept full of valve - closes when liquid rises in it. Several connections may be needed ta i!v;ir.,,

I I ~ L I I C:itid icady t u puinp on startup. Instead u f depending o n a f o o t valve, a
V.ICLIIIII~ i s d ~ r i w r i111 the p u m p casitiy. The p r t ~ n i n gsystem, served b y a vacuum
ixjinlr, is cur~ncctedl o each centrifugal pump t h r o ~ l g ha priming valve. I t is a float
ate air f r o m all high points in the centrilugals pump's suctiori eye and voluti: T i .
priming valve is tapped at three places for those connections. ( F ~ g u r e4 . 1 9 ~ )
I n chlorine production, vacuum puml, removes b y p r o d u c t h y d r o g e n a r ~ i il i l v
centrated sulfuric acid is used as the liquid cornpressant in the c h l n r m t c],,,.
comoressor.
 i.:.ij~:.~ DRY i l i COMPRESSED Cle TO centerline. Designs w i t h vertical (12 o'clock) discharge should likewise minimlie
1 lOULiACTlON STORAGE
discharge elevation as discharge pipe floods w i t h liquid on p u m p shutdown.
1 !:YrIC Refer t o Figure 4.20.
WWtfi., COMPRFSSOR

Excess elevation hurts

efficiency and may flood
pump at shutdown.

GAS

r ) and for all practical pur-

m t x t <,Il l ~ i ? ~;ire
IIC,~~.% r, v1l~ldt101 flee.
1 Sinrlle foilndations can be designed t o sup-
1,o I t1,t- wm!11,1 L X I L I ~ I ~ ~ , : I I ~iati<I t o stilt local conditions. Foundation layout and
SEAL LIQUID SHADY PRACTICE
rjt,ic,~.ili u i s I . i l I . ~ I ~ 11~sI1~11:1ioris
~)~l i l l e 11sli:illy I ~ l l r l i ~ l l i !idl l r n r ~ r i u l i ~ c t ~ l r einstruction
r's
i,1.1i1t~.il rl,u ~ u ~ s l . i l / . i l ,~$oI N
~~ 01 lllc dive
;~11/1111n~:111 IS similal to other balanced.
IOI.IIIII~ I,IIIIII)II,CIII.
llilet i m ~ dl ~ s c h i i t ~ i)ii)iri!i
! ~ ~ f o r the I ~ U I I I ~ must be f r e e o f any
!,~,itn, IIIIWILYISI, 1 S U ~ n i i s d i ! j ~ i l n eo
1 1 ~ ~ 1 ~1 N ~ fl t the clrive, r u b internal parts, and
I ! : I s I i I . 011il nl!w iilisti~llatioo,iolet screens, clean- Pump has little excess
, .iotl i l ~ ~>ud,cts
t should l x insliilIi:il l o i11wei71c;ilryover o f any harmful discharge head to
overcome and flooding
lrllt'$!jll 111,11I1?1 l l i l o thc p ~ l i l l lat
l illltiill Stal t l l v . danger is minimized.
Piping Arrangement Well designed piping Inust provide f o r the unique character-
Is1Ic.s ill lllu liclilitl ~ i l l (i-)~111111.
l
Start-up. PLIII,~ C J S C~niust ~ ~ ] b e :; t o 5: fill1 o f seal liquid. I f underfilled, there is
i i ~ s i > l f i i . i u oI tq w c l t o inate a rlng, and ~ l n i will t be unstable or will seize. Overfilling
lc.ids to Ilooilhig and broken shaft or r o t o r blades.
S,,III,, ,Ii~s~!j~is
.ill! var t ~ c a( " 1 2 o'clock") discharge. Theseusually require an
.iiu\li.i~y i . . i s i ~ i ! l dl ;?it1 t, IiIcvcnt floodud stdits. SHAFT
S h u t r i u w ~ ~/\. ~ . i i . ~ ~ o~NIIII~
in ~ ~ 1 1~
11i i l c ti:hi:ck valve w i l l suck liquid back i n t o
1)1111111 i . . i ~ w i ~A~ t. ~ g l i tcheck valve w i l l lhold l i q ~ ~ i in
c l upper part o f casing and give
ti,,. c l l , ~of ~a lloodetl start-up. Small v a c u i m breakers are available for installation
011ptimp ,:.isln!] to cou~ltei-actthis undesiiable condition. SEAL LIQUID ACCEPTABLE PRACTICE
Operating. Piping between p u m p discharge and the liquid-vapor separating device
is critrcal. This should be short, direct, and w i t h o u t excessive elevation. F o r p u m p Figure 4.20b
dos~~lrisw i t h lhoiiiontal discharge, the piping is usually 0-12'' above shaft
 CHAPTER 5
,RESSURE C O N N E C T I O N

JET EJECTORS AND CONDENSERS

AS
iUCTlON CONNECTlON
VACUUM PRODUCING DEVICES A l R OR OTHER GASES!

ROGER G. MOTE
AMETEK
Schrittr & Kowting Div.
Corllwells Heights, PA

INTRODUCTION

R;lpld, ol high-capacitv vacuum pumping o f gases or vapors to 10-"orr is

g~ner.,lly p r i f o l m e d most economically by a jet-ejector vacuum system. Mechani-
cally, i t is the simplest of all present day types of vacuum pumps or compressors D I S C H A R G E CONNECTION ( M I X T U R E ,
-_d
with theconsequent benefit of minimum maintenance demands. Jet vacuum systems
Ii.tvi, Ilia ;idv;mtagu of very low initial cost as well as low installation cost. Jets Flgure 5 1. Typ&ai jet ejecrorr
c o n t ~ i w111) lnioving plirts a x ! therefore have no lubrication or oil problems. They do
1 1 ~ 1 1i c i l o i ~ <I ', x ~ I L I I ~close t ~ i e ~ a , c e s;]lid
~ : ~ ~ . they can be made from practically any venturi diffuser, and as the cross sectional area increases the velocity decrrdsiii.
-
i.rl8 I t > > ~ t l i > ~ i , \ s t ~~~n~~, ti l!;1t1. c ~l o
i~l)plicarionswhich ,oquire unusual materials o f con- converting its high kinetic energy into static pressure. The discharge area ir di:r~rl~iwd
s t , u c t ~ w , ,!]I.iss 1 0
lh(j7ly col iusivu procms vapors as one example, a jet-ejector may t o recover some 90-97% of the kinetic energy in the throat. The pressutc I ! ilv
I h I ;lie I 01 u . Those fabrication materials lacking sufficient throat corresponds t o the critical value of the discharge pressure of the let. I l u r ~ ~ ~ ,
st!e~,gthof their own, can be used as liners with steel backing. this conversion o f pressure energy at the inlet to the motive nozzle, to vrlocttv
A j e t vacuum system frequently has higher rrtility Isteamlair and water) require- energy i n the throat, to pressure energy at the discharge. work is performed r ? ihr.
imwnts t l i m conventional rnechariical type vacuum pumps. Also, in the case o f direct form o f entrainment, mixing and compression so that the discharge l p r r s i h l l i 8 .
c o n t x r condens~ngsystems, the motive gas and condensing water contact the pro- always intermediate t o the motive and suction pressures.
cess vapors w ~ t hthe result that the effluent may require special treatment i f the Critical jets are those that involve a compresston ratio greater than or e q u d i . I
s i i ~ r i o ~vapus
! should c o n t a i l any ob~ectionableconta~ninants.The use of surface the critical pressure ratio of the suction vapor. For steam (water vapor] t h ~ srsuo ,
coniiemrrs does liot eliminate the problem but greatly reduces the volume o f 1.81 and for air the value is quite close to the same. That is, i f the suction p~r,sti.
t i f f l u t ~ n to
t I)< 11e;itcd. F o applications having great fluctuations of suction load at is less than 0.55 times the discharge pressure, then the jet i s a crlrxal let. l i 11,
,i ( ~ v e !suction plessurr, the use of parallel rlnlts (called dual or multiple element) compression ratio is less than this critical pressure ratio, then the ji!t is a i i o ~ ~ c : ~ ! ~ : .
;ilr xiv;n,rogeous i l l keeping i!tility consumption to a minimum. jet.
A I.,! iqcctoi i 5 is I i d , I i l l w thermodynamic device, which I n the same sense, the motive gas flow through the rior?lf! may t x c r t i : , i ( 8 1
rl!rc?t,qh ~ ~ ~ ~ ~eup;ir,sjorr ! i o l ~ 111
r ~t h fr motivt, ,liu7lr:s, plwluces a jut of motive gas non-critical. However, this flow does not detcrrn~newhether the jet i s caI1i:il C I I I ~ . , . ~
~ m i > v i i ~~ j j Isk~pr(sotlic
I swvd, 1Ii11s c o n ~ c ~ t i nthe
g static energy of the motive gas or non-critical. Usually, this motive gas flow is cr~ticaland must be i f the l e t 111<!I!I.
~ , l ~ u u to i ~ ,k n i : t ~ c zmelqy. I i ~ t ~ o d c ~ icircu!nfr~c!r~t~a!ly
li,l.ilivt,lv sihv n i o u \ i ~ 5111!;1m g
!rl i l r o ~ ~ nthis
d jet, is the
of suctio~,v.ipm. This cenI!ally locdtud, hiyh velocity
critical.
-
With critical jets, those designed for compression ratio5 of 4 to 10, the e f f ) ~ ~ t . ~ ! ( : j
I L ! ~ <>I inotlvi? g x picks 1111dnd rnlxes with the slower suction stream as i t passes i s greatly impaired i f the motive gas pressure is not a t least sewn tlmer thi: d~,cl~;irq
*
!h~uu!ili thi: converging sectioli of the venturi diffuser. I t then enters the throat pressure; efficiency i s greatly improved wher this same r a t o s eleven or yir:atl:l.
sticl~w>o f tlir diffust!~.completely mixed, at thr? critical (sor!ic) velocity of the With extremely low compressions, the above ratlos are riot iidvantaqiioa:. C I t r . ~ , !
mtxlult!. Th,: mixture f l o m the t h r i m passus through the diverging section of the jets can be designed for lower motive pressures but with riiriuciid c o m p r i : w w . . ; ! i w
 riiwsi si.l!i'!r ;m~:I ( ! ~ / L J I I C : ~ 10 i ~ c c o m p l ~ sthe h same total compression. This can be
i:r:w!~~~nic,~lly ddvailtagiioos, especially ic the recycling of low pressure waste steam
ICI m l u c c ~c ~ ~ i ~ costs
g y ~i generating supply steam. The quantity of waste steam
~ w i ~ ~ indy ~ ~ i lrt, i ~ s~,v~!~.d
i l limns r l i ? rc?q~ii~<!nrent o f 10.55 kq/crn2 supply steam with
I : II i ! ~ LCII!II:I .jcls ill,! Inect?ssafiybecause the capacity of each
\I.iili, I \ li)wc!~wlilll! 1111. iiei:tc:iw in 8ntlximum compression available, especially in
I I.r.1 lwir sI.iw!s, c<!<~uil<!s a glt!att!l iwmber of stages. Further, the increased
v d u n i ~ ,0 1 stem ine.uls lalgar condensers. whethur direct contact or surface type,
JOCI rnwt, c n o l i ~ ~water. g Nonetheless, depending upon the application, the volume
t ~ lw,isw S!C~I~II ,~v,~ili~l)It!. ;$ntlam malysls o f costs, critical jets designed for the lower
~ m ~ i ~ i ~xiissri,ii
vc: 0 1 wiiste ztt:am can be i w t only a cost effective equipment acquisi-
t ~ o i but i one which contributes greater savings as energy costs inevitably rise.
A ji't cioctn~ is composed of three basic components - body, nozzle, and dif-
f i i s t , l . Thc body is essen1ially a hollow vessel, whose prime purpose i s t o support the
ilu/rliv, the soctlon port, and the diffuser i n their proper physical positions. The
< . o ~ ~ v i i ~ , t iI~III~VP u , ~ ~ l gas rno~zlc?is of the converging, diverging type and is used t o
mi,.r!,ult! 'lnd expand the motive gas t o a predetermined pressure, volume and vel-
< i i : t ~ vThc inlet of thc convelging section must be well rounded to obtain a high
I I l lI ! f f i c i ! i t . Thf? olllice is sized 10 give the correct quantity
t11 >I,,.II,, i ! s u ~ l l yc.ilcul:iled st ct ,tical flow. The diverging section allows the motive
I l t i i , x ) , . ~ ~ , < i. l i l t 1 :111115 1 1 i : c n t ~ i ~ l lthrough
y the diffuser inlet into the diffuser
1 1 , . I I s 1 5 .i C O I I Y ~ : ! ~ ~ O ifiviv(]ing
, w n l u r i with a constant diameter
1 l 1 1 t ~ . i s,-<:l(i,n
i I1111wtwlt l l c IWII COIIIC;II s c , i : t i ~ ~ l s .Figulc 5.2 shows the relationship
I 1l1i:sc II.ISIC C O ~ ~ ~ O I I ~ ~2nd , I S tll<'ir c o ~ ~ m p o n d i r rpressure, g velocity, and work
vat x n c t c ~ s . vacuums, o f about one inch of mercury or less, i t is customary to state the vacuum
For ~ L J the, I i r f w e n c c to standard rnomcnclature, configurations, fundamentals, i n "inches of water vacuum or draft."
avlc ~ u l i '111 ~ HE1 ( 1 ) ( I i c i ~ lExchalge l n s t ~ t u l e )"Standard for Steam Jet Ejectors" The three standard methods of measurement are, of course, equivalent w ~ t t l
dlid ASME (21 (American Soc~etyo f Mechanical Engineers) standards. Several ex- proper transposition constants. Figure 5.3 shows that a standard atmosphere can bc:
culle~ittcchnic;il papers t o supplement certain sections of this text are noted in represented by 760 Torr (or m m of mercury), 29.92 inches of mercury (both at
R C ~ ~ ~ ~ I I G~ Iti,I C13. I~S O'C) or 14.696 pounds pet square inch absolute. Equivalent pressures are rcpri
rented by horizontal intersects on Figure 5.3.
An example of the importance of utilizing either the absolute pressure or refer-
encing the local barometric pressure to absolute units when desfgnlng a vacuurn
system can be illustrated as follows:

Two companies, one i n Philadelphia and one in Denver, want equlp.

ment t o produce 635 m m of mercury vacuum. The mm mercury baro-
metric pressure i n Philadelphia is about 762 m m mercury, so that com-
pany requires equipment which will produce a 137 mm mercury abso-
. lute pressure. However. in Denver where local barometric pressures are
635 m m of mercury. the company has unknowingly requested zero
suction pressure which i s technically unobtainable.
 "actual" or "standard" conditions; a similar amplification must be made for
temperature i f other than the 2 1 " ~which is standard i n the jet vacuum industry.
STANDARD ATMOSPHERE
The conversion from either ACFM or SCFM, cubic meters per second, barrels
per day, gallons per minute, liters per hour, and so on to kilograms per hour can
also be obtained from published conversion charts. Though gas mixtures require a
slightly more complex calculation t o determine volumetric to weight rate conver.
sion these too can be obtained from marly published conversion charts.
The basis for selecting proper jet vacuuin equipment is determned by the
requiredsuction pressure inTorr, and suction loads i n weight flow rates of kilograms
per hour of dry air equivalenf ( D A E I at 21°C. The method of converting we~ght
flow rate i n kg/hr t o DAE at 2 1 " ~involves corrections for temperature i f other
than 21°C, molecular weight i f other than air, and water vapor inclusion if suction
load i s saturated. Figures 5.4. 5.5 and 5.6 show "Temperature Entrainment Ratio
Curve." "Molecular Weight Entraniment Ratio Curve." and "Air and Water Vapor
Mixture Data (Dalton's Law)." These curves are extracted from HE1 Standards for
Steam Jet Ejectors, Third Edition.

NOTE-
1MM HG.
ASS = 1 TORR

, ABSOLUTE ZERO PRESSURE

SUCTION LOADS

I n addition to those parallel pressure measurement systems already described.

flow rates are often specified i n varying ways. The relation between these several
approaches is summarized as follows:
Capacity loads are specified i n either weight or volumetric rates (i.e. weight or
volume per unlt o f time). For this text weight rates i n kilogram per hour (kglhr)
will be followed. Other commonly used weight rates are pounds per hour (PPH).
pounds per second (lbslsec), tons per day, and so on. Simple conversion constants
are available for these various rates from many published sources.
Volumetric rates for incompressible fluids are very similar t o weight f l o w rates in
tli:jr convaislorls from volumetric to weight flow iates are simple and direct. HOW-
WCI, convcrslon for compressible f l u ~ d s may often depend on actual operating
p ~ r ! s s i i ~ ;ind
c tcniperatures. Very often the chemical and allied industries refer to
SCfM (st.i~icia~d c u h c f e t i t p c ~minute). Gases measured i n SCFM means gas at
st.$m,l.~~~c s pri:ssulcs ( 7 0 ° F a x l 14.696 PSIA). If thi! late is listed as
i o ~ ~ r l i t i o nand
ACFM (actual cublc feet per minute) the load bein$ considered is at the actual
f l u w ~ n gp~essumand temperature. Note that a volumu flow rate such as CFM (cubic
feet oer minute) i s def\nitcly incomplcte: ~t must be further amplified by stating
 lliitll tht!s~~ mo] ~ d ' : t s t ; i ~ l i l i ~a~ $ii!vitiw
Lmlc , ~ n ! j ~ ~ i e o l ~ ]s, o f o p e r a t i ~ ~principle,
g
c i t l i ? o s t c t 1 . nlay ix! made for the following
vdi:uum ploduclng di:viccs:

Stram jot syphori

W31e1 jet rxhar1stt:r
Multl-jet and multi-jet spray direct contact condenser
Low level eductor and low level multi-jet condenser
Sii~glcstage jct-ejector with ail or str!am !motive
Multi-stage jet ejector, both non-condensing and condensing

JET SYPHON
When low initial cost and low available motive pressure are of major importance,
t l ~ cj e t syphon offers considerable advantages. This type unit is comrnonly utilized
In sampling, priming, evacuating, and exhausting applications and operates well if
the possibility ot flooding exists. I t is, however, uneconomical for continuous
ov~r3tio~ l ~1c a u s eof high motive utility requirements.
The jet syphon (Fig. 5.7) is simple i n construction with only two components,
body and nozzle. I t can also be supplied in any castable material and is normally
stocked i n cast iron, bronze, and stainless steel.
Performance ranges, suction capacities, and evacuation curves are shown i n
Figure 5.6. Enrrainmentrario curves for airmream minrurer.
Figures 5.8. 5.9 and 5.10 for two common nozzle sizes. These curves are based on
steam motive. Suction capacities utilizing air as the motive stream can be approxi.
mated by using one half o f the listed capacities for steam motive.
WATER JET EXHAUSTER
The water jet exhauster operates on the jet principle utilizing water as l t i i
motive force. Because of i t s condensing capabilities it is ideal for handling mixturi::
of condensibles and small quantities of non-condensible gases. Jet exhaustels ari:
 PRESSURE
EVACUATION CURVE WATER
1 ' 1 FIG 53 7 STEAM JET EXHAUSTEH

MOTIVE STEAM
CONSUMPTION DISCHARGE

/ CONVERSION FROM FT. WATER TO 1

CAP. 30 NOZZLE 115 NOZZLE
FACTOR SIZE 3 30 PSIG. @ 6 0 PSIG.

3/4"

1"

I%', D I R E C T C O N T A C T CONDENSERS
Co-Current or Parallel Flow Type Units
2"
The direct contact condenser I S employed in a variety of industr~es as d n
2%'' economical means of removing ail. i:xhaust str!am, and other vapors f r r j r n vawlurr!
 equipment. I t is found i n almost every area of the chemical and process ndusties
which use vacuum stills, calandria pans, multiple-effect evaporators, and vacuun:
crystalizers. I n addition they have been used for decades i n the food industry .
(edible oil, milk, and sugar) as well as the distilling, pulp and paper, and refinery
industries.
A principle feature of the direct contact condenser is that injection water may
be discharged through a tail pipe by gravity, without requiring a pump. Another
advantage is its capability of withstanding flooding in the event of priming or Iiqwd
entrainment. I n most plants, the vapor exhaust connection of the process vessel
under vacuum is located at considerable elevation above ground level. The use of a
direct contact condenser at these higher elevations permits shorter exhaust vapor
lines which reduces leakage hazards and vapor line pressure drop, thereby reducilq
initial cost.
There are t w o basic types of direct contact condensers:
(1) Cocurrent, orparallel flow, i n which the vapor t o be condensed enters at thi,
top of the u n i t and flows i n the same direction as the condensing water, and
( 2 ) Counter-current, or counrer flow, i n which the vapor enters near the bottom
of the equipment and passes upward against the water flow, with the non-conrle~~s,i
bles discharging near the top. Injection water is delivered to the condenser ( $ 1 ~ t l i ,
form of a solid head, jets, sprays, water curtains. or a combination theri!i,f. Titis
section will consider the co-current or parallel flow type unlts. C o u n t e ~ - c i j ~ ~ u
type direct contact condensers will be discussed in the multi-stage jet ejector, corl
densing system section 182.).
Direct contact condensers o f rhe co-current type can be further cateyorr/ed .$i
multi-jet. multi-jet spray, or multi-spray type units. These are depicted i n F>~gutiis
5.14, 5.15 and 5.16 respectively. The denotation of "jet" in the classiOcat~o~
indicates that the condenser is capable of handling some non-condensbles, whili'
performing its primary condensing function. The denotation of "spray" in dri:i;r
contact co-current condensers indicates little non-condensible handling capabihry
The performance of any condenser is described by a simple heat balance. Thi:
heat added t o the system is the quantity of sream being condensed muitipllrd " ,1
the latent heat of vaporization at that pressure and temperature. This must be u q u ~ i
t o the heat removed by the condensing water which is the quantity of warel
multiplied by the temperature rise from inlet to outlet times the specific heat.
It is obvious that the larger the allowable temperature rise of the c o r d e n s r ~ ~ j
water, the smaller the amount of water required and the higher the contlensalc
discharge temperature. Under theoretically perfect conditions, a condenser could
operate undera vacuum corresponding to its tail and discharge water femperarure.
but no higher.
Under normal operation this, of course, can never occur. Air entering w ~ r hthe '
injection water and non-condensibles entering with the vapor load exert a parral
pressure. The operating pressure of the condenser then, is the sum o f the vapo
 Figure 5.75. Typicd rnulr;+r spray direcr conracl
condenser.
Figi,nr 5. 74. Typical multi-,el direci contact condenser,

spray type condensers are capable of flushing a certain amount of non-condcnsiblv

LIICSSIIII~ tlic tail tempt:rature plus the partial pressure of the "on-condensibles
.it
down the discharge pipe. The quantity is relatively small and varies with the opeia-
prcsent. The difference between the temperature of the tail water and the tempera-
ting pressure of the condenser. Conversely, excess non-condensibles above the quan-
ture corresponding t o saturated water vapor at the actual condenser pressure i s
t i t y which the condenser is capable of handling will cause a rise in operating
kllown as the "terminal diffeience."The efficiency of a condenser can be measured
pressure t o a point sufficient t o flush the added non-condensibles through to dis-
by ti>?''tc>min;,i d i i e ~ u n c e , " aithough i t also varies with the percentage o f non-
charge. This increase in operating pressure above the design point i s undesirable for
~ : ~ > ~ l c l ~ p~r ~
c sles~i, l .~ l ~ ~ s
several reasons including the possibility of overloading the supporting jet stages or
0 k u 1 . 1 1 1 0 1 , \)I I l i t f ~ p callit ~nitllli-jctS ~ I C I Y tvpc diwct co~,tact con-
an objectionable pressure rise in the vessel being evacuated. The air handling cap,+
~lc,llst,liIS Y L ' I ~s w n ~ i i $C~O
. I I ~ ~ ! I > Swiit? c d llic <nozzlecase which i s
I I ? ~ is d ~ I ~ v i : ~illto
bilities of the multi.jet and multi-jet spray type condensers are shown in Figurr:
dcir~!]nrC 10 oporatc usitrg :I spccilicd qua>rtity of water at stated head pressure
5.17. This graph denotes typical capacities over the air preienr in normal conli~irj
( n ~ ~ i r i m u i0.7 ;,
i i kylcm' ~ I i f l i ~ ~ e n t ~imd
i t l ) , !jvirii vacuum i n the condenser. The
water (which i s illustratud in Figure 5.18).
water jets are directed into the tail-piece at the lower end of the body, where they
Both type units are capable of terminal differences of 6.1 to 7.2"C. T h e r c o : ~ .
unite to f o ~ ma single stream. Vapors entering the condenser come into direct densible vapor handling capabilities and maximum cooling water capacfties arc:
cont,ict ~ v i t hthc c o ~ i ~ e r ~water
~ i t i $and
~ ate condensed. The multi-jet and multi-jet shown in Figure 5.19.
 Air
Pump CAPACITY - PPH AIR PER 100 GPM WATER THRU JET NOZZLES

<'
\

MULTI-JET AND MULTI.JET SPRAY

(CORREC.TED FOR 0 L0S WATER VAPOR PRESSURE)
ATM PRES = 30" HG ABS

(CAPACITY FOR LOW-LEVEL MULTI-JET CONDENSERS

EQUALS X VALUES SHOWN ON CURVES 1
I I I I l l I I l l l l l l l I

EFFECTIVE AIR PRESSURE = INS HG (CHANGING PRES - VAPOR PRES AT H,O DISCH il Mi'

Figure 5.17. Nonsondenrible /aid handling c a p x i t y of multi-jet and muiii-jer sproy dliccr c u : ~
t s t condensers. /Note: C~pscirier.shown art. in addition io air prcsrrrr ir?c u o i i ~w.~rr,rl

Fiyurrr 5. 16. T y p i c ~ muiv-spray

l diircr cmrarcr condenser wrrh p r e ~ o o i e randairpump.

The multi-jet splay unit differs from the multi-jet design in its flexibility of
crpur;tt~on.This i s apparent from its design as seen in Figures 5.14 and 5.15. For full
vapoi load the rated water capaclty is l3assed through both the spray and jet
nozrlcs. I f the vapor lo;id or water ternpeiature ducreascs, it is possible to throttle
tliu vv.ltc~ to the splay nozzles a ~ i di ~ l t ~ m a t e lturn
y them off completely. I n the
I ~ t 1 i . lc.isc, the condenser I S operating i n a (manner similar to the multi-jet type, but
wtI1 d mir>lmum of inicctlon water undur tlie given conditions.
The multi-spiay direct contact condenser was developed to handle applications
~nvolvingl ~ m i t e dwater supply, high water temperatures i n relation t o vacuum
lequirement, or when removal of a large volume of non-condensibles is required.
Figure 5.18. Allowance ra be made for a r p r e r m r in condensmy water
This type condenser requires an alr pumD to draw the non-condensibles o f f the
 contact counter-current pre-cooler attached to the multi-spray condenser, The p j e
cooler lowers the temperature of the air-vapor mixture and condenses as much of
the remaining vapor as the water temperature and operating pressure allows. Sinci.
the pre-cooler is using its own fresh water and only has to hanclle a relatively small
amount of condensibles, i t can reduce the water vapor carry~overto the air pump to
a point much lower than is possible with the larger condenser. The spray noirlus arc,
designed for a minimum 0.7 kg/cm2 throttling pressure with terminal differences of
1.7 to 2.8'C obtainable i n a well designed "tight" system. I t is also possible to
operate a multi-spray direct contact condenser without an air pump for short
periods of time at slightly reduced vacua. Performance and maximum water capa-
cities for the multi-spray condenser are shown i n Figure 5.20.

0 10 i5 20 25 30 35 40 45
LB PER HOUR VAPOR5 PER I GPM

Figure 5.20. Performance curve for wprcal multi-spray dnect contact condenser wiih rnrrx~ni,,,,
water capaciry chart.
Maximum Maxarnurn
: I I 1I I . A S C ~ I IL x si!t!~l ir, Figure 5.16 the multi-spray Water Water
Size Capacity Size Capacity
co~liic~nst!!Ii;ls a cilcrlla~spray nozzle aclangemerit at the vapor inlet. I n this respect
No. wrn No. wm
it 1s vaiy similar t o a multi-jet spray type unit, however, i t does not have a jet spray 30 625 36 2200
seC1i011. Vapov elitcrs the condenser at the top and mixes thoroughly with the 31 750 37 3200
32 950 38 3800
. ~ ~ i i e c t i owater
n which is delivered through spray nozzles. The downward action of 33 1100 39 5000
these co~ivergingsprays tends to create a suction in addition t o their condensing 34 1300 40 6000
action. The condensed vapors are taken t o the hotwell through the barometric leg. 35 1700 41 a000
42 9000
The noti-condensibles are drawn through an air suction chamber t o a small direct-
 LOW-LEVEL EDUCTOR A N D MULTI-JET EDUCTOR TYPE CONDENSERS

Tht, low-level eductoi and multi-jet condensers are des~gnedt o produce medium
tu l i g l ~v.icu,i (735 Torr or higher) depend~ilyupon water temperature, for use with
I I t w l j i ~ w s .Thcy B I ~ P I the
O ~ energy of water issuing through jet
li,li,l,,r I&, c . ~ I . . ~ t ~ YLII:LIIIIII.
, COII~~:IISL! stt:am, al,d handle small amounts of air lap-

in,,x~o).t~,,ly20: 0 1 ilia , l i t lhatiiliing C~p:ll>illly<lenoif!d in Figure 5.171. No auxil-

I I U I ~ , ~1s I , C Y : C S > ~ I ~;III<Itl,~, w:itci~<lisi:I~a~q~:s
,,it y v , i i : t , ~ ~ i n dircclly illto a hotw(!lI with
nil i ~ ~ l ~ i i ~ ~0 1: ~avL )tJ ,I U~~ Bl ItI C kg.
r u 1 is capaljle of hancllirq capacities
Tllr lc,w Itwe1 idoctor coi,ilr~iser ( F ~ g c ~ 5.21
L I P 10 311 10 Ihqlh~o l stodn, 3 1 G58 Tort v x u i i l n arlrl 21°C injectioir tt!mpel-ature.
Thi* lbocly o f the condenser is a closed cylindr~cillchamber with a water nozzle in
\ti,! p tmU whlch e x t ~ n d s downward into a combining tube, and discharges
t i ~ ~ r i ~ i gurntort
h tall piece. A short pipe ( t w o feet i n length1 carries the discharge
,,>to i h ~ :IIOIWPII. Exl)8ust steam enters the condenser through the side inlet i n the Figure 5.27. Twyplcal l o w level educroi
condenser
l i ~ l y p~ssos
, into the combirling tube through holes in the tube, comes i n contact
wltl, thii w<<terjet and is co~idensed.Air aod non-condensibles are entrained and
ilsi:lio~gcdwith the condensed steam directly to the hotwell. Injection water must
bc dt'I~v~!l.ed dt a co,tstant 0.7 kg/cm' pressure and a water check valve should be
i ~ ~ s t : i l li~l l~ther l steam line to pevent water back flow. A typical performance curve
.iil,i w.lter ccipacity chart are shown in F i g ~ ~ 5.22. re
The, low-ltw:l m d t i - j e t co~idense~ (Figure 5.23) is very similar in operation t o the
I,,w I,,vul ~!ilkjcio~ onit. I t is capable of handling capacities up to 69,000 kg/hr o f
stt,.iln ;it G58 Torr vacuum and 21°C ~niectiontemperature. The multi-jet condenser
I s d dusign features that are untque. I t has two steam inlets, one at the top.
,izlrl <ma dt the side, either one of which can be used. It is provided with an internal
ili~.it i > p u ; ~ i e dw c u u m breaker to a d n i t air to the vacuum space when there is a
L ~ c k!low o f water from the hotwell caused by any interruption or shut.off of
~ n j t x r o water.
i~ Larger unlts, 1132.511sec and higher), are normally equipped with
two v;icoum breakels. This unit's performance curve and water capacity chart are cessive air leakage i s indicated by turbulence in the hotweli. The water nozr1i.i
show,, m Figure 5.24. should also be protected from foreign matrer by using a screen or strai17er i r l t l l i '
A tyilical arrangement of a low-level multi-jet condenser under a turbine i s water line between the pump and the condenser.
r h o w ~i 1 3 Fgore 5.25. I n opetaton, the t u r b i ~ ~i sesta~tedwith atmospheric exhaust.
A r s,,i,r, .ir the injection watel porno is p ~ ~ m e anti
d running at normal speed, the SINGLE STAGE JET EJECTOR
v.iIvi3 $ 7 ihc p w n p discharge line is opened, ndmilting watel to the condenser. As the The general principles of operation for the single srage jet-ejector were diicusit.rJ
, I 1 I j , q i , s t i ] coi~<lensc,stt:.iln. ll7o .~t~nospllericrc:lief valve closes auto- i n an earlier segment o f this chapter. The jet-ejector, it may be i-ecalliiii, ,,.,
o ~ , i i ~ c d./, y i d V~CLIIIIII Lw11dsill the c o ~ l d ~ ' ~ i s e ~ thermodynamic device which utilizes the transfer of energy produced by a m o t \ , ,
I~il~!cti~ , r ~ ptesstrrv shot,ld b r 0.7 kg/crn2 or over r o create vacuum. After
w.itui gas to create vacua and compress the suctron load to an intermediate pressuri:, i h , .
v,ii:oiun (OIII~D(~,
thi! willt'l ilol7Ics tii:sigl~~!d
ti) p i m the required flow at
enthalpv.entropv Path of the motive gas (steam in this case) passing throuqn ,,
111, 15 al?

r p ~ w l e i v,,cutwn
i w ~ t l 0.35
i k g l c n ~ ' piesswc?. V a c i ~ u min the condenser will not single stage unit is illustrated i r ~Figure 5.26 by polnts 0 . 1 - l ' ~ 2The
. amount of w r l i k
l ~ l 1d0 th;ii ~ e q u r d for efficient operatlor, if thu injection pump is n o t properly or energy available for compressing the suction fluid is rhr difference hetwi.i:,~ l t h
i d , f f ~ l c l i o nlosscs dnri l i f t ~ n ql,cxJ ihiivc 1101 Own cillculaled properly, or i f motive fluid-velocity energy h, --h, and the eneryy requlred to compress lhi: ,riijlI,,.
s not reasonably tiyht. Ex.
iittl,ioi, r l u l l t n g boxcs or rxhaiist str:am c o n ~ ~ m t i o nare
EFFICIENCY %
 The corresponding jet efficiency curves, Figure 5.31,for thevarious nozzle p o s -
tion curves shown i n Figure 5.29, illustrate that maximum efficiency i s ach~eveda:
only one point, nearthe knee in the curve. In addition, i t also reveals that the jet
efficiency is best at some nozzle position midway between the extremities of the
operation. The information i n Figures 5.29, 5.30 and 5.31 point out that although
the air-capacity, suction, and discharge-pressure character~sticscan be obtained by
numerous combinations of nozzle position and steam rare, there will be only onc
combination that will produce the desired characteristic for the minimum amowit
of steam.

JET EFFICIENCY

Figure 5.31. Typ;caleffectofnorrleporrtion upon jet efficiency of onesrage.

From this unit selection i t i s now possible to establish a set of performairci:

curves based on various motive pressures similar to that illustrated i n Figure 5.27.
Figure 5.32 shows jet ejector performance for varying motive pressures between 6.3
kg/cm2 and 14.0 kg/cm2. Suction load capacities increasewith increasing motlvu
pressure i n a curve which is typical for all jet-ejectors. Seiection of a particuiar u n r
to meet specific operating criteria is made between points 0 and 1 in Figure 5.32.
Movement of this flat portion of curve t o either the right or left is possible through
variations i n expansion i n both the nozzle and inlet taper to the diffuser. T h i
movement corresponds t o increased suction capacity handling capabilities at a glvtirt
suction pressure. Figure 5.33 illustrates a single stage jet-ejector with wqh!
F l y u r e 5.30. Typ8cal sffrcr o f steam rates on stage performance.
 Figure 5.34. Typical performance for S-3 unit from Fig. 7.7 wwirh varying rream
motive presrurer.

expansion changesin the nozzle and diffuser. As i s shown, this allows sulecrfon r,wr
a wide range of both suction Pressure and suction capacitie,. Each on,? of the eight
units would then have an individual performance curve similar t o that illustrated iri
Figure 5.32. Figure 5.34 is one such curve for a single stage jet-ejector with steam
motive.
The jet-ejector with air motive has the same operating and performance charac~
teristics as the steam operated jet-ejector. I n some instances, particularly where
heating and diluting are undesirable, or steam and/or water availability I S mlrlw
mized, the air motive jet-ejector offers definite advantages. It must be rememberi:il,
however, that air motive increases the non-condensible load under which the j e t -
ejector is operating. I n addition, i t may also increase size requirements on successlw?
jet-ejectors and condensers. I n general the air motive jet-ejector requires a highii,
rate of motive flow than a steam operated unit to handle the same load. Flgure 5.35
shows the performance o f an air operated jet-ejector using 3.16 kylcm' motive r l ~ .
as compared to the performance of a steam operated jet-ejector using 3.16 k g i c m '
motive. Note that the required motive rate for air is 261 kylhr versus 190 kglhr f m
steam. The percentage motive rate difference between air and steam motiviis 1 4 )
creases as motive pressure increases in single stage units arid rcquiri: a coni~lli!~;rI,b.
increase ( i n the range of 200-300%1 for multwstaye units.
 MULTI-STAGE JET EJECTORS

Non-Condensing Type Multi-Stage Jet Ejectors

W l ? r ~con,bi~?ing
l stages the supporting units can be designed so that the system
8s i:o~n,~ll;tlilys t a ~ ~ o
i ew r the iwltire p r i ~ n a i ystage performance curve as illustrated
by inus B aild 0 in Figure 5.37. The suction pressure-capacity characteristics, D, of
the supporting stage are rarely identical to the discharge pressure characteristic 6' of special requirements. It could be advantageous, for example, ro design a i v s t c ~ r ~
t l ~ .prim;luy stqe, 13 As a iesult, at the design point a supporting stage for a with (a) two design i ~ a dpoints at different suctlon pressures, o r ( t i ) vacuulli
co~nplrtely supported 2nd stdble system will u s ~ ~ a l lprovide y considerably more
capacity at 150 percent or greater than the design polnt; or ic) the capabI\ty oi
capacity t h m is necessary, as indicated by area between lines 6' and D i n Figure
evacuating vessels to a given pressure within a specified time limitation. All of t h ~
5.37. Whri, i t is desired t o obtain minimbm steam consumption and lower equip-
aforementioned systems can be optimum designed systerns with the ndividua 1'1
rne.ll1 cost. iI,c slt:Jn, consumptlo~,i w d sire of the supporting stages can be reduced
ejectors sized and arranged to operate at or near the maximum efficiency po~tlts.
1," i o p p i > ~ ~ fllc : , g ~ I ~ I T IstweJ I ~ in the region of the design point only, as illustrated

q I .>
,I t i . Tllir p ~ o d u c ~ ssyrtun w l ~ i c h1s s13bI~!at the design point, and
The general trend i n this country i s to use compression ratios up to a p p l o x l ~
mately 10 to 1 for the primary and supporting non-condenslny stages. As ~nillcalwd
It.), .i r r ~ ~ , t ~ . uIr Cy ruplodilcjblc?sucrjoo prc,srulo at con<litions other than the design
in Figure 5.28 higher stage efficiencies and consequenrly lower system stzam c o l ' ~
I , ~ ) I ~ t ~F ~I l ltiit,! t - d i , c t ~ ~ ) oI,,
s s y s t w ~S ~ L ' , IaI m
~ s~iinptio~w ie solnrtimes possible by
rumption can be obtained by using stage compr6:ssion ratlos in the rarlgr of 4 : l t i )
tiill!) sr,ig~'s wlucli I I ~ Vwisti~hli:
P shut-of1 p ~ i i l t silrc p ~ ~ i v i o u sillustrated
ly by Curve
6:l. I n sections of the world where water is scarce, users ofteh (itid i t rno!!:
ij F t g w i . 5.29. S ~ l c hsystems will be stable at the design point, but unstable and
,I,
economical t o use the lower compression ratios. This requires usng one or two
ililsteiidy at the shut-off point.
more stages than is general practice i n this country.
Assumlng ,no rlgorous limitations on design variables -steam consumption, unit
Figurer 5.38 through 5.40 illustrate typical vacuum producing capacities and
s i z e , number of stages required, equipment cost - systems can he designed t o meet
 1 . I ... L_--i.
M 75 100 125 1%
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 21
DESIGN L O A O %
AIR HANDLING CAWCITY
( D R Y A I P AT 7 0 F l
Fiyrirr. 5.37. Tvpic.rl combmalion o f rwo noncondensing stager.
Figure 5 3 9 . Performance curve for two stage iion-condenring rysnvn s i as F ! g . i i 1.2
except type TC2 high vacuum unir uied.

5 - corresponding steam consumptions of various multi-stage non:condensng slc!an,

jet-ejector systems. The curves shown are for systems that are stable in thi? qi:rwral
", region of the design point and steady down to the shut-off point. Bi!cauw ( r f
z* - differences in the shapes and character~sticso f the individual stage-pi:rforjn;$nii:
curves, and the manufacturing necessity to construct units t o standard s ~ i c ' s , thi:~,!
are some sets o f conditions o f capacity and suction pressure w h ~ c hc a ~ t ~ i olh
t
accomplished at the rates shown b y the generalized curves. A t the same time t h t : c
1
VI are also sets o f conditions where steam~consumptionrates bettter than thosi! show11
V)
are possible.

L
0 Direct Contact Condensing Type Multi-Stage Ejector Systems
*
C'
Bccause there are many various methods o f arranging multi-stayr ~ j u c t ~ , ~ I s~ , I .
ticularly when used w i t h inter-stage condensers, variations in descriptive i~orni:rtr:I;l

0 10 20
- 30 40 50
TAWE

60
0

70
-
80
ture may also be encountered. Some users and manufacturers count stages f l o m th,:
process side t o atmosphere, others from the atmospheric side t o the process. S n r x
nomenclature is critical i n discussing jet-ejector systems, the Heat Exchariyer l n i l n
AIR HANDLING CAWCITY
lnRY A I R AT 7OFl
tute developed a standardized indentification system which is illustrated in Figurii
Figtin, 5.38 Pwformance curve o f two stage non-condensing multi-stage jet 5.41. The stage discharging t o atmosphere is considered the "2" stage w t h p r w
t o I h tvpe T2 high virciiiim unit and S - 3 l o w vacuum unit w i t h 9 0 ceeding stages denoted alphabetically backwards t o the proct?ss. Intercondi!l~s~:ri
21,:

: '5 ,. ,? > 5 " P ? t C ,,,,> ( j , , , ,

 The performance characteristics of a two stage condensing system utilizing the
[ I ~ e c tcontact type condensers used in jet-ejector systems are of the counter- same jet-ejectors shown i n Figure 5.38 and 5.40 are illustrated in Figures 5.44
ci111~:11t, 0 1 caunti!r-flow type. Injection water enters the condenser through a water through 5.46. As indicated in the curves, a two stage non-condensing system hand-
, i o ) i l r 21 ti>,, top of the unit. A distribution tray, weir, or disk and donut arrange- ling 29 kg/hr dry air (at 2l0C1 and 8 9 Torr requires a 2" by 3" jet system using 228
inlent L O tho shell p,ovidr a "water curtain" through which the vapor must pass. kgihr steam at 6.3 kgicmZ or 199 kglhr steam at 10.55 kg/cm2. A t the same
Most 0 1 thr v;rl,or r ~ l t e r i n gthrough a side inlet is condensed i n the lower part of the operating condition, and using a two stage ejector system with an intercondenser, i t
s l l l ,i~id 111~1 I ~ O I ~ - C O ~ I ~arc L :then
I~S~ req~lired
I ) / ~ S to travel upward through the can be noted that only a 2" by 2" jet system is required. Also note that the motive
watei c o \ l ~ i < i , A
. baffle arlilngement is normally provided at the air suction connec~ steam required is lowered to 125 kglhr at 6.3 kglcm2 or 111 kglhr at 10.55
tion to ,educe the carry-over of water that may be entrained as the non-con- kg/cm2. The intercondenser requires .88 Ilsec at 2 4 " ~ .
di:nr~blos pass through the condenser.
The d ~ r u c tcontact, counter-current condenser operates with a terminal differ-
ence of 1.7 to 2 . 8 ' ~between tail water and vapor dew point temperature. Large
condensers will cool the non-condensibles to within 2.8'C of the water tempera-
tun! I n cdsrs where large percentages o f non-condeosibles are present, however,
t,30ni~;il<iillwcnces ;is high as 16 to 28°C may be expected since the condenser is
~ c t u a l l yparforinng as a gas cooler. This is particularly tl.ue in multi-stage jet-ejector
condensing systenis.
FI~LIIC 5 4 2 illustiiites a counter-current condenser with a distribution tray and
F151111,: 5.43 SIIOWS o c o ~ ~ d c r i swith
e a disk and donut arrangement.

Figure 5.44. Performance curve of fwo srage condensing multi-sfage jet ejector system wirh
T2 high vacuum unir and S3 low vscuum unir with direct conracf inrercondenser.

It then becomes obvious that the choice of system t o be utilized is dependent on

many variables. Duration of operation, auailability of motive steam, availability of
water, water temperature, initial cost, cost of steam and water, etc., are all requlred
t o properly define the system best suited for any application.

MULTI-STAGE SYSTEMS WITH SURFACE CONDENSERS

Under some conditions, the use of surface condensers provides certain, d c f r ~ r , :

advantages over the use of direct contact condensers.
 F y i i i , S d 5 . I'lvliirrn.riice c v r n . lor rwo rr.rqe condr~ruiw rvsc~r,?(Note: Svrrenr is ido?ricill 2B ! I"

r c i > y r r w i i i r Fvi, 8 2 . 3 ~ r c w rTvp,: TCZ high wcooin jm clccror used. t , 1 101 101 ,
~ -
119 i l l , I . . ' ,,,,
11, tho c,lx 01 ilbjcctionable conrainln.mts, where the condensate effluent must "" ; I"
.~~~
l i b
4 1

7LI
;
"I
"*i
?dl
I
I
; ,a:,
d sawcr, the vdume of effluent i s greatly
l x tc.;xt~%l x l u l t , ICIIS~! or i i i s ~ h a ~ gto~ the
~ t i t l o c ~ iby
i l tlw LISC of si~rfaccco~ldensetssince the cooling water and condensate I
st,c.ims .jut! lhtild repiil.alu as compared to mixing o f the two as in direct contact
cuiidenrerr.
h i the case of the recovery of process chemicals, such as solvents, the surface
Figure 5.46. Steam morive requirements and ware7 requiremenrr for two rroge condensing
co~>denseryields less total volume of condensate to separate or refine.
system shown in Fig. 8.2.4. (Nore: Number preceding TC-2 and S-3 is size of rhe ejector ,,i
Separation of the cooling and condensate streams by surface condensers provides
inches.
not only clean condensate but ancillary conservation opportunities. In power plants,
tor exa~nple,i t i s common to use the turbine condensate as cooling water in the air further described this type condenser with alphabetical head and shell designations.
ejrctol cwlde~lsrlsbefore i t is returned to the feed water system. This conserves both That designation plus its shell diameter, tube diameter, and length will compr!ti:y
l I ~ ~ ~ hfh<,ln i ! . ~ lthostr;mr used ill the i3ir ejector as well as pure water f i t for boiler use. > define the condenser.
11, o , ; i i 1 1 , . syslwnr wl~;r:hu s e SE;~water for coolirlq. surface condensers keep the con-
Surface type condenser size i s based on requ~redsurface area to acheve p~ok,t:l
I , I thc se;] watcf 411d,lllow the reuse of the condensate, which heat transfer. First the heat load is determined by the amount of desupe~hcal~ng,
\voulil ,lot be pussibe i f cllrect cont,~ct cmndense~swere ilsed. condensing, and condensate subcooling required. This i s most accurately calculari:ri
Slit l;iw type corldcnsrrs used i n conjunction with multi-stage jet-ejector systems by determining the total enthalpy o f the gaseshapors at thc ~nlliitof thr: cond<:~tii,~
a l e identiiicd i n the same manner as direct contact type units. That is, their loca- and subtracting the sum of the enthalpy of both vent garcs and the conrlrrisst,.
t l o ~ '1 1the system will identify them as the "XY." "YZ," etc. condenser. The Heat drains.
Exchange Institute and Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association have both
 S u 1 . i ~ ~ :1y1x co?do~lsi:!sart: In reality, and are therefore correctly named, partial determination of these latter resistances necessitates the division of heat load into
c o ~ i d u ~ i s ~ ! i sfor two reasons. First, some amount of non-condensibles are always sections for calculation o f total thermal load.
l)lis~v~ 181f v , i w t l r n w m k . Secondly, a portion of the condensibles escape condensa- The values of the overall U and A t are deter~ninedat beginning and end of each
tiun .inif a r ilt~shedthrouyh the unit; the quantity of escaping condensibles de- section and each i s averaged for that section. The surface area required for each
p w ~ i l iIII~ llli! ~ ~ n o ~o f~ non-condensibles
r i t present, the vent temperature, and the section then is:
l ~ ~ o c i l lhc condi?ns(:~at rlischarge. An additional influence on opera-
~ i p ! ~ ; i 1)11,ssi)1~, section section
I<,Ich,il-,i~crt:mt~cs IS that o l temperature. Condensing temperature is the dew point A (section) == Q Isection)/ U averayeX A t average
of t l ~ ugaslvapor mixture at any given point within the unit. Condensation i s not an
isolI1~:rmal process in a paltial condenser as would be the case in "pure" condensa- The total surface i s then determined by summing the surfaces reqilired for thri
tixi,, i r : ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l ~ i i ,UI
s , <i ~ ~ , ~ ~ vapo, I. Ralhcr. condensing ternperaturc decreases as
i t "p~~rc:" individual sections.
I s o m x t u l t ! llows down alol~gthe t ~ ~ bbundles. i! Concurrently, as the The single most importarit parameter in ~:valuatirig tht: ~i:~forrnarmx ol con
I:~,II~~~~IISLIILY
.iic r:or,du~~sedout, the pclcentage of non-condensibles increases. This densers is the temoerature of the cooling water. Water temperature must be low
I S I I ? ~~ , i , i ~ t i , i/IILCSSIIIII
I III the o o ~ ~ c o ~ ~ ~ I ~ : ~and
~ s i bdecreases
lc!s the partial enough t o effect condensation at the pressure involved with a direct proportion
~>~,.sru,, &,Ithe, i:o~~du~wl,lus. Bt!cai~sethe dew pol111of the condensibles is dependent between the two: the lower the pressure, the lower the water temperature required.
i i : l l l ~ t p.ii
. 1 . 1 ~!IISSIIIL! 01 the i : o ~ i d i : ~ ~ ~ lthe ~ l edew
s , point (condensing temperature) Conversely, for a given water temperature. the dew point of the gaslvapor mixture
,viI db>,.i~~;iic ,IS lhc coi,<lt,~~sblcs , j l e colldensed out of the mixture. must be high enough (above the water temperature) for condensation to occur at
I,, '';?Iw,,'' C : W ~ ~ ~ J I I S ~ : I Swllcire
, ~I~CCO~~ ~ ~ U I I SisI Iisothermal
tempe~aturr ,~ through- all. For a given gaslvapor mix, if the dew point is not high enough to bring about a
O L ~ I 111,. ~ : o i ~ ~ f ~ v , s i !i!,?
311~1 ~ co~li~ ~ g irrmpr,8ture is ~easonablycorxtant, i t i s
watt% sufficient amount o f condensing to make the condenser effective, a steam jet
I X ~ , I X I t i ' usu .i log rnc~iu, ti'mlx:r;\tuit? d i f i i i ~ e ~ l cI e
L M T D ) (the derivation of which booster can be used t o raise the pressure (and the dew point) high enough to allow
,..it\ I,, 1nios1 IIOO~S
I,,, I.itl11~1 0 1 1 Ihcat tri$nsfm/.But ill the case of partial condensers condensing to take place. On the other hand, i f the dew point is high enough
,vl,,,l&, II?,, ~.~,rnf,~i~sti,g twrnpc:~;ttu~vvat 1 1 5 . tI1c L M T D is not the plopel- temperature andlor water temperature is low enough, and the suction load contains a reasonable
i l i f i t i~ ~ c r ~ i s u- J we~ghtciimean temperature difference is required.
~ ~ c 10 amount o f condensibles, a "precondenser" can be used. The "precondenser" con-
As 1 1 , ~ c<mr!mnsil~lc.s i:ondmsr, thi: !mass (flow1 velocity decreases and a f i l m of denses as much of the suction load as possible and thereby reduces the size of the
n~~!l-ci,,dviis~blus p the su~faceof the tubes. The condensing vapors must
b ~ l ~ l d~ sl 011 following steam jet and condenser, therefore the utilities required.
dlffusr through this film. Each one of these phenomena causes the rate of heat/ When the vacuum load consists of a great quantity of condensibles at a pressure
m,iss t~:msii:i to decrease, not as a straight line function, but as an irregular curve. (and dew point) too l o w to condense with Plant cooling water, but high enough to
Thi. ~ i i q l ~ usu~face
d calculat~onsare, therefore, done i n small sections and the total be condensed with "chilled water." a refrigeration system should be considered,
ru$f;ice ~eqoired becomes the sum of that required by the smaller, individual and the economics weighed.
si'ctlons. Pressure drop calculations are performed in the same manner. I n partial As should be noted once more, judicious design choices require care: the
culidensers for vacuum service, the pressure drop calculations are just as important evaluation of various types of multi-stage jet-ejector condensing systems, the loca-
.is t h r r h c ~ n asiring l calculations since the miscalculation of either can cause failure tion, type, and number o f both jet-ejectors and condensers required, and the overall
u l tilt! lutiil ~11ciium system. economics of each, must all be fully analyzed t o make a proper selection.
TIic i:lass\cdl equation for heat transfer, Q = U A A t is also applied to partial
~ : c , r > < l ~ ~ , s t , , scvrn rhough the condensing i s really a heatlmass transfer process. The INSTALLATION A N D TROUBLE SHOOTING JET VACUUM EQUIPMENT
i v , , ~h <,I COI~LIIIIiinil HDII~CII ( 6 ) has ful-nished equations for converting the mass The installation of ejectors is normally quite simple due to the inherent advaw
~ ~ . u i .rI It I ~
~< ~
i l i u s i o i l~o st1 lctly heal tiansfel units. The ove~allheat transfer coeffi-
tages of equipment with no moving parts, and relatively light weight. I t is necessary,
I s ~ ~ ~ c i p ~ o01c . ,thel sum of all the thermal resistances between the bulk of
however, to adhere t o certain requirements in order t o obtain satisfactory opera^
111,. il,,r, v . l l ~ i , % 1:011111~1111119n i i x t w t ~w d t h L
~~ l l k111 the cooIin(l water. The total of all tion. A n ejector is essentially a fixed-flow device with nozzle and throat dimensons
r l , ~ ~ m . ii~wstdl,ces
l would ii~cludethe rt?sistai>crof thi! water film, water side foul-
configured at manufacture for operation at a fixed set of conditions. Thus, it is
II,!~, ! I 1 AKI vlil)or si<ie fouliilq (ill1 of whictl ale constant or relatively
essential to adhere as closely as possible to the design conditions for oplimum
cm~sr.ii,i) .is wull as no~l-condcnsiblefilm and the sensible heat transfer (which do operation of the unit. For high velocity units, such as steam jet-ejectors, the morvc
vmy cons~dmably from the i ~ d e tto the discharge of the condenser). Accurate fluid pressure can be quite critical. T o obtain optimum performancr! in these casi:$.
t I S .ilw.lv, cssrilt~althdt the steam pressure be not less than the des~gnpressure. Ap = Pressure me, inches Hg
w ~ t hCIS httle ovwpinssure as possible. I t i s also essential that the proper cooling t = Time, seconds
wale, bc supplied to any condenser involved in multi.stage ejectors and, t o achieve
low mainten:ince requirements, the motive fluid should be of as high quality as I f the volume of the system i s not known, the leakage can still be determined, but
possible. A strainer and separator should always be installed -directly at the inlet two tests will be required. First, the test described above must be run. Then a
10 th,! <!j,!ctol known air leak must be introduced t o the system. This can be done by means of a
The ~ n s t ; ~ l l ~ tpositton
high v a c u ~ ~uiiits
m
~on of ejectors is not critical. Some water jet-ejectors and
(such as jet condensers) should be installed with the motive fluid
flowing vertically downward.
r calibrated air orifice. A second test is then made t o obtain a new pressure rise and
time. The unknown leak is then given by:

The majority o f steam jet.ejectors are installed at barometric height, especially

w'
w h e ~ ldilccl-conttict condensers are used. I t is essential that a full barometric leg be (nP') (t)
Ljsed to prowde water removal from the condenser; allowance must be made for the
Inlxtures o f a l r and water discharged from jet condensers i n calculating the required
lhi~~c~l,l. It s iilso i m p o ~ t a n tthat the barometric leg (tail pipe) be as straight as i1 where
p n s s i ~ l r.i~,il
111111 l r o i n ally Ihorizontal runs where air entrained i n the water can I W' = Known leak, kilograms per hour
sepalLite to cause discontinuities in the flow. I n general. any ejector installation = Second pressure rise, inches Hg
Ap'
should ;illow f o ~free flow o i the fluid without odd arrangements which will cause t' = Second time, seconds
tn~bul~:nce and excess pressute drop in the piping. The supply pipes to liquid jets
must br such as not to cause any tendency toward vortexing in the entrance I f the air leakage is greater than the load for which the jet was designed, then tho
ch.imbe, alternatives are to correct the leaks or to use a larger ejector. The ejector must be:
Tht! l i ~ l l o w ~scvrn
~ ~ g stcps present an ordelly approach to diagnosing system large enough to handle not only the leaks but the normal load from the process.
1 . 1 1 l ~w
i ~h~ d
~ l will S;WP apprcciablc timi: mid c l i n i ~ ~ a1:11111s.tc Srep 3: Assuming that the test indicates the ejector is not operatlrlg satisfact<~r
S r q , I I ) , , ~ , , I ~wl~t,tlt,,~
I I ~ I ~ thr 1;10I1 lies w i l l ) lllu v,i,:uum k,nmp or the system. ily, the blank should be left in and t h i ejector utilities checked. First install c d
Thh I > , t , : ~ : < ~ ~ > ~ ~by) l ~bs l ~ ! ~hl ~<>ll
w, ~ c~~
thc
] s < ~ : t ( c to
~ o thc elccto~a11d operating the brated steam gages (with pig tail sypholi) on thi! steam chest or im~ncdiatelyarli.8
tiit: it: ~11111.If ~IIC no-103d 0 1 shut-off ~ o n c l t t i o oapploaches the minimum suction
cent to the inlet to each stage o i the ejector. The operatiny pressure is normally
I S I thi? ejector, then the fault her n the system. This shut-off pressure
stamped on the nameplate or parts of the ejector, and the pressure determined by
wotlld I,? .lppioximately 50 Torr for a s~nglestage unit, 6.3 to 12.7 Torr for a t w o
the gage must not be lower than this rated steam pressure. I f steam pressure checks
i u g a . 1 to 3 Tori for a three stage, and 100 to 200 r i c r o n s for a four stage. If the
satisfactorily, the steam should be checked for excess moisture. The drainage lines
test shows the ejector operatng satisfactorily at shut-off, i t can usually be expected
from steam separators should be checked to make certain that they are dralnillq
to operate satsiactorily at the load.
properly through a steam trap or bleeding through a valve. Open the discharge from
S t 2: Naxl chcck the system for leaks and correct. To determine the amount
the separator by means of a valve and let i t bleed t o see whether this makes any
of d i ~Icak, approximate the total volume of the system, operate the ejector t o change i n the operation. A bucket trap discharging i n cycles may cause f l u c t ~ ! a t ~ n q
s ~ c i l ~doPcrssLlte somewhat less than 381 Torr. and then isolate the ejector from
steam pressures.
thr system. Measure the time rcqwred for a rise of 50 Torr i n pressure i n the vessel.
Step 4: Assuming that the steam pressures have been found satisfactory, all o l
It I S usst!ntta th;it the absolutt! plessurc does not rise above 381 Torr during this the ejectors except the atmospheric stage should be shut off and the resultinq
tma,. T h l f o l l ~ ~ fwo r~n u
~l a
g will then give the li:akag<::
vacuum read. I f this pulls down to approximately 50 Torr. then this stage is opera
ting satisfactorily. I f i t does not pull down to this vacuum, then either the atmos~
pheric stage is at fault or there is a leak in the ejector unit. The atmospheric staye
should be isolated by blanking off its suction and checking shut-off pressure as
before. I f this stage does not operate i t should be checked i o r :
(alclogged steam nozzle, or steam strainer reducing flow through the norrli!. I f
nozzle inlet i s red or black, look for a scale deposit which can be removed l i y
 H t l ' s " S t ~ l ~ d a r tlo!i s D ~ c c Contact
t arid Low Level Condel~sers"glves nomencla- Air 50 DAEl.982 = 50.9 DAE @ 70°F
ture, tiJrm>nology, performance, constructlon. and installation of both "baro- Warer Vapor 11 I DAEl.975 =-115.0 D A E @ 70°F
~mcttic",111d"low li?w:I ini its." 164.9 DAE @ 70°F
1 8 1 IIIC,II " S I ; ~ I I ~ ~ ; ~ l Io~ ~Stcam
S Sul.fitcc Co~~iensers," HE1 provides nomenclature
Answer. 164.9 DAE @ 70' F
. i r < l t u ~ n ~ ~ , r , l , q 1y0 1 swfiict: condi7ns~!~s, a di!tiilc!d svction on performance which
i n : I ~ i c h111'111111;115 '+I,</ 111<!11~lal s ~ ~ i r l~i ja l c ~ ~ l a l ~ o
jerlui~.ed
ns, venting capacities for (Note: Unless otherwise spectfied, the capacity curves for steam l e t exhausters
1 1 1i ~ n nucIc;u
d powel plants, and data for the sizing of hoyging ejectors and (ejectors) use PPH of DAE O 70°F as the suction load units. SCFM of air at 70'"F.
0 1 ',t,,,,,\,,l,~!l,<: ,f!l,<?f"A",!S. if more appropriate is sometimes used instead of DAE).
r h ~ : ~ m.iv ,, , i p p ~ r to bti ailuplicati)n of effort III pubicatioris issued by the The DAE of the above suction load can also be determined from Figure 5.6 after
the quantity of water vapor has been calculated. 50/(50190) 35.7% alr in m l x ~
A I I H E . 111 ~c::iliIy, lhv ASME is colicerni!d with the physical strength
[,:ilt.ryi 01 ,111 typo.; o l plessurr vessels and thus established standards for materials, ture. From 3.2 the entrainment ratio i s 0.85. Dividing 140 by .85 yives 164.7 DAE
drs~yn,dnd welding. The HE1 has furnished standards for the manufacture of speci- @ 70'~.
fi<. tvpcs of pressi~l-evessels, all operating under vacuutn - t h e steam jet ejector, the
clit;ct c m t ~ i c tcondense<,and the steam surface condensers. the latter especially for Problem No. 2 -Steam Jet Syphon
lage steam engines and turb~nes. Calculate the size and steam consumption of a steam jet syphon to evacuate 200
The Tubitlar Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA), has produced a CU. ft. o f air from atmospheric pressure t o 20" Hg vacuum (10" Hg Abs) in ftve
rmmual specific t o shell and tube heat exchangers for all pressures and materials minutes or less using the #60 nozzle and 30 PSlG steam.
e n t ~ t l e d "Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturer Association." The Refer t o Figure 5.10. Note that the sizing chart has a capacity factor of 1.OO for
i t , i ~ ~ ~ a/ t. !~complimentary
~~Is to ASME VIII, Division 1, and invoke the Code Stamp the 1%'' syphon, which means that the accompanying curves are for the 1'/." size
u>,l,,sr ,,tl~~,~wlst. specified by the purchaser. The standards furnish nomenclature for unit. A t 20" Hg vacuum, the #60 nozzle gives a rate of 2.4 seconds per cu. i t . of
tl,,~ ".$I loos types o f fixed heads, return heads and shell side flows and are divided volume to be evacuated.
A O I O tlirtrv classes: "13" fol refineries, "C" for commercial and "0" for chemical 200 cu. ft. would require 200 X 2.4 seconds or 480 seconds. But the time limit
p~,,~:,.ss,tl,i: last mually i~icludesalloyed materials. Minimums are specified for wall i s 5 minutes or 300 seconds, so that a unit 4801300 or 1.6 times the capacity o f tlrl!
th~cknt:ss and corrosion allowances for vents, drains, temperature and pressure con- 1%'' unit i s required.
Iwctjons. .%ndf o ~ m u l afor calculation o f tube sheet thickness are provided. Typical Referring again to the sizing chart, the smallest unit that has at least 1.6 tlmf!s
Ioolinq liictms, pliys~calproperties of fluids a t i d some useful general engineering the capacity of the 1%'' size is the 2" size. The steam consumption from thc s a r n c
~ n f < ~ ~ m a at l ea also n included. chart and S O nozzle is 523 PPH.
The above calculations can be condensed t o :
EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
volume X time (seconds) per cu. i t . -
-. capacity factor
Problem No. 1 - Dry Air Equivalent I D A E I Conversion
time allowed in seconds
Cmnv~.it 50 PPH of < i ~ mi y satorated with water vapor at 8" Hg Abs and 140°F
I<,DAE ;it 10"~.
If 60 PSlG steam is available, the time rate is 1.7 secondslcu ft. and
C,ilcol.itil~os: At 8" Hg A h a~,il140°F. o n e proimd of ~ I holds I 1.8 PPH of water
, I . i t ~ . ~ I o I . ~ \o t, 0 PPH ,,I w o ~ ~ lI ti ld d 50 X 1.8 - 90 PPH 01 water
I ~ t~ l~ ~o 5 200X 1.37 capacity factor required
5 X 60
V . I ~ > . H . Thi* r<,t,il lo;d t l i w I S 50 PPH a r plus 90 PPH o l watet vapor.
From the sizing chart under r i l l 5 norzle (60 PSlG steam) the smallest size w ~ t h
I.,)< , ~ > I I V ~ t, , I,) DAE, IC,I<>[ ($7 F i q ~ ~5.5.
tc
at least 1.17 capacity factor would be the 2" syphon with a capacity factor o f 1.38
All 50 PPHil 50 DAE 63 140°F
The corresponding steam consumption would be 375 PPH @ 60 PSIG.
W V 90 PPHl.81 111.1
-- DAE @ 140UF
161.1 D A E O 1 4 O U F
To collvrj t DAE O 140°F to DAE @ 70°F. refer to Figure 5.5.
 c:?:eluI scriiplng and subsequent polishing. I f nozzles are graphite or plastic,
nii!,iswi, the oilflee to check for any shritlkage or wear. of the condenser, and the water temperature increase toward the bottom of the
( h i Fkcc,sb wrssule at dschalge o f ejector. I f the low stage is discharging directly condenser. The head of the condenser should be relatively cool, aoproaching the
ti).itmospl!e~t!. check the rlischa~gelinu to make certain that i t i s cleal. Check inlet water temperature by 2.8 or 5.6 degrees. so that the load to the armospher~c
I .illy I c cause excessive back
: w l ! ? c o s t ! ,may i ! c ~ u m i ~ I a tto stage is as low as possible. High temperatures at this point, with adequate water
I I s t i I : s s . I f tlw ciischarq~! lioe is connected to a flow, indicates by-passirrg o f the curtains. This may be caused by clogg~ngof the
hulwull o r to .In .~ltt!r-condunsu~,
disconrirct thc well 01 after-condenser from inlet distribution piece, either nozzle or trays, or failure or clogging of the subse-
the cjector and allow the ejector to discharge to atmobphere. quent trays. This would then indicate that the condenser should be disassembled
I f the dbove p o ~ i i t sdo not provide satisfactory operation, then the ejector must and examined.
Iw disassemblt!d The norzlc and t h ~ o a tdimi!nsions should be checked against the Step 6: Assuming that the condenser check indicates sat~sfactoryperformancc.
original n i a ~ i ~ ~ f a c t udimensions.
rrd The diffuser should be examined for corrosion proceed to the stage immediately ahead of the condenser and examine it n thi.
0 1 we,ri. Pock-like irregdar indentations indicate corrosion. Longitudinal wear same fashion as specified for the atmospheric stage.
i~idlhs i l l t h ~ steam orifice and d ~ f f u s e lare normally evidence of wet steam if Step 7: The same procedure should be followed step by step from the atrnas~
: I S t i t > l pfesr!il. A iwghening o f the irilet tapels through the diffuser, pheric end of the m~ilti-stageuntt up to the highest stage in order t o eliminate the
! v ~ l l ! c ~ i. l~i lty nl.~l~,ri.!lcll;!llg~~ $ 1 1 iIi,l~!iotul inlay r:alise m a l f ~ l ~ l c t i o n io
~fl gthe ejector. difficulties.
1lh,, h t l u s i ! ~sl,ailld be smoi~tliedout or icpl,icr!d.
Step 5: Assuinng that the atmospheric stage ejector has been found t o operate CODE STANDARDS (ASMEIHEIITEMA)
s.irsfactol~ly, i t will be necessaly to look for difficulties elsewhere. Inter-condensers
oprrari~igunder v~icuulnshould be carefully checked for satisfactory operation. The A steam jet-ejector, a direct contact condenser or a surface condenser can each
inlet w.jtrr temperature must be equal to or less than the design temperature. The be considered a pressure vessel, and as such would come under the rules for such
I~III pipe temperature should be approximately 11°C above inlet temperature for vessels as set u p by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). In 191 1
two stage umts, and 5.6"C for three stage. Note that these figures are approximate, the ASME created a committee (now known as the Boiler and Pressure Vessel
mcl will vary depending upon equipment design and the amount o f non-condensi- Committee) for the purpose of establishing rules of safety i n the design, fabrication.
I~lcsprrst!nt. The ejector inanufacturer can furnish design temperatures. Malfunc- and inspection of boilers and pressure vessels, and for the interpretation of these
tioiiing o f thi: condenser can occur with either too little or too much water. Too rules i n case o f question.
littlc water will be indicated by a high tail pipe temperature, and a high temperature Three publications of the Society are pertinent. Section VIII, Division 1. fur-
in ll>e heid of the condenser before the suction o f the atmospheric stage. Too much nishes formulas for calculating wall thickness for shells, heads, and nozzles, gradi:s
water $nay cause flooding of the condenser and would be indicated by pulsations in of materials and allowable stresses for each. I n addition, i t delineates criteria for thti
the atmosphetic stage and discharge of water from that stage. I f the atmospheric fabrication of ferrous, nomferrous, alloy, and cast iron unlts, forgings and the heat
stacye i s iemoved from the condenser, this carryover of water would be indicated by treatment after fabrication, flange, gasket, and bolt loading calculation, hydrostatic
rc.ilc <it*posils it> the si~ctionco~lnectioii- which will reduce the area and cause and pnuematic testing and magnetic particle and liquid penetrant examination.
mcush pirssul u drop. W a w cairy-ovev can also be caused by a leaking t-ril pipe. Air Section II, "Materials," specifies chemical and physical requirements - Ferrous
i ~ s i r git, the pipe will prevent flow from the condenser and cause surging of con- Materials in Volume A and in Volume B, Non-Ferrous Code Materials. Section IX
drns~n(jwale,. Look for leaks at the condensel outlet flange and at the surface of gives the Weiding Qualifications for Code Welders.
the W ~ ~ L 111' thv
I hotwell. The Heat Exchange Institute (HEII, i s an association of manufacturers of such
Assuming that thc trmperatu!r ;IIKI quantity of the ~ t t i l i t ysupply to the con- products. Its objective is to promote and further (in every lawful manner] hi:
tfmisa~ .I,,!
cm~i!ctthc c o m l ~ i t~s d~l s~h ~o ~~l l drbe chucl<etl 101 i n a l f u n c t i o ~ ~ i In
~ ~the
g. interests of the manufacturers of heat exchange and steam jet vacuum app;iratus,
usu.11 cyl~~id~ii:;,l condwnsui. watai-stt!am c o n t x t i s obt;iincd by a series o f trays and the interests of the public in manfuacturing, engineering, rafcty, transportatlo:,,
I I i s of I . At points whciri tlicse curr;~uns strike rho wall of the and other problems of the industry.
: I tI1cle s h ~ u l dIII! ;i ~ $ n i f low
~ ~ t~c m n p c r i ~ t u r without
~ any brreaks. At HEl's publication, "Standards for Steam Jet Ejectors," c m t a l r n nummclatu~ii,
doint: ,wIic:ic IIX' WSIIOI is flee ffom the wall of the condenser thcle should be a operating principle types, desiyn specifications, materials u f constructloll. HE1
i l i , ~ t i , ~ lligh
icmperaturii. T1,o steam tcrnperatiire should decrease toward the top
~n
flanges for vacuum service. pressure protection and hydrostatic tustng mmhods. A
large part is apportioned to "Test Standards" and the last part to "Vacuum E n .
gineering Data."
Problem No. 3 -Water Jet Exhaustel
Problem No. 5 - Multispray Condenser

Calculate the size, cooling water required and air handling capacty of a m u l t i ~
What r , , : wale, jct exhauster would be required to handle 15 SCFM of air at 10"
spray condenser for the same load and conditions given in Problem No. 4.
H!]. Abs whcn using 30 PSlG )motive watei at 80"F? What would be the water
From Figure 5.20 the curve for 8 0 ' ~water and 4" Hg Abs gves a capaclty of 20
1:01isllllll1t111,1~
PPH steam per GPM of cooling water. The total coolirig water required would be
Ri,Ic,i to I F i g 5.12. Er,tcm t l w CII.III at ( 1 ) 011 I c l t hand margin at the
20,000/20 or 1,000 GPM. Referring to the siring chart to the right (Figure 5.20).
80°F w,itm I , ! I I I ~ C I ; ~ I ~ ~ ~ , . M a w h o ~ i r o n t a l l y to l l w light l o ( 2 ) at 10" Hg Abs
the minimum size condenser that can handle 1.000 GPM i s 33" with a maxlmllm
suctio~ii>ri,ssm<,.Plocwd vartically upwaid l o tlie 30 PSlG water pressure 131, and
flow of 1,100 GPM. Therefore, a 33" condei~scrusing 1.000 GPM cooling watt!(
then ho>iio~,tslly to the ugh1 to tlx! 15 CFM line ( 4 ) . Read the size corresponding
would be the answer.
I I s I I I ( 5 T I7 l c t d IS NO.^ with a citpacity factor o f 7.5
The maximum ;III h a n d h g cilpiicity of mult~sp~;iy
cor~d~insiits
1 5 oot d<!!~rut~!.
( l ~ w r"C;~,~.~,:~ty
l T:~l~lc"l.
since the precooler (direct contact, countercurrent condenser) would be s l L e i I l o
Tliu iluanrrty of watt required f u r a 2" u ~ i i [t w i t h a capacity factor of 1.01 using
suit the air load and it in turn would be supported by a suitably sized air pump.
30 PSIG motive pressure can be determined from Figure 5.13 which is 67 GPM.
Should the above 20.000 PPH steam contain 200 PPH air. the precooler size would
Since .I Nci. G size exhauster has a capacity factor o f 7.5 times that of a No. 2, the
be a #3 Fig. 597 and the water for it required would be 75 GPM. The vent
water I C C I L I I ~ I ? ~ would also be 7.5 times that required for a No. 2 or 7.5 X 67 GPM
temperature of the precooler would be 8 2 ' ~so that the air pump load would be
or 503 GPM of motive water.
200 PPH air saturated at 3.9" Hg Abs and 82°F.
The- ;inswur then woold be a S (size) water jet exhauster with 503 GPM of
Inotlvv watt3(at 30 PSlG and 80°F.
Problem No. 6 - Low Level Multijet Eductor Condenser
P ~ o h l c mNo. 4 - Multijct and Multijet Spray Condenser Calculate the size, cooling water required, and air handling capacity of a low-
level multijet eductor condenser for the same load and conditions given in Problem
C,III:LII.II~, thc S I ~ Bco(>li,lg , watt!r requred a ~ i dail handling capacity o f a multijet
No. 4. (Note, after start-up, the cooling water pressure i s reduced from 25 PSlG to
.ii,(l ;i mi~lrilc!tsl,~sy condmso~ ti) hand,! 20.000 PPH stcam at 4" Hg Abs using
9 PSIG).
80°F r:<,i,l,x~watc:~

.
Using Figure 5.24, the 8 0 O ~water curve at 4" Hg Abs gves a capacity of 14.6
Rt:1<:1to Figwe 5.19. The curves g~venfor 4" Hg Abs and 80°F cooling water
PPH of steam per GPM. The cooling water required would be 20,000114.6 or 1.370
i j l v t i s ; ~c;lpacity of 16 PPH steam per GPM of cooling water. The total water required

wmlcl Lx 20.000 PPH steam116 PPH per GPM - 1.250 GPM water. From the sizing
chaft ti, tlii! light of tht: curve. 1.250 GPM woold requirc a 34" condenser that has a
GPM. From the sizing chart to the right of the curve, the smallcst condenser that
will handle 1,370 GPM would be a 36" size unit.
For the air handling capacity, refer to Figure 5.17. Note the statement that for
maxlmLim capacity of 1,300 GPM. Since the 33" condenser has a maximum these low-level units that the air capacity is only 115 the curve value. The heat load
capacity of 1,100 GPM, the 34" size would be requred. would be the same as Problem No. 4: 20,000 X 1,021 BTU == 20,420.000 BTU pel
To rh,ti.<mine the air hzindling capacity, it is necessary to determine the water hour. The water temperature rise would equal 20,420.0001(1.370 X 500) = 2 9 . 8 F .
disch;inqe tumpcratu$e horn thc condense,. Refel to Figure 5.17 A relatively close The water discharge temperature would be 8 0 ' ~ + 2 9 . 8 " ~= 1 0 9 . 8 ' ~ and the
a p p r o x i ~ n a t i o ~ofi the condenser heat load can be had by using the latent heat of corresponding vapor pressure 2.58". The effective air pressure= 4.0" Hg - 2.58":
steam at the operating pressure of 4" Hg Abs. Thus the total heat load would be 1.42" Hg. From the 9 PSlG curve 1.42" Hg corresponds to 4 PPH of air per 100
20,000 % 1,021 o 20,420,000 BTU1hr. The cooling water temperature rise would GPM. The total air would be 11.370 X 411100' 54.8 PPH.
IIC20,.120,00011 1,250 X 500) - 3 2 . G " ~rlsr.
Th? iv.ltt,i i l et I I 80"+ 32.flt'F 01 11 2.Ci1'F and the Problem No. 7 -Steam Jet Exhauster (Ejector1
I V ~ ~ I I < >V> > CIIpit!sso~t!
, ~I~X II I I ! ~ is 2.8" IHg Ails.
T h , "t,!lm:tivc, ,111 p~t!sscw<!,"tllc < q x ! r i l t i ~ ~ x$cj s s w crnli11~1s v a p o ~pr<!ssLlrl!at
Ill<! What size sngle stage jet and what would he the steam consilmption r f ! q ~ ~ l ~tr,
l?rI

riw <lisd,.i~gt,ten1pwi~tuc~i W O ~ < bc:

/ 4.0" Hq Abs minus 2.8" Hg Abs 01 1.2" Hg.
handle the loading stated i n Problem No. 1 using 90 PSlG steam? 200 PSlG steam?
Usnlg the 5 PSlG waicl pressu~ecuwc o f Ftgure 5 1 7 , for 1.2" Hg gives the value The suction loading for 50 PPH air saturated with water vapor at 8" Hy Abz an0
of 2.8 PPH ail per 100 GPM. Using this value, 1,200 GPM would handle 1.250 X ~ ~calcualted i n Problem No. 1 as 164.9 DAE @ 70°F.
1 4 0 was
2.81100 - 35 PPH ail.
 1. R e f e r to F i y ~ l l e5.34. From the 9 0 2 steam curve the capacity of a 1%" jet at gives a suction capacity of 15 PPH of Dry Air.
8" Hy Abs s 128 PPH DAE (at 7 0 ' ~ ) . If the suction load is 164.9 D A E and the The required capacity factor would be 20115 = 1.33%.
capoc~ty of thc li4"C jet is 128 DAE, then teh req~lired capacity factor is Refer t o Figure 5.46. Under Table A, the minimumcapacity factor greater t h a ~ l
16491128 0 1 1.29 capacity factor. the required 1.33% is 2. The corresponding jets would be 3" TC-2 first stage and a
Ftoin t h l sirirlg ch;trt, rhu 2 " jet ~ has a capacity factor of 1.24% and requires 1%" 5-3 second stage with a total steam consumption o f 195 PPH O 150 PSIG. Thi-
420 I'PII t,I n ~ o t v , ist<i;lni ;I! 90 PSIG m,d the 2 ' ' ~i l l l i t has a capacity factor of intercondenser would be a size #l with 18 GPM at 9oUF.
1 5 i % w ~ t h,i sto;,nl cr,nsi~nlptiono f 538 PPH.
Th,, <liic~sionas to w h c h of the two al,ovi. sizer should bc made upon the REFERENCES
accur~icyof the 50 PPH a r . If i t s just an estimate and it is believed that 4 8 PPH of
1. Standards for Steam Jet Elecrorr, Third Edtrion. Hear Exchange lnsrtuce. N Y . , N Y
alr would suffice then the smaller jet with less steam consumption could be chosen. 1956.
I f thi! 50 PPH of air 1s an absolutr! (ninimum than the larger jet with the greater 2. Power Test Code 2 4 ~ 1 9 7 6"Eiecrorr" American Sociely o f Mecharllcsl Eng~neers.
steam coi~sumptionshould be used. 3 . "Thermodvnamic Propertier of Steam'' J. H. Keenan and F. G. Keyer. First Edirron. john
Wiley and Sons. Inc.. N.Y., N.Y. January 1967. page 76.
2. Refcr to the 200ssream curve on the same Figure 5.34. The suction capacity
4. Standards tor Steam Surface Condensers. Sixth Editlo". Hear Exchanger Iniriture, N Y
f o ~the l i / . . " ~ jet at 8" Hy Abs is 149 D A E (70°F). The capacity factor required
N . Y . 1970.
w o d d be the same suction load divided by the 1%" jet suction capacity or 164.9 5. Standard of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association, Fifrh Editton, 1968 a n d 1970
DAEi149 DAE or 1.197Fcapacity factor. Addenda.
The 1?>"C jet with a capacity factol. o f 1 . 0 y is far too small so the minimum size 6 . Colburn. A. P. and 0. A. Hougen. Ind. Eng. Chem. Volume 26 119341.
7. "Characterirricr of The Steam Jet Vacuum Pump" by L. S. Harrlr and A. S. Frcher, ASME
su~tablcIS the 2 " w~t h a capacity factor of 1-24,: - which requires 378 PPH motive
Paper 63-WA-132.
steam at 200 PSlG. 8. "How to Get the Mort From Eiectorr." bv C. G. Blatchley Perraieum Refiner, 12-58
9. "Controlling Ejector Performance," bv C. G. Blamhlev. AMETEKISchurre 5 Koerl~ng
Proble~nNo. 8 - Two-Stage Condensing Steam Jet Vacuum Pump Division.
With Direct-Contact condensers 10. "Selection o f Air Eiecrorr:' by C. G. Blarchlev. Chemjcal Engineering Progress. 10- 61 , ~ n d
11-61,
W h ~ ts i c two- st:^^! c o ~ ~ d e r w rsteam q jet vacuum pump would be required to 11. "Jet Ejectors and Processing." by H . J. Stiarron. Food Eng~neermg.11-68.
Ih;i~rdlc 20 PPH dry air saturated with water vapor at 2" Hg Abs and 90°F using 12. "Steam-Jet Air Ejectors:' R. 8 . Power. Oil and Gar Equipment. 10-65 rhrough 1 1 -66.
13. "Steam-Jet Air Ejectors: Specificatmn. Evaluation and Operation by R. B. Power, ASME
90°F cuplny water ;,nd 90 PSlG motive stcam? 150 PSlG steam?
Paper 63.WA-143.
1. Refer to Figure 5.44 for 90 PSlG steam. A t 2" Hg Abs the intersection of
90'F saturation temperature and the 9 0 ' ~ cooling water gives an air handling
capacty of 13 PPH of Dry Air, under Table A.
(Note: This set of curves, as well as those shown on Figure 5.45 for 150 PSlG
steam, are set up f o r dry air and air saturated with water vapor at various tempera-
turvs, so that the suction capacity can be read d ~ r e c t yin units of PPH of Dry Air.
Thus, i t i s not necessary to determine the quantity of water vapor involved and
,.ol,vc, t thi! tot,il ;i~r/w;itrr vapol lo;ld to D A E ) . -
TI,,, i:.i~,.rcly f;ictol iiwwred woulcl ba 20i13 ol l 5 4 X ..... .
I I I 5 . 4 . l J ~ i c l c Tt~J>lt;A. 1 1 1 ~t i i h ~ i l i ~ t ~giveso r a rapacity factor of-2
. I S 111,. In,o>(non,th.it <.ot1lii lh,,i,~il,, 1 1 1 ~COICIII~II~!~~ ~ q t l i r e dcapiiclty factor of 1.54X. -
iloclr,i ''Sit!'' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ to i >tlvsi , cdi l pn, ~g~ t factof
y of 2, is listed a 3" TC-2 first-
s I :<
I S-3 sucol~ilstogr. The l o t d str;ini cmlsumption for the two jets is
213 PPIi .it '30 PSIF. Frri the l n t c co~~clmsc!~ co~resl~onding to this capacity would
Oo ;I s r e r:l with 18 GPM at 90°F.
2. F o r 150 PSlG steam refer to Fiyure 5.45. At 2" Hy Abs under Table A, the
~t?tursectcinof the 9 0 ' ~satrlration tr:mpararure wilt1 the 90°F cooling water line
serve as an approximation. The correlation takes advantage of the observation that
gasses diverge from the ideal gas law in similar ways, which suggests that a common
scali~l(it x t o r can be used t o correlate values of Z for a wide variety of gasses. I n Horsepower Requirements
actual p j x t r c e , this scaling factor is determined by the critical point o f the gas in The work required to compress a stream o f gas adiabatically i s approximately by
(11~estio11. the formula:
Genrr,ilized compressibility charts 131 ( 4 ) use the reduced parameters P, and T,
to cot relate 2. where P, : PIP, and T, = T n C .
G e n w ~ 1 1 ~cel d
i ~ r t sate not entirely unive!sal and should be used only when Z-P-T
data to! a specific gas are unavdilable.

Equatlons of State where P, a,, and 2 , ark! muasului at ilirake c o n d ~ t ~ o i l m

s. d Z2 is det~.inw~i!d
iil

When a programmable computer is avaliable, the engineer may make use o f one
of ;I niimi)e~of rqilations o f state to describe the behawor of a gas. A t conditions
ran<liml from low pressure u p to approximately twice the critical density, the
Benedict-Webb-Rubiti (or Kelloggl 161 equation will give satisfactory results. Above
this level, the Redlich-Kwong equation 171 may be used.
Gar Mixtures
discharge conditions.
Although this relation does not depend on the actual method of cornpresslol?,
the adiabatic formula approximates the performance of rec~procatingcompresruts
more accurately than dynamic units.
The brake horsepower of a reciprocating compressor is expressed as the adiabatc
horsepower modified by empirical factors that account for fluid losses at the c y l r l -
der (CE1 and mechanical losses throughout the compressor ( M E ] . The relation is.

l l O X inlxtwi:s c a i be foc~ndin the literatute. However.

P V T d.it,l l o , .I n o ~ n l x .i ~
vhm, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c ~ ~<~l t ,nt <~, ~ : ~
i ~ tit~
i ~a, l u l yi i t i m tI S # l o titviiilal>l~),
cl im il method o f approxi-

~n:tl~ g tmust bc used.

t h~s ~d,?trl
The pseudocritical point method is one of the simpler techniques. The method
Centrifugal compressors are often rates in terms of adiabatic horsepower, but
produces a pseudo T, and a PC that may be used as parameters todetermine a
with a correction factor known as adiabatic efficiency ( q a d i applied to the de-
reduced T, and P,. These reduced indeces may be used on a generalized com-
nominator:
pressibility chart to produce a value of Z.
The pseudocritical temperature equation is:

Brake horsepower for centrifugal units may be approximated by the additton of

a factor t o account for bearing and seal losses. This factor l ~ i lvisually
l have a villuc
S~lnilatly the pseudoclitical pressure may be deternined by: between 7 and 50 h p (101.
I n the case of air compression, the humidity of the gas often has a s ~ g n i f ~ c m i
effect on the performance of the compressor. Charts are available for direct readnil

(91. This figure will vary from k -

of the actual k value that should be used for any particular specific h u m l d t y 181
1.4 to 1.32 at practical temperatures.
When adiabatic head is known, the horsepower requirement may be descrbal ibv
the equation:

All that is needed then to determine the components of k, is a value of C., A

(mole wi:ighted average (nay be i m d according i n the equation:
 C e ~ i I ~ l ~ i ! cornpressols
i;~l may also be rated i n terms of polytropic horsepower.
Compressor Pressure Performance
l h t ! .ipl)ii~dbIt?equations are:
Adiabatic head (Ha,) and polytropic head (H,,) are concepts that are parricw
larly useful t o designers and users of dynamic type compressors. The head referred
to i s analogous to the head developed by a centrifugal pump. I n the case of the
pump. the head developed at a particular flow and at a particular impeller speed I S
the same regardless of the density of the fluid being handled. I n the same way, thi,
G H P: hpp,/ljOt (Eq. 1-17) polytropic head developed by a specified impeller handling a particular volurni! rare
of gas at a particular speed is constant regardless of gas density.
B H P - G H P I ~nechan~cal
loss~s (Eq. 1-18) Polytropic head may be expressed i n terms of enthalpy IBTU/lb) or u n r t i 0 1
ft-lbsllb. It is determined by the formula:

Thi. p d v r ~ o p i cclficiency used ill these formulas is related to the ratio o f specific
heats by the relar~on: Adiabatic head is determined by the substitution of k for n in the above re la to^;
Adiabatic head may also be determined through the use of a Mollif!r dagts~!i
Following a constant entropy line from inlet conditions to the required disch;i~w
pressure establishes two points on the chart from which an ir~itialand i3 f1#!;11
enthalpy may be read. This enthalpy change is related to the adiabatic head by ,i
simple unitPconversion factor:

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS

The basic components of a reciprocating compressor are the piston, cylinder, IIIX

valves.
Reciprocators are the most commonly used compressors in process swvic~~s.
They tend t o be the most energy efficient of all alternative designs. This i s partico
larly true of slower speed and large cylinder-bore units. The principle or corn-'
pression i s adaptable to a great number of services including those with variabo
suction or discharge pressures, variable volume load, low vacuum inlet, or high
discharge pressures. Units range i n horsepower from fractional t o 12,000 HP.
A reciprocating compressor should be strongly considered for applications in^
volving:
INLET VOLUME - THOUSANDS OF CFM - High discharge pressure.
Plunger-piston type units can compress gasses to over 25,000 psig the hlyhes!
Figure 6-2. of any of the common mechanical compressor styles;
- Variable volume duty.
Reciprocating compressors can be unloaded in discreet steps eech c h o ~ ~ q n i l
 the inlet volume with a nearly proportional saving i n power input; Figure 6-4).Larger units, with cylinders measuring 5" or greater in d~ameterare
Simultaneous multiple services. most frequently single cylinder i n design. Vertical cylinders will not discharge
Larger reciprocating compressor M m e s can accommodate u p t o 10 crank liquids readily and are not recommended for wet or potentially wet services.
throws some o f which may drive one to three cylinders in tandem. The
i~cimln,~ I inilepw,rlsnt sowci!s possiblc with a single driver i s obviously
l.lrgl!.

Cylinder Arrangements

Srnallcr compressor units (less than 10 HP) are frequently single-acting in design.
Thesc onits compress gas using o i ~ l yone side of a pistol!, the other end being open
to the crankcase. The advantages of this design incl~idea minimum of wearing parts,
3s well as the simplic~tyof splash lubrication of the cylinder in many cases. Single
g are rnost oftcn arranged with cylinders i n a vertical or "Y" arrangement
~ c t w ~units
(F~gu~c: 6-31.

Figure6-4. Mulnplecylinder arrangement. (Courtesy lngeriol

Rand Corp.1.

Single-crank horizontal compressors provide flexibility in design for services

Whw, pocoss gasstrs must be contained within the cylinder, the double acting
cylindei, with a piston rod sealed at the stuffing box, is preferred
Vertical cylinder units range in power capability from fractional HP t o about
250 HP. Vrrtical cylinders arc preferred whcn non-lube scrvice i s required (see
ranging from 20 t o approximately 200 HP. Cylinders are most commonly double^
acting. Multiple cylinders may be driven i n tandem from a singlecrank (F~gure6 ~ 5
"V" or "Y" type compressors with t w o double-acting cylinders supported f r o ~
a single frame range f r o m 50 t o approximately 500 HP. These units are among thi.
most compact designs for their capacity when floor space is a consideration. A t h i r l
cylinder mounted vertically may supplement the basic design for increased capacty
(Figure 6-13),
Angle type compressors are often used in two stage servlce. The larger ftrst-stiqi
cylinder is placed vertically to minimize ring wear and to m~nimizespace r i ! q i u , ,
InentS. A smaller second stage cylinder is mounted horizontally from th~:w r r m
frame. These compressors arc available for servces ranglrig from 200 ro 700 HI'
(Figure 6-7).
 mticijiated allowable down-time:
type of motive power available.
Other factors such as chemical corrosiveness, chemical toxicity, available
tounriation space, or special oil-contamination limitations may also take on varying
degrees of inlpoltance.
A p ~ e l ~ m i n a rcalculation
y of the horsepower can be arrived at using equation
1-12 which makes use of the flrst six parameters listed above. Allowances must be
modr fo, the mechanical efficiency and the compression efficiency as noted on
page 282. At this point, the design cnglneer must rely on model availability data
from manufacturers. The anticipated maximum horsepower will place the service in
a iange of frame styles. However, consideration of the seventh parameter, allowable
doivnttmc, w ~ l ilarlowl the range considerably.
H ~ g l i rspeed
~ units, although less expensive, will tend to have shorter run times
l , ~ t w t ~ , rW
) W C . ~p, c ~ o c i rthm1 s l m w spt:c!d tillits. Again, the ;lnticipated life of the
pluccsr tm.iy br l i ~ n ~ t e d0 1 , capital sensitive suggesting the application of high speed
>eclp!ocatois (900 R P M and abofei.
The selection of a frame style from any individual manufacturer will fix the
ialige of compatible cylinders that are available. Each cylinder has a specific inter.
nal d~arneterand a maximum working pressure. The total piston displacement (PO)
of the cylinder being considered is determined by the internal area of the cylinder,
the size of the piston rod, the stroke (piston travel distance allowed by the crank-
shaft), atid the rotative speed o f the crankshaft.
For single-acting compressors:
CA ( i n Z )X stroke (in) X S (rpm)
P o (CFM) = (Eq. Il.li
1728
For double-acting compressors the piston displacement is twice the value pre-
dicted by the single-acting equation, less rhe displacement of the piston rod (and
tail rod i f applicable).
Consideration o f piston displacements, which must begreater than the ACFM ol
the intended service, together with the cylinder pressure ratings will narrow t l ~ c
range of cylinders for the application.
Consideration must also be given t o the "rod load" or "pin load" rating of thc
compressor frame. This must be compared t o the maximum force imposed by the
differential pressure on the cylinders, since this force is transmitted down the
piston rod and/or connecting rod and onto the running gear and bearings withrn the
frame.
For a typical double-acting cylinder the rod loading is determined by:
R L (lbs.) = PA ( i n 2 ) X Pd (psia) - (PA ( i n 2 ) - rod area (in") x P5 jpsia)
( E q . 11~21
When the range of cylinders has k e n narrowed to t h ~ spoint, a closur appsoxl~
mation of the gas handling capabilities o f il cylindcr may be obtained by all e v a l u , ~ .
tion of the volumetric efficiency.
Volumetric efficiency, piston d~splacement.and cylindcr capacity, are rc:lateil 2 s
follows:
ACFM = PD X VE (Eq. 11-31
Evaluation of the volumetric efficiency requires a knowledge of the cylinde,
clearance volume, which is commonly expressed as a percentage of the p~stoil
displacement. I n most cases, the clearance designed into a cyllnder will be betwr,i.rl
3 and 16%.
Precise evaluation of the volumetric efficiency also requires information cow
cerning the pressure losses at the inlet valves, as well as empirical data concelruog
the rate at which a particular gas slips past the piston rings, rod packing, and
cylinder valves. Reliance on the manufacturer's method of calculation is, of course,
necessary for guaranteed performance. However, for preliminary evaluations, thc
following approximation may be used:
1
 Note that i l l most cases Z d,sc, /Z ,,,,, will be nearly equal t o u n i t y 2. Power economy
A rough estimation o f power savings can be made b y assuming the f o l o w n g :
Horsepower Determinations
a. N o stage will exceed a ratio o f compression of four.
A n w n l x : ~o f f ~ i c t o r scausl: thc compression of a gas w i t h i n a cylinder t o require b. The ratios o f compression per stage will be nearly equal and determined by
I I I I V i ~ i p ~ 0t11t1 ~ 1 1 1 1 1 V ~ L I lI h~ m~ llii! t h ~ o r e t i c a liscntropic equation the formula
will prudict. C h e f among the teasons (or this extra power requirement is the b "5
r~
pressure loss through the valves. Other factors are turbulence, valve leakage. heating - d r G overall
stage
of rhe incoming gas, and slippage past the packing rings. These losses collectively
~ n f l u e n c ethe compression efficiency o f a cylinder design. Compression efficiency is
+
where ns = the number o f stages anticipated. (This does rtot e n t ~ r e l yapply i
exptcsscd as the theoretical compression horsepower compared t o the actual cy!in-
process conditions dictate interstage pressures).
der i n < l i c ~ t eliorsepower.
d Present day compressors range f r o m 8 5 t o 93% i n C.E.
c. Pressure loss between stages will be 5% o f the upstream discharge pressurci.
111a d d i t i o ~ i ,there i s 2 certain amount o f horsepower expended i n simply 'turning
d. Where intercooling i s possible, the temperature approach of the heat r * ~
the 1113cIi111u OYI:~.' These losses include the w o r k lost t o f r i c t i o n i n t h e bearings,
changer w i l l be 20°F.
p.~chi<rg.wrd pssto\r 1tngs. These losses influence the mechanical efficiency of an
e. The discharge temperature of any stage w i l l be 3 2 5 ' ~or less.
r n t i r e compfessor. Mechantcal efficiency is expressed as the ratio o f cylinder indi-
4. These assumed limitations will lead t o an o p t i m u m number o f stages. Each stdgi,
cated horsepower to the total brake horsepower of the unit. Preesent day compres-
can then be treated as a separate compressor when making approximations of
sors range f r o m 8 8 t o 93% i n M.E.
T h e ovcrall efficiency o f a reciprocating compressor is the mathematical product t horsepower.
T h e resulting total power requirement may be used as a basis of comparison
o f the m < ~ h a i 7 i c aand l compression efficiencies. Most modern compressors range
when determining whether increasing the number o f stages still further is likely t o
Ihwn 75 ti, 88% i n overall efficiency.
be cost effective.
There IS unfortunately n o exact and universal m e t h o d o f calculating brake horse-
F o r precise cost figures, a manufacturer's empirical knowledge o f compressul
power f r o m service data. A manufacturer's guaranteed rating is the final w o r d i n
performance, as well as vendor's pricing information, i s needed.
thfs matter shott o f startup and testing.
3. Rod Loading.
A high ratio o f compression can result i n a compressive or tensile load on thc
Staging C piston r o d that exceeds safe limits. Increasing the number of stages reduces lhi:
Tho srilection o f interstage pressures is ft.equently the responsibility o f the pro- differential pressure across the piston of the intake cylinder whlch reduces th<i r w i
cess engineer. This may be the result of constraints o n the process such as special load. Frame bearings, as well as valves, and piston rings are all subject t o less wear ti,
, tho injectior or iemoval of gasses at specific interstage pressures.
i i ~ t r r c o o l i n y oi the operating differential pressure per cylinder decreases. Lower maintenance ciists
Molt! f r t ! q u ~ l l t l y , the lleed f o r multistage operation in a reciprocating u n i t is can be expected.
d c t r r m ~ n e db y one or more o f the following conditions:
1. Discharge temperature limitations. Compressor Components
Most compressor manufacturers set a nominal l i m i t o n the anticipated discharge
Figures 6-9and 6-10 illustrate the components of typical double acting compres.
tcrnperatLire o f a cylinder. The reasons include considerations of metal stress,
sors.
rn;icl~int~ tale~ances,mid the! ma1 degradation o f lubricants. I n the case o f oxidizing 4
y.rssi,j, co~,<,sionor l u b i c a n t fl;~iiim:ibility tn.ly hove to bi: considered. I n general, 1. Frame
no i , y l i ~ n l < :s~l l o i ~ l dc x c r v d 350°F in xiial,.ttic discll;vga tcinpetature. Adjusting the 2. Cylinder
1.lli0 l i t i:c,m,,li'ssi<,n ;,I i:jcll st;ig~: of conlplc!ssiall. nlunij w i t h adequate interstage 3. Piston and piston rings
c m ~ o g C. I ~ I , i i x u ~ etllis, ( T l i c : ~ilrc~ C I X C ~ : ~ ~ ~ O 10
I I S tliis rule, CIS I I the
~ case o f certain 4. Crankshaft
singlt3 sliigc air u ~ i i t swhich opcrate I I the taiige o f 500°F i n adiabatic discharge 5. Valves
trmpelature but which dissipate enough heat t o reduce the actual temperature t o 6. Connecting rod
bctwren 375 and 4 2 5 " ~ ) . 7. Oil reservoir
8. Main bearings
 9.C~osshrad
10. P~stonrod
11. Piston rod packing
12. Cylind<,fcnok!ng i;~ckats
13. Dist;lnco pic!cu
14. Oil sclapi!r rmigs
15. Oil dcflcction collar
16. Wr~stpin

Liners may also be required when the material used for the bulk of thecylindi:~
will not provide proper wearing properties at the friction interface. This is the casv
i n most steel cylinders.
Cylinder liners are commonly made of cast iron. although special wear resistant
or chemically resistant materials may be ordered.
There are t w o types of liners i n general use. The most common is the dry typri,
which is essentially a shrunk-fit or pressed sleeve within the original bore. These
have the disadvantage of reducing the rate of heat rejection to the jacket water. The
alternative wet type liners. are designed for jacket water circulation immudiatcy
behind the liner. These have a sealed seam between the compression chamber mcl
the jacket which may leak under some extreme circumstances.
Piston Rods - Piston rods are subject to repeated compression-tension cycli,
loading. The surface finish of these rods should be as smooth as possible to avwil
fatigue cracking. Heat treating, nitrat~ng,or carbori~ingis sometimes used to h a r r h
the surface of this component.
Spec~alConsidrrotions Valves- Valves are the most frequently serviced of all compressor comporiitrtls
Valve designs must strike a compromise between maximiany operating cycles a n d
Liners -
A c y l f n d e ltnt:~is risetl whr:re chang~ngthe diameter of the cylinder is
minimizing valve losses. Maximum operating cycles are attained by valves w ~ r h
.ii~tlcpaterlat some time i n the furute. The bore diameter may be changed either to
minimum lift, and few moving parts. Minimum valve losses ii.e. minimum pressulc
inert new capacity r e q ~ ~ i r e m r n tor
s to produce a new refinished cylinder surface
losses) are attained by valves with high lifts and/or several sealing components.
.iitt,v tht. n~iiuirialsurface has I)PW
(lamaqed i)y weat
 A : v l ~ o tf i i s s o r oflutirigs i h o ~ ~ include ld a comparison o f valve Capacity Control
v : 71is i m , i n r r t r t 1s l o u i i d b y dividing the total piston displacement o f a
t
cvliniIt2~LIV tl?,, t ~ ~ l . liill t ! xed o f all suction valves ( 1 11. I n general, this figure should Reducing the volumetric capacty o f a reciprocating compressor can be accom~
1 1 0 1 c , k c w i l 7,500 f t l l n i n . how eve^, veiy l o w moleci~larweight gasses, hydrogen i n
plished b y one o f the following means:
I).I~ t1co1.11, !n;iv 1 1 0 1 III~LICI: 811 adequilte valve l i f t Lliiless velocities are relatively high. Start and Stop
SU~II<IO.iilil IIISL:JI;BI[~C! v i l l v ~ !21,:
~ 1101 ~II~CICI~;IIKJ<'~L)ID
in function although they This means may be used when the i>rcssurizcd gas is being rleliwred t o ;i s t o l a y
n i ~ i vsomclirnus be iirturcharigeablc in p o r t seating dimensions. This is a particular receiver. Caution must be exerc~sadwhen sizing a compressor for t h s type o l
service t o assure that the compressor motor is n o t subjected l o t o o Inany starts
lhazairl io o1d?r units. Care must be exercised b y servicemen when replacing inlet
and outlet valves. t o avoid interchanging the two. These valves may be polarized i f w i t h i n a limited time period. Starting ismost commonly done while the c o m ~
desired, b y machining o r inserting pins t o prevent interchanges. pressor i s unloaded in order t o l i m i t the starting torque.
Packing - Piston r o d packing i n heavy d u t y compressors i s almost invariably the Constant speed controls.
These include cylinder inlet valve unloading mechanisms, special clearance p o c ~
f ~ l l lfloating mechanical type. The most frequently used ring material is bronze.
kets, and external bypassing.
although micarta, phenolic resins, PTFE, and other materials o r combinations or
Valve unloaders, the most commonly used capacity reduction device, hold the
l s be used for corrosion resistance (See Figure 6-11].
1 n ~ t e ~ i 3may
inlet valve! open during the compression stroke of the cylinder, thereby p t r -
venting compression f r o m occurring. I n a double-acting cylinder, unloaders allow
capacity reduction steps o f 50% and 0% of full ACFM. M u l t i cylinder units allow
still more combinations o f loaded and unloaded cylinders (Figure 6.121.

I I S i l l 2 o u t attic long r u n n i x l periods w e n i n the cleanest o f

st'~iwc~rs.D i l l y , w ~ i l ,01. high pressure services will require packing ring replacement
1:111(.11 11,111 i' O i I,',, Fiyuic 6-72. Capscity COnriol using valve iidoadcrs. The cylinder in rhre lrrsr liyurc ir loaded uil
Distancs Piece - A dstdncc plc:ci? may be ostalled between the cylinder and , borh the head arid crank ends 10s shown oil the indicator caidsi. in t h u r e c o n d figure ihc,h r a d
end is unloaded for 50% c ~ p a c i r y .I n ?he third figure borh ends are unloaded lor 0% cdp,,c,r8i.
i~mic, l o r CII,,,( 8 1 lhrce ~ e a s o ~ i s .
/Courrr!iy l n y r i i o i R3nd C o r p
I Whim > I I S ~i~ii:css,i~y 1 0 plavmnl c;llry ovur o f ft.ame lubricants i n t o the
~ ~ l i i i i l c t,l r~t i, il~st;l~rc,:picci! assuior that n o p o r t i o ~ o
i f the r o d can travel the
Care must be exercised in the planning stage when d u n i t will have valve i u v
cI~sI.~I,c,, I I Ot hI r~frdmc oil w i p ~ !riligs
~ to the C y l i d e r packing.
loaders in a particular service. A check should be made t o guarantee that rod
2. I n i > t l > ic:ws,~~ the distmce piece si?rves as a means o f venting the process gas
load reversals (compression followed by tension loading1 will occur whe17 a
1l1.11 l<,.~hspast thi! r o d v a c k ~ n g .Gassesmay be simply vented to the atmos-
cylinder is partially unloaded. I n addition, multi-cylinder horizontal opp6si:d
i 4 i $ ! 1 ~l l!r ~ o u y hI;lr!)o ports, 01 they may be purged f r o m an encloseddistance
units should be unloaded symetrically to avoid producing excessive unbalanci:ri
vi?cc w i t h 3 stream o f inert gas. The latter m e t h o d is used when hazardous
forces o n the crankshaft and frame.
gasses are being plocessed.
3. The ~list,inci?piece also serves as a service access t o the piston r o d packing and
011,.~,,ll,,~!, , , , g s .
 Thii power saving o f t h ~ srmethod o f capacity control i s not total since some
work musr be done to lnove the gas in and out through the valve Ports.
G U I > ~ : I J I It~h,~ swork will be about 5% o f the full load for the cylinder. The
mech;ri,lc~I frlction losses of the compressor also make a contribution to the
powcr consumptio~>. These factors result in a no-load horsepower demand of
~i,ugliIy 25"U 01 fill1 l o a d
CyImdc> u 1 1 l 0 ~ d i .$nay 1 ~ haw! elr!ctrlwl, pncu~nalic,01 manual operators.
~ / P J I . ; I I I C ~poi;h~zs
? reduce the volumetric efficiency o f a cylinder by effectively
;ilc~c;is,nqthe, cylinde~clearance by ;I fixccl percentage, or by a n incremental
,,,11l,ll,Il.
Athorigh cleaiance puckers may be used at the crank end and/or the head end
o f ;I cylinder, they are (nore con7monly located at the head end.
C I e j ~ a x epockets, ~ n fixed
d volume cledl-ance botlles have an advantage over
trlet vdvc i~nloadrrsi ? that they do not litnit control to large increments of
c;ip,toiry ~ u d i ~ c t i oThey
n. (nay be machincd i l l order for small increments Such as
10% ~cduction.Mote than one pocket may be used on a cylinder for several
steps of ieduction. Variable volume pockets are available for still finer control
,,l<:I1~1,,1'1,l1.
TI,,! p i w , , ~r , x l i ~ u o affected
i~ by clearanci' pockets i s approximately 85% of the
i:.tp.~c~tv~ a d u c t ~ o n
C/~I,II,IIC,, ~ 1 o ~ k r1n1.1y
t s lhiwr dt~ctrical,p ~ ~ e u m a t i c , manual operators. Manual
ti,,, ,>,Oil C < l l l l l l i O l l .
.,I,!
Whul, col,st,int speed controls are used on multi-stage compressors, all stages
shoold bo rod~icci!proportionately and s~multaneouslyto avoid large changes in
~ ~ ~ t t ~ ~pressut!.
st,~gc
t s r e i i u l !,y~msiiiy as a means of capacity control allows the use of conventional
s l o w i c g ~ ~ l a t nvalves.
g This method is not often used w i t h reciprocating
compressors because of the lack of any saving i n power, and because of the
te~?dency to build up heat i n the recycle loop which requires the use of a
bypiiss.gas c o o l e ~ .External bypassing o f essentially all of a compressor's output
i s sornetllnes used as a means o f unloading a compressor during startup. How-
ever, suction valve unloaders, when available, are the preferred means of un-
l < > ~ l < ~I l ln~ st:lltLlp.
~ l
Cylinilcr Coaling
temperature services such as refrlgi!ration, and systems involvng lr,w ratios o f corn
pression (less than 3)with yasses hav~nga low specific heat f a t o ai i r l thi: c a r i ,,I
light hydrocarbons. In these cases, the cylinder jackets may bi: filled w r h ii heat
higher horsepower demand and fewer Iblhr of gas delivered.
There are t w o chief cylinder designs used t o dissipate this heat:
Air cooled machines have external fins which act to extend the surface area of
cylinders i n order t o transfer heat to the surrounding atmosphere. In most cases,
the convention heat-dissipation rate is increased by incorporating an ~ntegialf a l l
into the design.
Air.cooled cylinder compressors are nearly always small urilts (less than 100
total HP). They are very commori in air package w i t s for l i m ~ t u ddcma~ld
service.
Water cooled cyilnders a l e the commor choice for hcavy duty appiicat~o~i,;
Cylinder castings include channels for circulating a cooling fluid to mantain u
uniform working temperature within the metal walls of the cylnder.
Although the heat dissipation to the cylinder cooling fluid does have a measui~
able effect on the cylinder discharge temperature as well as the compressioll
efficiency, most general methods of predicting this advantage are not preclsii.
The conservative approach of neglecting the cooling effect of the cylinder on the
gas is recommended for all bur the most critical process calculations. In those
cases, the manufacturer should be consulted for performance data.
I n the case of the well-studied air compressor for utility service, the practice has
been to assume that 15 to 20% of the accumulated heat that must be dissipated
between stages and by aftercoolers, is actually taken by the jacket c o o l ~ r q
system.
I n order to determine the quantity of water needed for cylinder jackets, an
approximate heat rejection rate o f 500 BTU/BHP.hr with a l!i°F rise in water
temperature may be assumed for cast iron cylinders. The heat rejection rate will
increase as the cylinder diameter i s reduced. The use of dry type cylinder l i n e ~ i .
or applications involving gasseswith low k values (such as natural gas) will reduce
the heat rejection rate by some 50%.
Cooling water should never be cold enough to cause condensation w ~ t h i na
cylinder. Severe wear or sudden damage to thecompressor can result, lncom~ng
water temperature should be 10 to 15'F abow the temperature of t h e mcamtny
gas. An aftercooler or an intercooler may serve as a convenient supply of warp!
water.
Where only cool water is available, the rate of circulatiol~through the j,icki!ri
should be controlled to maintain the water outlet temperdture at 15 to 20°F
above the gas inlet temperature.
The discharge temperature of the cylinder jacket water should be less tliarl
130°F except where conde~isatiorlwithin rhc cylinder may result.
Some compressor applications will require no cooling. These includi: low
c o ~ i d u c t ~lluiil.
~ g such as all or an antifreeze solution, to distribute temperatures single oil system, while the cylinders are lubricated throuyh an indepe~ide~ir 011

i?vc.nlyth~oilgliourthe cylinder casing. system. In most cases, the lubricating oil used in the cylinders w l l not be identcal
A n rhmnosyphon system is often used to move the coolant slowly to the oil used in the running gear (Figure 6-13), This is particularly true n the case
~ l i ~ o u gthe.
l > j;icke~s. Tllis I I ~ V O I V
the
~ Suse of an external coolant reservoir tank and of services involving unusual process temperatures, or gasses, requiring special u b r -
I s n .imotii>t o f piping to allow the coolant t o circulate through a closed loop by cants.
lhti;~tindoci:d conveiitlon.

Materials o f Construction

OIL COOLER

Lubrication

compressor lubrication is d ~ w d c r lintc four main categories:

Hcci~>rocat~nq
The frame lubrication system in laryer compressors commor.ly includes a dust
F ~ a n Iru b ~ i c a t o ~ ~ ;
tight crankcase which selves as an oil reservoir, an oil straner, a small year-type 0 1
F ~ l lcylinder
l lubrication;
centrifugal pump which may be driven from a power take-off on the main drive and
M i r ~ i m u mcylinder itbrication;
an oil filter. Larger units may use an oil cooler.
Null-lube cylinder systems.
Some moderate size units (less than approximately 200 HP) may use a floo0
A i.ooiprrssols, ncluding noii-lube units, require frame lubrication type system for lubricating the running gear. Frame oil is carried up by a crankshaft
driven mechanism within the crankcase, and allowed to flow down to lubricate the
Frame Luhriciltion jornals.

11, m;ilry sniallc,~ ttnlts, splash lubrication is provided by the agitating action of
tht, ~.~.i~,l,si~.ilt ( o t . i t i r ~ gn r i l l o I teservor. In rhi! singlp-acting compressors, both the
Ih;in,,i 111,.31 illgs .IIII~c y l l ~ l d cm e lubricarod by tlia samr atotnized oil mist.
S : t i s l m h lubr~catcd compressors require frequent oil changes and
I i ~ i.tiiciitims
l .IS p w t of a ruydar m;,intcnanC<! program.
L,llgti pri~ccsscornptersors have force feed lubrication systems. The points of
l u b l i c d t o r ~include the frame running gear, crossheads, the cylinders, and packing.
1 1 most c~siis,the r m n i n g gear and crossheads will be pressure lubricated through a
Full Cylinder Lubrication
The cylinder lubrication system in larger compressors usually includes a muitw
point lubricator which is capable of individual and adjustable flow rates to r x h
point. Lubricants are not recycled (see Figure 6-14).
The points of lubrication within a cylinder include the pston rlngs, the packtrlq,
and on occasion, the valves. Of these, the piston rings are the most critical and ,I,,:
invariably fed through ports in the cylinder bore.
 determined by observation at startup, and every six months or so thereafter.
Minimum cylinder lubrication is a compromise between full lubrication and
non-lube design. Full lubrication offers mechanical reliability to minimize down
time, but invariably results in a gas stream contaminated by the lubricant. N o n ~
lubricated cylinders will not contaminate the gas stream to any measurable degree,
but are more subject to mechanical wear.
Minimum lube systems incorporate the materials of construction of i i o n u b i i
cylinders. The mechanical wear of these components is minimized by supplytny
them with a fine coating of a liquid lubricant.
I n the most common design, the rate of lubricant additton i s so small thar lht:
packing is the only lubricated component. In this case, oil 1s carried into thu
cylinder by the rod and slowly migrates to the cylinder walls and valves. The rati: i i :
oil feed to the packing itself may be minimized, or eliminated altogether if s u f f : ~
cient crankcase lubricant reaches the packing during normal operation (see Ftyure
6-15].

1,) I,I,III~ c,z~~,s,

tl>c: I O ~ I I C ~lb~,i$~!j
II tcxl 10 thx, cyl1,1d1?1
Imre IS carricd ovcr onto
:nt, ,)>1,)0 011 l l r l c l 0 1 1 1 0 1/11! ~ ) , i c l < ~1 1~, lS<LjI ~ ~ I C I C I Iquantity
~ to elimirmti! thu need for
si'pi.itc IeW to the pricking.
V.ivcs i,suGillydo nor r ~ x i ~ l i dr eseparate 1ub1ic:antf w d . Oil is carried to the valve
t I 1 j s t . In so!ric i~~stallatians, oil rnay be injected into the gas
srle,iln befnlc rhr compressor inlet t o guarantee lubrication of the inlet valves.
Care must be exercised in the selection of cylinder lubricating oils. Lubricants
mtx Ihigl7ly i~,diwdualired froln process to process. Halocarbon-compressor oils can-
,not be interchanged with lubricants for ammonia compressors, utility air compres-
sol oils cailnot be interchanged with lubricants for high pressure cylinders, etc.
T h w n a l decomposition of an incorrectly prescribed lubricating oil i n an air
COI~/)II~CSIII c d i i i c s d t $ 1 7 rl~c~lniiilations of soot in the discharge piping. These
11 c c l ~ ~ ~ b i ~ s t ~ l ~ l ~ , ,
~ 1 1 , 1 , 1 ~ 1,311.

, I 3 ;)~
I ~ I . ~ I ~ ~ ~ ~i i .l s ~ LIP . I ~toI Is,pI cc~ i l yrhc ~ p t i ~ n ucharacteristics
m of a
I I I .i ~ . I I I I C ~ J I ~ . I C ~ ~ I II II) ~d~ specif~!dSCIYIC<?. how eve^. thc final recom-

, o lht. (IX;IC~ lubrci1111

~ n ~ i ~ i c l . i : ~ t1m to bt! ~ m t should l come from a reputable oil
~ ' ~ i, w i l i l l g to gildrantee the p e t f o i m a ~ ~ cofe his product.
s i l p p l ~ ivlic F,gure 6.75. /Courtesy lnyersol Rand Corp.1
11, ymrral. the bleak-in peliod of a ni?w reciprocatingcompressor will require
i e a t v e y I81g.eamounts o f lhbr~cant.Most often, this oil will not be identical t o the Non-lubricated Cylinders
lubricant that will be used during the process run.
The rate of cylmder feed is not completely predictable. Proper oil feed rates are .
Non-lubricated cylinder compressors incorporate the f o l o w ~ n gconstruction
features:
1 P x k ~ t ~rngs
g and compression rings made o f a self-lubricating solid such as I n general, non-lube cylinders will have a lower compression efficiency than
~ I ~ I C I I II, U I I ~ IPTFE,
OIC combinations
~~ of carbon and PTFE, or molybdenum corresponding lubricated cylinders. This added CE loss i s approximately 5%. This
~lls~~l,>llld!; reduction i n capacity does not result in a noticeable reduction in horsepower sinci!
2. A il~rt;ini:i:i11rci: k t w c e ~ the i frame and cylinder to guarantee that frame oil work is done on virtually all the gas within the cylinder even though some of i t sips
~ : . i ! ~ ~ l I,IIIC,I
ol thii cyIin~lc?rthrough the packing. An oil-deflection collar may back t o the suction side during compression.
IN.o s ~ 1~0 ist011 thv migratio~iof frame oil along the metal surface of the rod; Special precautions must be observcd when a non-lube compresror is to bc used
3. Spcc~;i!valvc i~tscrtsat the points of wear ~nadeof materials similar t o those 1. The cylinders are particularly sensitive to dirt. Thorough prvstartup cln;ini~,g
usi!C it, the piston rmtgs and pack~ng; of all process piping is necessary. A suction filter with a rating of 5 micron; 111
4. An extra ring or set of rings on the piston designed t o support and guide the finer is preferred to a suction screen. The rate of wear on cylinder widli.
piston. Thcse 'rider rings' are 1101designed to seal against gas leakage, but piston rings, rod packing, and on the piston rod can be expected to i:ri:<it!rI
r;ithc.~ to rakii ,most o f the mechanical load and wear that would otherwise be that of a lubricated unit. Careful monitoring of the rate of wear is rnact:is,ily.
i piston rings; (see Figure 6.16).
ilnposed o ~ the 2. Spare cylinder components will be used more frequently in a non-lube corn-
5. A l 1 1 1 ~ 4hym m l finish in thc cylinder bore and on the piston rod. Cylinder pressor than in a comparable lubricated unit;
w~f;ic,,s ;IIC c w n r n o i ~ i ylhoncd with PTFE to fill castlng pores etc. This pro- 3. Special prcautions must be taken t o prevent the oxidation of metal surfactts
~ : i i s s ii.isi!s tlic wi3h o f ~rngs dur~rlgb l e a k in. during periods of downtime. Ferrous cylinder bores and piston rods a r e not
protected by a lubricant coating and are subject to attack by small amountr
of moisture and oxygen. The use o f warm circulating jacket water or an i r l c ~ t
gas purge may be necessary as part of a standard shut-dowti or equpmenr
storage procedure.

Compressor Gas Piping

Compressor cylinder ports are most olteri sized larger thar) gas l j l p i ~ i gpractws
would predict. This is because gas velocities or nominal prossurc losscs b;isi:d r,ll
steady state flow do not account for an all important criterion in reciprocatiicj
compressor line sizing, which is that pressure pulsations must be attenuated.
14-G Gas piping to and from compressor cylinders should not run smaller in diameter
SINCE T H I S PISTON O P E R A T E S VERTICALLY. than the corresponding port connection size.
ONLY ONE R I D E R R l N G I S REQUIRED.
Piping runs to the inlet and discharge side of compresror cylinders may have the
unplanned for effect of resonating with pulses from the compressor. If unchecked.
these oscillations can interfere with flow dynamics within the cylinders, causing a
RlNG
loss o f capacity and an extra burden on the compressor driver. In hlgh pressure
installations, these pressure waves can do physical damage to the piping installation.
There are three main solutions t o the problem of pressure pulsations, The suresr
of these is to rely on a firm specializing i n the design and manufacture of pusatlori
dampeners. Commercial dampeners incorporate proprietary pulse attenuating dc:-
vices within a vessel that have the effect of reducing downstream pulses to I%, of
the lime pressure. They also may reduce upstream pressure pulses to a specified
limit.
Pulsation dampeners tend t o be expensive n first cost, but offer the be;t prii-
tection to compressors i n services involving high horsepower and high pressure.
The next best alternative to the pulsation damperlor is thr? surgi: bottle. T h i : 2~1 r .
enlarged chambers in the piping, located adjacent t o the compressor port;, that a c t
ro db,ti!oe the p ~ p i n ysystem. Some rules-of-thumb can be applied for evaluation
purposes: I n services up t o 700 prig, they are at least seven times the single-acting
displacement volume of the cylinders they serve. Higher pressures require larger
bottles. A t 2,000 pug, the suggested minimum is at least 15 times the swept
cyli~iclervolume (131.
Sulgr bottles should be located as close to the cylinder as possible. Pressure taps
'ilong the chamber may be useful i n checking the performance of a volume bottle.
Whenever possible, bottles should be equipped with drains.
The third method of averting pulsation resonance, is to design the inlet and
discharge piping systems to avoid straight piping lengths, and equivalent piping
li:nyths, that will oscillate i n sonic resonance with the compressor. Compressor
suppl~t:iscan usually assist in this planning. For large installations, an analog study
in,," Ih, n ~ ~ ~ ~ d t d
COIII~II~?SSOIpipinq must include an allowance for thermal expansion. It is an
WIWISC ~ ; I C I I C C 10 0011 a horizontal compressor cylinder down t o a section of
dischalgc piping that i s rigidly braced against a floor. Other lines that may be
subject to plpe thermal expansion such as those with tracing and those handling
~ c f r i g r l m t s ,should not be positioned t o create a strain on a cylinder casting or risk
disro~tingc y l i ( > d < i l - f ~ a malignment.
e cylinder is very nearly a multiple of the absolute tempeature of the n l e t ijd,
C s s discharge lines and manifolds must include a safety relief device
w r h ;I pli,ssillr ~r,+t~ng a d e ~ u a t ?to protect the cylinder. as well as a capacity rating
I c l I I ~-OIIS~~~.I;IIIOO 01 1hv volume between the compressor and the nearest
/101111 "I 1S01;,11o11 ( 1 2 ) .
11, ~ ~ s t ~ ~ 1 1wI1c:i~
.1t~m ~IIU
~ 111Ii:l\)il)i~lqwill 1101 sti~ndlull discharge pressure, i t is
h , s r ti, c m ~ s i d athat
~ the i:omprcssr>r valv<:s !nay at som! time leak high pressure gas
back to the suction side. I f the inlet piping can be isolated by an upstream valve,
rhl.11;I o w - s ~ d e,<!lief valv,i is adviscd.
t3.xlc instlumentation should include inlet and outlet pressure gage taps and/or
~nstalledgages with snubbers, a mounted dial type thermometer to monitor dis-
I i p a t r , <and a means of measuring gas irilet temperatures. Where
I ~ ~ ~ X ioC
~ ~ Ipackng
IIC is ~ised.J r i i e a ~ ~of
s m~asuringthe packing temperature will
wove i~soful.
Alarms
TI?,! need l o rnol~itorthe likely trouble spots i n a compressor increases in propor-
11m11 0 thi! inipolt.lllce o f the cornplussol u ~ u itn process. I t i s often the responsi-
h l r y (11 rlir process engineel to select the appropriate alarm points.
Piucess v;i~iablusthat may endanger the operation of a compressor include:
Sii<:c,oi, piessiirs wriaNoi).
Reduction i n inlet pressure will change the horsepower requirement of a com-
pressor. I f capaclty contjol cannot accommodate this change, then the corn.
plrsso ilhver may encounrer a peak horsepower demand at some point. A well
designed system will be able to operate in this peak range wlthout overload~lig
the driver or compressor frame rating. However, economic considerations inay
warrant the use of a low inlet pressure alarm.
A more significant effect of low inlet pressure is the probable increase in the
ratio of compression. Piston rod loading may be exceeded, or discharge tempera-
tures may run excessively high causing a risk of lubrication failure, cyl~ndrr
damage, or valve damage.
Discharge pressure variation
Operating a loaded compressor against a dead head can be disasterous. Under n o
circumstances should a compressed gas system be designed without regard to thi!
maximum allowable working pressure o f the cylinders.
Variations i n discharge pressure can also have horsepower, rod loading, an<!
temperature effects similar t o those caused by low inlet pressure.
Excessive discharge pressure also resents the danger of condensation withill rl18'
gas being compressed. Lubrication failure, valve darnagc!, or severe! damaql? t i ) :h
cylinder head and drive train may result.
Inlet temperatures.
A t a constant ratio of compression, the discharge temperature of a compri:sm
Good process designs should not depend on the cooli~igjackets of cylirides to
relieve high adiabatic discharge temperatures.
Composition chanyes.
Failure to account for the addition of small amounts o f corrosive or churnxll,r
active materials in the process stream can r~:sulli n lrrlmc;ilir~~i
fulnro, a r : c d ~ ! ~ ; ~
corrosion of wearing parts, and the vodirig of manufacli~rer'swarranty.
Composition variables should be controlled to preclurle condensation w t h ~ r ,
cylinders.
Features within the compressor car1 also endanger its operaton. Tliesc includl:
High discharye temperature.
No single symptom i s a more versatile diagnostic clue. High dscharge temlii!i.~
ture occurs when:
ratios of compression are running high;
valves are broken, worn, or seating improperly.
cylinder cooling is inadequate;
piston rings are worn or damaged, allowing excessive slip;
cylinder walls are out of round, scored, or w o r r ~ :
cylinder lubrication is inadequate.
Low discharge presure.
LOSSof pressure may be attributed to valve failure, worn rlngs or worri packrig
However. this symptom is more likely to be the result of conditions exter~?altr,
the compressor, such as a downstream increase in demand for gas or a pIuq<ji.(J
inlet filter.
 LOb,, l,~,,!!t! <>,Ipr'wore.
make the induction type motor the most popular electrical driver in current use. On
!'tab:iMi: rc3uscs nclude lube pump tallu~e,auxiliary di-ive failure, contaminated
the other hand. they have the disadvantage o f a lagging power factor, as well as a
or!. ail oil li?.!k, a plugged oil filter, or loss of 01.
slightly higher power consumption to power output ratio when compared to the
L,)," /r.,,,,t, <>,I/~"L,I.
synchronous motor.
J!>!,/l I,.,!,,<, <,,I I~,,~,,>~V',f,,,,,.
Induction motors may be direct couplrd, belted, or flange mounted onto a
Tlvs C.,>IRI~IIWI is I A d y 1 ~ 1OCCLI, wli,!~i a bca~r,!, h:,s failed. I t ~ n i y h also
t bc: the
reciprocating comprcssol
~<!s,,II ,,
<,I !<,,I,,,<!I,, lh<!<>,Icool,!,
Synchronous mofors opi:rati! 3 pr~!cis,! rotatlve speed. They tcnd to lbi! sl~ghtly
1 . 0 , ~/ , , I , >J<!<,,///<,w.
more power efficient than their induction motor counterparts. and lh;rvu the! ofterl
This is a co>ldition cdused by plugged lubr~cationports, a plugged filter, a
useful advantage of a leading power factor.
~n<!cli;~~i!i:;~l f.lilurr of the pump, or 3 loss of oil.
Synchronous motors arc most often applicd to larger compressors. usually with-
l . , > v / , ~ , , / i ! , d/,,!U!<:,,f,,,g
~r <,,I /<?",!I.
out speed reduction. Thr!y may be direct coupled, flanga mounted, u r m w r l t l i r l or1
C~/,/I</<V It/hx,,ror r o r a f i u ! ~f.w/ur(?.
the compressor shaft i n an engine type arrangement.
E \ , , v s s > ~ Lw~l > r ~ t m , ~ .
Induction and synchronous motors may be required to operate in corrosive or
h.; 111.!y 1,. thr, t w u l t of a bearlng failure, a valve failure, a valve unloader
flammable atmospheres. Attention to the National Electric Code, the NFPA and
I,I~~IIII,,
I i ~ l k i ( Il I :I cyliiidr,, a lubrication failure, a weakening in the compressor
local ordinances is advised. Special venting, a special enclosure, or special materials
luui,d.ition, 0 1 a l a i l u ~ f in ! the hold down bolts.
of construction may be required.
H i y / ~i;irr!rsr~ye rei~~perariire.
The choice o f motor enclosure will also be influenced by the nature of the
Multb,t,ige comPtb!ssors with integral watercooled intercoolers depend o n a con-
operating atmosphere. Standard casing designs include open, drip proof, splash
s l t L I couling water to avoid a high inlet temperature on the stage
proof, totally enclosed, and explosion proof, among others.
r!owmt~t!am o f the intercooler. A rise in the interstage pressure and an uncon-
A steam engine may be used t o drive a compressor in applications where surplus
t i d l ~ ~s11ifri~r:l
rl i n tlic i ~ t i o s
of compression will result from an intercooler failure.
steam is available. Steam engine drive offers the advantage of relatively high effi-
M.lilv cmnilll,sssol m;ululactilrr~sare d l l e to s ~ i p p l ystandard annunciator panels
ciency i n comparison t o the alternative steam turbine. I t also provides flexibility in
CI)III.IIII~!I ,111 nucliblc tilkilrn. 1;1kImi warning lights (usu;llly arranged t o identify the
capacity control since its rotative speed is infinitely variable through a wide rangc.
111sti x x t i ~01 i;~ilurc).as wcil as timers and switch contacts t o atuomatically shut
Capacity reduction is achieved with a very nearly proportional saving in power
lht! coi~ii>xosso~
down whiin necessary. The alarm points are often selected by the
consumption.
c\istomc
Units range from about 50 t o 4,000 HP.
Compressors with integral steam engines are among the oldest and most reliable
Drivers
compressor-unit designs available. Some less common designs use a compressor-
drive coupling arrangement.
Steam engines have three disadvantages:
The steam exhaust from most engines will contain small amounts of lubtlcating
oil which can affect tho performance of the boiler i f condensate IS t o be reused.
Non-lube adaptations are available, but oiily at a sacrifice of on-line availablity.
Steam engine drives rend t o be bulky i n comparison t o electric motor drives.
The efficiency advantage of the steam engine over the turbine tends to diminish
when high pressure (over 300 psig) and h ~ temperature
h steam is to be LISI?~.
Steam turbines operate at relatively hlgh speeds and require a reducing gear to
drive standard reciprocating compressors.
Steam tllrbinrr can match arid encr:c<l the ranqr of horsepowi:i cr,vl:ri!rl by stcam
engfnes. Thcy havc l h r addsd xlvantayc r i l 0 1 - l r r i i : dlscliargi:.
The chlef mechanical dlsadvantagi! of the steam turbiric 1s rhr: !ni!cessity o f thl:
reducing gear.
 Gas e,ryiires a,id gas turbiiws a r e the preferred type of driver where fuel gas i s
p l e ~ ~ t i f uThese
l. sites (nclude gas transmission and well head stations, gas storage
f.1c~lit~1!s, iuol gas ptoccssng plants, and g;~solinorefirling facilities, among others.
Integral-cngcne compressors have been the preferred design i n very large installa-
tlons , i l t h o q h dilcct co~ipledengine drives are ,rot uncommon. Gas engines may be
l i n g to some units to improve
% t r , 4 ,II<,~,.cyclc iui < 1 ~ 3 1 ! 1 1 1 . w ~ t sl r~~ p c ~ c h i ~ c ~a,ldt!d
Ihtwm,il i ~ l l ~ c : l ~ ! nAi :d~j .~ s l m r n t sill C O ~ ~ I I : ~ S I Xcapilclty can be )made eilrily by valy-
,o!j !ht' spucd of the (cnylnt: d u v e r .
G;is ti~11,int:s lcquirt! a speed reducing gear to drive reciprocating compressors.
Somc jpplications have ncorporated exhaust gas heat exchangers t o improve the
overall efficiency of plant processes.
Diesel oil fueled engines are used less frequently than other drivers. These may
be integral compressor-driver units or direct coupled compressor-driver assemblies.
These engines may be designed for dual fuel application t o take advantage of
seasonal changes i n fuel prices and fuel availability.
The principle of compression involved may be envisioned by examimng e t h i ,
rotor separately. Each rotor, encased i n a closely fitted cylinder housing, form,
hollow spiral-shaped cavities. Gas enters these hollow chambers as they rotate pas?
an inlet port i n the housing. The intermeshing between rotors effectively forms 2
moveable seal within each of the cavities. Compression occurs during rotation as th!.
cavity travels down the housing toward the discharge port. Cavity volunrc Is i , , ~
duced until the chamber encounters an opening discharge port.
Like many other compressors the most frequent application of the rotary s c l w
machine is in compressing air. Helical compressors in this service are nearly always
supplied as packaged units.
Apart f r o m air service, the rotary screw compressor has been used for handlinrl
HN,, coke oven gasses, fluorocarbon refrigerants, wet HIS, various organic vapors,
saturated steam, and a variety of other applications.
The oil-flooded design and the dry type are the most popular units in current
use.

Installation Dry Type Rotary Screw Compressors (See Figure 6-17)

Ruc~p~ocatlny compressors vary in foundation requirements. Some compressors The mating rotors of a dry type rotary screw compressor do not make contact
Ihciva m u l r i l ~ l upistons ;ind counterweights arranged to minimize net dynamic forces with each other within the compression chamber. Timing gears are used to maintar
t,.n,sm~rt,!ii rh,otigh thc iramt:. Those balanced units may be mounted on a struc- a small but finite clearance between the mating surfaces as the rotors turn.
I I i d I 1 ' Y ' type units may need no molr? than a strong concrete Typically, a dry type units operate at rotative speeds that are three times fasts!
fl<,<,, ,,s dl, J,l,Y~,,:,t,, l"L,ll,i,ltlo~l. than oil flooded models. Speeds exceeding 10,000 rpm are possible depending on
t l , most ~ t . ~ : i p ~ u c ' icompressor
tii~l {iasiyns ~ e q u i t cxi indi'pendent poured the size of the unit. Alternatively, some models are designed for drect couplnrg !o
f o u n ~ 1 a t o i 10
,:,III<:,,,~C, > /illld ~ m i i c l ~ i ,aliyilmi!~it,
,~! 3n(/ to assLlli: thiit vitxatioll forces 3,600 to 1.800 rpm motors.
1 1 c m 1 1 , ~c c ~ ~ n p ~ ca,!
s m! n c > l t r ~ ~ ~ s ! ~to
i ~s l ~
t ~~?rd~ ~ s
x t~c ~~~l cdt ~~~~r ~l ?y s . Dry type screw compressors may be considerrd fur applications ranyny up to
Basc ar,il ycne~alleculnmendatons on the type of foundation needed for the 9,000 h.p. Capacities ranging to 26.000 CFM (of air1 are available.
compressor n are provided by the manufacturer. However, the compressor The differential pressure across the compressor is limited by the allowable d e ~
purchasel. assumes the responsibility of investigating the bearing capacity of the flection of the rotors. I n some standard units this differential limit is approximately
s ~ ~ p p o r t m8011.
g 80 psi, in others. i t extends to 170 psi.
The highest discharge pressure attainable is dependent on the strength of t h i
R O T A R Y COMPRESSORS casing. Special designs are available for single-stage services exceeding 450 psg.
Discharge temperatures are limited to those values that do not cause a significant
rotor growth through thermal expansion. Designs for temperatures u p to approxl-
mately 450°F are available.
These compressors should be strongly cons~deredfor services involwig:
1. Gasses with entrainments.
Non-contact operation of the rotors often permits the handling of droplets a ~ i c l
fine solid particles that would cause unacceptable wear in a reciprocating or ceritrl.
fugal unit of comparable size. Screw compressors can provide reliable srrvcr n
Helical Comprussors
'dirty' applications as found in Pollution abatement systems, In compressing vertical
The basfc components of a rotary screw compressor are the main rotor, the Pyrolysis furnace o f f gases, or i n wet applications such as the mechanical recom-
s~:cond,ity lotor, dnd i h c housing ur cyl~ntlcr.Comprcssior 1s accomplished without pression of vaporsjn evaporator systcms.
 reducing the gas slip loss. On the other hand the injection of a liquid will induce
some hydraulic power losses. I n addition, any vapors generated by an evaporative
cooling effect must also be compressed with the main stream flow. The net horse-
Power advantage or disadvantage of coolant injection i s often negligible when com-
pared to dry adiabatic performance.
3. Gasses that polymerize at elevated temperatures.
Insomeapplications, thecoolingeffect of liquid injection can avert the formation
of sludges, films or resins that would otherwise form at higher temperatures a r i d
pressures.
Wet hydrogen cyanide and acrylic acid vapors are examples of materials that
have been successfully compressed in rotary screw machines in spite of their
tendency to polymerize under conditions developed by adiabatic compression.
4. Gas streams of variable molecular weight.
The screw compressor, being a positive displacement unit, will move gas a t a
fixed volume rate despite variances in gas density.
5. Gasses that dissociate or react at high temperatures.
The injection of a liquid coolant can reduce the heat of compression in ydi
streams down t o acceptable level
Phosgene i s an example of a temperature sensitive compound that has been suc-
cessfully handled.

Construction

Casings are most often cast iron for services to 200 prig. Cast s t i ! e ciro I N
AltIl~w(ll1.i y I s ! : p s s m;iy bc thl! 1x:st choico for a supplied for higher pressure services.
I I I I I I SU~VICI,, 501111' wiiill I I loss 01 x i : must be Rotor shafts are commonly mad[: of stecl. The rotors thcmsr:lvr!s rnay l h I I I ~ , .
t~~~W<~l,,,l. pendently machined components made of cast iron, or thr:y may be s t e i : c<>lr,
! ponents fabricated as one integral piece with the shaft for still yeater mechantcal
2. G.is,t3s w ~ t l ri ! n t ~ a i n m i ~ ~that
~ t sc o n t a i ~ fouling
i inawials.
Sonir ( o t a y scl.ew cnrnpliissoi drs~gnswill accept the continuous injection of a strength.
IIOLIICm l o t l i ~ ~ : o n i p ~ e s sCo:~I V I ~ ~ .This liqci!ri Jcts as both a 9.1s coolant and a rotor Special materials of construction such as Ni resist. Hastalloy@ coatings, or stail).
clr.in!n(, s o l v c l , l . less steels can be supplied for particularly corrosive services.
Ex.im[~It,s ~,icludch u inltction o f water mto <i w l i t c~mpressingvapors from an Shaft seals are commonly carbon ring labyrinth des~yn,but may be modified by
evaooratol concuntrating ar ii>organic solut~on,where entrained droplets might standard options such as purge, vacuum vent, or liquid end fittings. A number of
o t h m w ~ s~~c s u l t11, W ~ C I I I S ~ ~ I ~ I ( ? I I . In this caw, the iiijection of water p r e ~ e n t ~ s o l i d s other more specialized designs, including mechanical seals, are also available.
. ~ ~ . ( - O I ? ~ L I LI ~ ~ III Ithl'
I O ~c~i l t ~ ~ sAnothvi
. exiiniplc 1s [lie coniprcssiori of spray tower Bearings may be splash lubricated in light duty compresssors. Force feed l u b i c a ~
~ I s i - l l . i ~ g c(j.isst,s
' ivlicl> 11r;iy I,.ivu ent~~,iinmt!nts wit11 i i i s s ( ~ I v dhard-water minerals or tion of the bearings and timing gear is the preferred method in large units. Lube oil
s ~ ' ~ ~ l o l l ~c ~' ~ < ~~ml p~n~~ ,~ ~~ ~~ <~I s> . ~ pumps may be shaft driven or external and motorized. Lubrication systems may be
I!>,, ~b,i:g>\>)\,it.nd,iiii,nu l .i p;*iticul.i~ sulvm~ti s i~suiillythe r t ! s p o ~ ~ ~ i b i lof i t ythe of a manufacturers standard design. to suit the installation site and operating c o n d -
g e g . Wate~is the imost common tnedirim except where strongly reactive tions or built specially to meet particular industry or user specifications. Oil
q:issrs a l e imcounte~ed.Alternatives include o~thodichlorobenzene,gas-oil, kero- pumping. cooling, filtering, and pressure control for single or multiple services arc
srtlu, l i q ~ i i cNH.; and others. The injection of a cuolant ur solvent may increase the common to all.
coniprcssic~ri efficiency of a helical unit by partially sealing the rotor gap and
 Operating Characteristics rotary compressor is usually negligible. However, the use of cool water in the
jackets, and consequential condensation within the compressor. IS less of a hararu
The thcoletical ind~catorcard for the rotary screw compressor resembles that of
i n these machines than i t is i n reciprocating cylinders. The compressor manuiac
;, ~ ~ c i / > ~ o c i i tcomp!essor
i,,g with zero cylinrlei clearance. However unlike the reci-
turer should be consulted for temperature limitations.
~ I O C ~ I I I I ~c ~ m p r e s s ~ rthe
, openillg of the discharge port depends on axial port
I n general, cooling water flow rate requirements rangc from abproximately 1 l o
~>I.ICUI,I'I~I.inlil 1101 011 d i f / ~ : t m t i i i~l~ O S S L I I C IIC~WWII
the compression cavity and thc
9 gpm. A typical cooling water discharye temperature is 1601'F.
~I,cl>,i~gt,1 ~ o cA 1ott31yscjuw colnprassor will compluss gas within its lobes through
a s p r c i f ~ cvolume reduction ratio despite the line pressure outside of the machine.
Performance Quotations
I f , when the compressor discharge port opens, the pressure within the chamber
i!xci?cidr thv pwssulu i n lhi! lille, then tha gas cornpresscd within the machine will Since the volumetric efficicricics of rotary screw cornprcssors art! not caidy
exp:i~,d ill10 I ~ C~ I S C ~ J I < ] line.
U On the other hand, i f the line pressure exceeds the calculated by the process engineer, the relative volumetric displacemettt is of littli.
~ ~ U S S U Iwittiir
W the comp~essionchamber when the discharge port opens, then some value as a basis of comparison between competitive units. Vendor performancii
o f thu g . ~f r o m the line will flow back into the compression chamber. Conse- quotations are essential in the early stages o f design.
~ ~ u u n t l ym, y m~smatch brtwt!en the design ratio o f compression and the actual Performance guarantees for domestic designs are most oftun limited to i 40:, I , !
sc~v~cc!
r;,to will resrilt i r a small loss of powel efficiency capacity and horsepower.
'
The optimum latio o f compression ( p 2 / p , tor any rotary screw compressor is
determined by the thermodynamic properties of the gas and by the volume reduc- Noise
t o n ratio built into the machine i n question. Typical ratios of compression, based
Rotary screw compressors discharge gas in pulses. The number of pulses pel
on atmospheric air inlet, are 1.5:l and 2 : l for units capable o f 35 psig discharge
second and the energy dissipated to the surroundings with each pulse often pro.
plusrule, tilid 4.2: 1 for high pressure machines.
duces objectionable noise within the audible range. Most machines can exceed 103
Mtiltiplc-stag,: compression is achieved through the use o f multiple casing com-
dB i n normal use. Some generate much less sound, and some installatio~xhave
p ~ r s s ow>its
~ with a common drive shaft. Thc overall ratio of compression within
required little noise control equipment.
two-stag? cornplussor arangements 1s typically 10.
If noise is seen as a problem but the gas being compressed contains materials that
External intercooling between stages is often more power efficient than direct
can foul the complex internal surfaces of commercial silencers, then altrrnativr
njcction of a coolant into the compression chamber.
control methods must be used. These alternatives may include the use of an acous
The ho~sepowetrequirements of rotary screw compressors are fundamentally
tic enclosure surrounding the installation, or personnel access restrictions.
dependent on features that vary from design t o design. These features include lobe
The proper selection of compressor silencers and noise abatement enclosures i i
clearances, rotor cross-section designs, and liquid injection capabilities. For this
part of the skill of most application engineers who are concerned wtth rotary screw
leason, the ielative efficiencies o f these compressors varies widely between styles.
compressors as a product line. I t is usually wise to allow the vendor to spec~tyarid
However, as a first approximation i t may be assumed that a dry rotary screw
supply the necessary silencing equipment.
complt:ssm hschdrging above 20 p s ~ gwill have a power efficiency comparable t o
that ot ii celltlifugal compressor operating at its design point.
Special Precautions
In general, as the ratio of volume flow rate to clearance area increases, the
c t f ~ c e n c yof 3 rotary screw mach~nerises. Thus these compressors tend to be more Rotary screw compressors can operate as expanders. A discharge check valvf. ! ,
r f t c e n t :it h ~ g h evolumetuc
~ flows. recommended t o prevent reverse rotation after shutdown, If two 01 more c o r n
pressors are installed i n a parallel arrangement. a means of isolatng the discharge o !
Cooling Water each machine is necessary to preverlt possible damage to any compressor. 'ind I:.
prevent the back flow o f pressurizeti process gas.
Exr,,pt 1 0 I,>w ~ ~vIwCy
~ ~ I I ~ W J I ,>I Imv ,:>!to XJWWS, type compressors will
Unresrrined reverse rotation posi!s thi? danger ofrxcwdinq the rotatvc t p .;l,t:s:!i
I I Y / L W ! ~coi)I~~,!j
, ~ ~ 1 1 0to1
i ~ , a ! i t . i iW
~~ the casing foi
, I ! O I I ~ t c l ~ ~ ~ l ) ~ : ~ a11~11xigho~il
tures
limit of the driver, or reversing ttlc loadincj diructlon 0 1 7 thi! thr~jsrbi!arngs n ! i l , d v
stjbihty. Thc bt:;11,t,ga n d ye,,! l u h ~ c a t i o nsystums may also have heat
din?e~,sio~~;ll
ing the compressor shafts.
cxchanguis that !eqoirc cooling water.
The effect of jacket watel cooling o r the theimodynamic performance of a
.
When simple check valves cannot be used because of t o u l n g problems, thr:,~
valves with powered operators and suitable controls may substitute
C d p m t y Control The majority of oil injected rotary screw compressors are supplied as part of ati
package units. However, these compressors may also be considered for various other
Dry rotdly sclew compressors are best applied as base load units. The common
services where oil-gas contact i s n o t objectionable. These include the compression
collstatir.si)ocd methods of capacity conrrol tend to be relatively inefficient f r o m
of ammonia and fluorocarbons i n refrigeration systems, and the compression of
the srandpwnr o f power sawngs.
inert gasses, such as nitrogen, for process or utility service.
V,~~i.~l>lt. s p w < i c o n t ~ n is l possible with adjustable speed drivers such as engines
Oil flooded compressors tend to be most competitive in the horsepowel ranges
am1 t o i b ~ ~ how ' ~ . the rate of gas slip becomes more significant as the inlet
~ ~ eve^,
between the very small (less than 10 h p ) units where air cooled reciprocating umts
capacity decreases. The lower l i m i t of this method of control i s reached when the
dominate, and the low ranges o f the centrifugal compressors (approximatcly 500
volume o l gas slipping back to the inlet is equal to the forward rate, or when the <
hp) which dominate the large.capacity field.
dischat ge t<:mperature l i m i t is reached. In general, these compressors rarely operate
31 lg:ss t l ~ ~ 50°K i u ~ o f des!gn speed. Nevertheless, va~iablespeed control i s easily the
Operating Characteristics
rnost cflic~t!nt,means of capacity reduction.
T l i ~ i ~ t t i ~tt ihg itilt:t
~ of a dry type compressor usually does not result i n a sub- The oil injected i n t o the compression chamber absorbs much of the heat o f
sl,iiil~,iI ~~ow.vii) s:iving Mo~iiovilr,throttling thu inlet may result i n excessively high Compression. This resultsin a compression cycle that i s closer to isothermal than
ii1sc11.11qcl<!lTlpvl3tUies or ilndcceptable differential-pressure loading. This method adiabatic. The heat transfer process i s so complete that for all praaical purposes oil
of capacliv c o n t \ o l is less preferable than gas bypass or speed reduction. and gas are discharged at a single temperature. Usually, this temperature is'well
Alrhou!lI? rt,toliilng part o f the dischat.De stlearn back to the compressor inlet below 2 0 0 ' ~ .
olli:is 110 POWLII sawng iis a ,method of capacity control. the practice does permit Oil i s cooled to approximately 140" F before i t is reinjected into the compiei.
I ~ r t t c !c~ < m t ~ 01 o Iicat I x i l d ~ i p .I f cneccssary, a bypass-gas heat exchanger may be sor. Lower temperatures would present a risk of moisture condensation anrl coiisi,.
111sI.1ll~'~l lii II,IIIOY~, tI11, lht!;il (11 i : ~ ~ m p r t : s s i ~ ~ ~ . quenr oil contamination. Therefore, automatic oil temperature controls arc most
often supplied as standard package equipment.
011Floodcd Rotiwy Screw Compressors The relatively l o w discharge temperatures generated by thew compressors piit
mils them to apcrato at high ratios o f complesslojl. Most st;inda~d rljl lloo<lirl
I v I : I S : I s I ~ ~ l j u c l i o8g lubricatinq oil
machines are capable of discharging to 125 psig from atmospher~c air IIII:~. a
i l ~ i ~ c t intc
l y th,! comprossio~>chamber. Thjs is done for three principal reasons: (1)
single stage. Some are capable of still higher ratios.
T h r clll .~ISLI,IC~S a s a c o d i n g agent ~ l l o w i n tthe
l compressol t o operate with l o w
Variances in design prevent any precise and universal correlations for predlctiri(1
~11scli.11gti tivnpm~itu,~:s.121 I n many units, the presf~iceof a lubricant also allows
horsepower from gas service data. However, single stage oil flooded rotary s c r w
I v t n v loto! I n d l v v the secodary rotot directly within the compression 1 compressors for air service require approximately 20 h p for each 100 SCFM o f a i l
I s (31 Thu oil x i s to seal the c1t:arance space between rotors and casing
compressed t o 110 psig. In general, an oil flooded screw compressor will rcq~iiri!
tlimi-by reducing gas slip loss. These particula~.designs do not require timing gears
slightly less than 110% of the power supplied to a two-stage water cooled recipro~
tc h c ~ ylhi, ~ o l o ! sf ~ o mtnakitq contact wfth each other.
cating compressor i n the same service.
C;iPdcit~cs o f oil flooded designs vaiy from 7% t o 700 horsepower, with
Two-stage oil flooded compressors may offer some improved power efficiency
discharge pressures up to 150 psig for air applications, and approximately 300 psig
over their single-stage counterparts. However, they are applied much less often than
in some process units. The largest standard compressors are capable of handling more
the simpler and less costly single stage machines.
thdn 3,000 CFM o f air.
O i l flooded rotary screw comprssor units incorporate oil separation devices
Rord11~1'sveeds vary but are always slower than comparably sized dry type (
which reduce the carry-over of oil within the discharge stream down to 8-10 ppm
~ ~ y designs. In general, larger units operate at 1,800 RPM and smaller
~ o t SCII'!Y
! by weight, i n most cases. Dual demisters are able t o reduce this concentration to
dw!jiis i t i n .it 3.600 RPM. Approximarcly 5,000 RPM i s a typical upper limit.
2-5 ppm. and specialized units claim removal down t o less than 1 ppm.
0pt1in;il tip rw!eds arc! in the range of 65 to 115 ftlsec. Below thisspeedrange,
tht, i . 1 1 ~of g.is slip p x t the rotors, which tcnds t o bo constant, becomes significant
Special Considerations
t i 1 cui11p;it tsw> 10 the volume o l gas be~rrg compressed. A t speeds above the optional
range, dy~iarnic losses adversely affect the operating efficiency. These include Rotary screw compressors will act as expanders. I n order to prevent back llrjw
h y d ~ a u l ~IOSSI?S
c introduced as a result of oil injection. through these machines after shutdown, a check valve i s commonly nstalled n thi:
 uiiolioy o i [ l i e yas. Both liquid and gas phases immerge from the discharge separator
dl a cornmoo temperature (See Figure 6-79).
T h ~ stype of complessor should be considered for services involving:
1. Wet Gasses.
Slhgs o i liquid will n ~ l i t h e rdamagqe inor greatly upset the performance of these
machines.
2. Temperatule Limitations.
GJS IemporatLire (luring compression may be closely controlled by maintaining
1111. tolnpwattlre of the liquid r'ng medium. Continuous recirculation of the medium
!h<ough nc external hsat exchanger i s often used.
3. G;;sstrs with Dust.
Tht! ~ p i n c i p l eo f operallon does not depend on large solid sealing surfaces with
c i i ~ i : f t ~toIel:rnces.
I Moreover, the liquid within the compressor acts as a scrubbing
m r d w m during r:ornpression.
4. V.ipol Reuove~y .
T h w cumplcssors can serve the function of gas separators by condensing satura-
t ~ icomponents
i out of a gas stream while passing the inon-condensibles.
5. C o r ~ < ~ r i Gossrs.
vi:
The, ii(loi(i m ~ d i u r ncoats most of the internal surfaces o f the compressor. For
I l l i m i i t ~ g.I compl-rssol b u ~ l twith standad iron construction with an
.ilh,,hnc, hquol allows the mdclnine to handle gasses with acid vapors.
6 . Lirnnitud Allow;iblu Down Ton,:.
Thc s m p l ~ c i l yof these condensers is relfected i n minimal servicing and down
lime.

i
Operating Characteristics Fiyure6.20. Instrument air compressor packaye. /Courresy Nash Engineermy Co.).

L i q ~ l ~ling d compressors require a constant supply of liquid. The liquid com-
piessant may be supplied i n a once-through piping arrangement, or it may be
~ e c ~ r c u l a t ef d
r o m the discharge separator, through a heat exchanger, and back t o
the itllct. 111 the recirculation arrangement, the compressor itself may provide the
pumpiiig actioil needed t o move the liquid. (See Figure 6-20).
I n virtually every case, a discharge liquid-gas separator i s necessary. This is often
plovidrd 35 a sta~xlnrdcompressor accessory.
Liquid l i n g compressors rend to be less power efficient t h a r o t h e r designs. Their
I I)"! l~>irn.itncc ch;liaclr~istics v;ir.y with the conditions of service. Standard
( 2 ) Solubility of the gas i n the liquid compressant.
3) Effect of condensibles in the gas stream on liquid compressant characterist~cs.
Manufacturers' emperical data describing the effect of these factors on'comprrsso,
performance i s useful when available.
The method o f compression and the porting arrangmentr designed into thcsc
compressors permit compression with a near absence of pulsation.
Multiple stage, single casing liquid ring compressors are available for incraasc?d
ratios of compression.
1

lt>w?,.i!,i:t. c i . ? ! . ~ i s ~ I I I I I I s I ~
rl<'t lo!L .iir
' ~ scrvicc us~ngwater as a liquid compressant. Construction
TI>,, colnptmsoi c.ipaclry a i d lhorscpowei ior most se~vicescan be approximated
hni 11-11. st;intIiliti t:~bl<,sby using an ~!qwvale!~,tCFM with a calculated allowance Cast iron is thu most common material used in the bodies o f liquid ring conr(>ri:r.
k t i ~ uv . i p o ~ i . ~ . ~ t01i i i ~rhr
~ cornplwalit. More precise predictions of performance soil.. Bronze may be used f o r internal fittings, and in some units, for rotors aitci
To! yasscs other than ail or a liquid compressant other than water will usually cones. All iron construction i s also available.
teqiri~econsidi:~ationof the following: Special corrosion resistant alloy construciton may also be supplied.
1 ) L j r l t ~ i dc i m p ~ m s a i n lspecific g~avity, viscosity, specific heat and vapor pres- Two styles predominate:
s,,,,,.
 Thc sccei,riic lobe provides one compression cycle per chamber per revolution.
This design Imposes lateral forces on the rotor shaft as compression occurs. I t i s
theletore limited to the lower pressure ranges (approximately 20 psig and under).
The eccentric lobe design tends t o be more power efficient than the alternative
double lobe design, and is therefore the preferred style i n the higher volume ranges.
Thc: (/oi,hlr lobe design has t w o cycles of compression per chamber per rev0lu-
~ l i > ~F
i .O I C Po~n the shstt arc: balance(l, permitting higher ratios of compression than

the eccentric lobe design (See Figures 6-21 and 6.22).

BODY

Figure 6-22. Cornpor~enriof duiible lohe d e r w i liquid ring coirrpn:rror. iCuuilr.,y N.,,/,
E i i y i i i r e r b ~ gCo.J.

Capacity Control
Dtschalge presssure control and capacity control is most o f t e n accomplished
t l ~ i o i ~ gan
l i external bypass line. An alternative method o f constant speed control
uscd wit17 some i m i t s consists of automatically dlaining part of the l i q u i d "com-
/ ) I C S W I I ' ' wllich allows the units t o operate unloaded for a l i m i t e d period while
L i l i l s r ' i V i l l g pow,!,
Convcntonal s t a l t ~ s t o pcontrol may also be used.
Alternative Designs
Auxiliary package components are sim~ldrt o those used i n rotary screw units
Single-stage jacket water-cooled vane type compressors rallge in capacity i r m v
33 t o 3.250 C F M and t o 50 psig i n discharge pressure. (See Figure 6.231.
Two-stage water.coolecl units are available for capactties ranging f r o m 115 tc.
approximately 3,000C F M and pressures t o 125 ps~g.
Special three stage units may be supplied for pressures t o 250 psig.
A l l jacket water cooled designs are force feed lubricated.
Smaller oil flooded vane type compressors are availble in capacities ranging troln
60 t o 600 C F M w i t h discharge pressures in the range o f 80 t o 150 psig. The o ~ l
flooded design reduces the temperatures o f the discharge stream t o under 200°F.
Straight lobe t y p e compressors are available i n capacities ranging f r o m 5 to
30,000 corn and pressures t o 12 psig in single-stage operation. I n some servces.
two-stage units may provide u p t o 20 psig. (See Figure 6-24).
These compressors are more properly termed positive displacement blowers be^
cause they move quantities o f gas f r o m one level of pressure t o another without an
internal volume reduction mechanism.

Ssvetal orher compressor styles contribute their particular advantages t o the

fleid o f rotary compressors.
The sl!iiii,g vane is among the oldest and most reliable of rotary models.
 NOMENCLATURE

ACFM Actual, or measured cubic feet per minute. f t 3 m

BHP Brake horsepower, h p
C Cylinder clearance, in"ini
CA Cylinder cross-sectional area, in2
CE Compression efficiency, dimensionless
C~ Heat capacity at constant pressure. Btu/lb.mole

\ -+@
INLET
C"
GHP
H
Heat capacity at constant volume, Btullb-mole " k
Gas horsepower, hp
Enthalpy, Btullb
Had Adiabatic head, ft-lbsllb
HP? Polytropid head, ft-lbsllb
hp theoretical power. horsepower
k ratio o f heat capacities. cp/c,. dimensionless
ME Mechanical efficiency, dimensionless
MW Molecular weight, dimensionless
N Number of moles, Ib-mole
n Polytropic exponent, dimensionless
ns Number o f stages, dimensionless
P Absolute pressure, psia. lbs/in2
PA Piston area, in2
PC Critical pressure, lbs/in2
PP Piston displacement, ft7/min
PN Discharge pressure, lbs/in2
p, Reduced pressure, PIP,, lbs/inz
PI Inlet pressure, Ibs/in2
Q Cubic feet of gas per minute, f t v m i n
R Ideal gas constant. 1595 f t l b l l b mole O R or 1.986 Btullb mole ' R
c' Ratio of compression, pfinalIpinlrial,dimensionless
SCFM Standard cubic feet per minute at 14.7 psia and 6OUF, ft7/min
T Temperature. O R
Tc Critical temperature. "R
Tr Reduced temperature, O R
v Volume, ft'
VE Volumetric efficiency, dimensionless
W Mass rate. lblmin
yA Mole fraction of component A i n a gas mixture, dimensionless
& Compressibility factor, dimensionless
%d Adiabatic efficiency, dimensionless
Polytropic efficiency, diverisionless
DISCHARGE
 P R O C E S S EQUIPMENT S E R I E S

Volume 3 Index
REFERENCES

1 : I : E r e I l l F r l ~ hEd.. R. H. Perry orid C. H. Chllron. editors. McGraw Boundary layer development 118,
119
Acid vapors 303 Boyles and Charles Law 191
Adiabatic and polytropic efficiency 102
efficiency. 99, 126
l l ~ l l ,1913. pp. 3-232 illxi 3 2 3 3 Aero-thermodynamics of centrifugal
5 ~ ~ , ox2 ~ Procersorr
u B O~ ~ G. ~ S r ~ s u p~p ~ i e r~rArrociation,
~ ed.. 1977. p p . 16-11.
~ ~ i n t h i compressors 98 Calculation of vapor pressure effecl
.>i>il 16-14 Affinity law 16. 66 193
ii M I~c.,I,:~IIcI.G . 8. Webb. ,lnd L C. RuLII~.J. C h c m Phys.. 8, 3 3 4 119401. Aftercooling 7 Capacity 42
1 0 l i e d l x l i and J , N. S. Kwong. Chem. Rev.. 44. 233 119491.
A i r handling curve for jet syphone 225 control 287, 306
8 Cm>urrsseri A l l a n d Giir Handbook. 4 t h ed.. j. P. Rollinr. ed.. Compressed A i r and Gar
present i n condensing water 233 loads 220
Alarms 296 of liquid ring pump 186, 188
Altitude on pump performance 188 Carbon ring seal 64. 65
I 1 Ampllc.~nPetlulriim l n r f i f u r e Siimdiird 618. Second Ed.. July 1974, Sec. 2.7.
12. Appllc,ible rt.mdardr may be found i n Section V l l l of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Verrel
Code. t h e Amerrcan Perloleum l n m r u t e Standard 618. and i n ANSI 31.8.
13. G.ir Procesrorr Suppl~err Arrn. Eng~neeringData Book, N i n t h Ed.. T h i r d rev. 1977, pp.
4 17
j
i
(AMCA) Standards 2 5
Angle type compressors 277
API Standard 671-Couplings 89
Application of centrifugal compressors
Casing and foundation forces 141
Centrifugal compressor 45. 88
calculation 54
classification 94
93 fans 12
char for centrifugal compressors fan thrust 18
98 Centrifugal force 19
Arrangements 97 mach~nes2
Asymetric flexibility 144 Check valve 209
Axial fans 15 Chemical cmrrosivencss 280
flow compressors 67 properties 196
fan 16 Chlorine production 205
performance curve 69 Cleanup of lubricant sysrcrn l t i b
thrust 18 Clearance loss 129
r~ockets 78
Cl~mate89
Code standards 263
Backward curved blades 15, 119 Cold weather applications 89
Backwardly inclined blade fan 14 Composition changes 297
Balancing 157 Compressant selection 193
Barometric pressure vs, altitude 190 Compressibility 271
Bearing 23. 61. 147 factors 41
stiffness 139 Compression ratios 249
Bid tabulation 3 5 Compressor 2. 39
Blade angles 107 adiabatic efficiency 74. 75
attachment 137 application 39, 289
discharge angles 3 capacity 79
Blower 1 components 105, 283
and mechanical pumps 185 cnnfiq~irarinn95
 D ~ a ~ r l e t change
cr 16 F Guide vanes 23. 68
varies 17 for compressors 67
Diffusers 121, 218 Fan 1
D i f f ~ ~ s i oblading
n loss 127 and motor arrangements 26 H
Dimensional analysisof a centrifugal construction 2 3
compressor 101 controls 22
Head-capacity curve 4
Directcontact condensers 227, 229, dynamics 17
laws 16 coefficient 48
23O.23l.25l. 254
Disc coupling 163 selection 3 8 flow rate characteristics 107
Discharge positions 30 vibrations 17 Heat Exchanger Institute Standard
pressure 297 i n parallel 29 253, 263
temperature 7, 297 operation 27 of compression 288
Disk friction 2 Filtration 202 Heated cylinder surfaces 288
loss 127 Flexible connector 25 Helical compressors 300
Double acting compressor 177 coupling 162 Helmholtz law 120
flow impeller 56 High speed balancing 158
j gear couplings 160
Flow analysis 112 Horsepower 6
lobe pumps 312
volute design 21 characteristics 117 calculation 6
Driver 70. 298 coefficient 48, 103 determinations 282
selection 97 map 114 Horsepower requirements 273
Drives on compressors 97 patterns involute 125 Hysteretic whirl 146
D l y triction whirl 146 regions of teh vaned diffuser 122
Dyna~nicsurge detection 134 Forces and moments 25
type compressors 67 Forward curved blade 15
blade fan 14 ldeal and actual heads 47
Frame load 76 ldeal Gas Law 191
lubrication 290 Immiscible seal liquid 193
Eductor condenser 236 ratings - reciprocating compres- Impeller 48. 57. 105. 108. 11 1 , 1 11.
Effect of nozzle location 244 sors 74 136. 138
Efficieni:ies 9 9 Full recirculation seal system 199 blades 113
Electtic motor drivers 70 blading 106
Energy transfer 9 8 channel flow 116
Entrainment ratio curves 223 design 7
Entropy-enthalpy diagram 100 Gas analysis 35, 4 0 plane 113
E,ivironmunt 89 composition 186 types 5
i s f s t 272 engines 8 0 velocity diagram 46
laws 185 Incidence loss 127
Eolw w w k dislribntion 112
mixtures 272 Induced heat load 182
Evaci~ationcurvefor jet syphon 226
piping 295 Inducer 114
/priming time 228
Gear 166 centrifugal compressor 116
Exit velocity 120
couplings 25 inlet velocity diagrams 109
Explosive gases 181
Graphical plot o f alignment 152 Inlet box 29
positions 26
 guldu vanes 109 friction 288 Open faced impeller 137 angle 11 1
velocity triangles 128 packing rings 286 Operatingcharacteristics 304,307,310 distribution pattern 11 1
lnst:jllat~on 206, 259, 3 0 0 Methods of rating compressors 279 pressure 186 Priming 204
01 electors 259 Misal~gnment 150, 151 speed 19 Pulsation dampers 78. 295
Instlil!ileol ,114 culrlpll!ssol pdckaqe 311 M~scibleseal l i q ~ l i d193 Operation of liquid ring pump 184 Pump selection 186. 190
I I ~ I ~ I ,I ~ : ~L ~W~~: S
~~m~
! ~~U
~ x~~ s s uGr l
c GO, Mo~srureextr:xtion 202 Outlet dampers 23
Mdccular weight and ratio of speufic
heats 4 0
entrainment 222 Radial blade
Mollif! <liilgr;un 249 Parallel operation 29 fan 13
Motive pressure 246 Partial condensers 258 design 7
rate difference 247 recirculation system 199 Reciprocating compressors71.72.73,
steam consumption 226 Performance calculations 4 3 275
Motor driven lubrication 292 characteristics of centrifugal Recirculating loss 130
positions 26 compressors 126 Recovery of process chemicals 256
Multi-jet condenser 239 ) a diffuser 122 Relation of altitude to barometric pres-
direct contact condenser 230 curve 13, 14.50.51.234.235. sure 89
eductor 236 1 238,240, 250, 251, 255, Resonant vibration 143
Multiple cylinder arrangement 277 256 Rod load 76
Multiple direct contact condenser 232 of liquid ring pump 179 packings 286
L , I t ! I 154 Multistage compressor 56. 6 0 guarantees 305 Rotor losses 127
Lr?:llM,k! I I9 of a two-stage liquid ring Rotary compressors 80, 300
horizontally split compres-
L l l: S e
S r e 187 pump 185 calculations 83
sor 59
u ! ~ jl y p r t a r colnprrssors Piping 296 lobe compressor 314
jet ejectors 248
308. 310 arrangements 206 type blower calculation 84
systems with surface con.
vacuum pump 83, 174 errors 208 Rotation and discharge orientation 26
densers 255
pr~riciplc 176 Piston rods 285 Rotor bearing system 140, 142. 143
Lobe-type rotary blower 81 Pollution 182 instabilities 141
Low-level eductor 236, 237 Polytropic efficiency 49. 101 dynamics 138
pressure bloweis 9, 62 Noise 17. 305. 308 head method 54 motion 141
viscosity ot colnpressant 196 Nozzle position upon jet efficiency equation 5 response curve 139. 160
Lubrlcaiit cm,taliimatfon 164 245 Positive displacement compressors 71, Roulte's law 191
SL'I~XIIOII 164 270
L1101c . i l i ) ~ ~ 1 0 ?90 Power consumption 190
ivsrt,rlls 1G3 Pre-cooler 234
Oil-tilleil inachine 83 Pressure coefficients 103 Saturated gas 187
floo<led compressors 307 1 differential 2 Schematic of a centrifugal compressor
I 306 -enthalpy method 55 104
M ~ l i l l e n . l ~ i c r 215 ro1;lry screw compressors gages 167 Screw compressors 301
Matcials lor falmcatii~g 138 306 range 2 type rotary compressor 82
of coostroction 290 whlp 20. 146 ratios 91 Scroll 123
Mechatiicul contx:t shilft seal 156 Once-thru-seal systcm 197 volume curves 3 Seal 62. 153
Prewhirl 110 oil 63
Suction loads 220, 252
capacity 243
pressure 221, 246 Vacuum 218
Surge 132 pump 199
bottles 296 relationships 220
control 168 technology 174
detection 133 Valves 285, 286
System curve 32 Vaneaxial design 15
resistance 31 fans 12
thickness 119
Vaned diffuser loss 130
Vaneless diffuser loss 130
Temperature entrainment ratio curve Vanes 107
22 1 Vapor pressure 194
rise 193 Variable speed control 306
Terminology for centrifugal fan com- i drivers 80
ponents 36 Velocity distributions 113
Testing 158 1 profiles 115
Thermal efiiclencies 238 triangle 108
effii:iency of vacuum putrips 182 Vibration 19, 133, 143
I ' l i ~ ! r m ~ ~ i l y ~ ~ .98
~niics stilnuli 144
d1.11actu~ istics 185 Volute 123
cy,:I,: 1 0 StU.,," ,I!I.~B~IIIIII~ desiq,~ 19
pump 241
of gas comflession 270
3
Throttling 306
Thrust bearings 149. 150 Wake mixing loss 130
i
Tip speeds 306 j Water conservation 201
Trouble shooting 259 cooled cylinders 289
Tube-axial design 15
fans 12
i 1
jet exhauster 223, 224
piping 208

j
Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers As- requirements 257
sociation 264 Wet-screw 83
I
Turbine drivers 70 Wheel friction 2
Turbomachinery 1
Types of compressors 9 0
fans 12
Typical jet ejectors 217
ii
!1
U

U t i l i t y consumption 216