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15.1 Purely resistive a.c. In a purely resistive a.c. circuit, the current IR and applied voltage VR are
circuit in phase. See Figure 15.1.
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15.2 Purely inductive a.c. In a purely inductive a.c. circuit, the current IL lags the applied voltage
circuit VL by 90 (i.e. /2 rads). See Figure 15.2.
In a purely inductive circuit the opposition to the flow of alternating
current is called the inductive reactance, XL
VL
XL = = 2pfL Z
IL
15.3 Purely capacitive In a purely capacitive a.c. circuit, the current IC leads the applied voltage
a.c. circuit VC by 90 (i.e. /2 rads). See Figure 15.4.
In a purely capacitive circuit the opposition to the flow of alternating
current is called the capacitive reactance, XC
VC 1
XC = = Z
IC 2pfC
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1 1
(a) Capacitive reactance XC D D
2fC 2
50
10 106
106
D
2
50
10
D 318.3 Z
1 1 106
(b) XC D D D
2fC 2
20 103
10 106 2
20 103
10
D 0.796 Z
1 1 1
Since XC D , capacitance C D D F
2fC 2fXC 2
50
40
106
D F D 79.58 mF
2
50
40
Figure 15.5
Problem 5. Calculate the current taken by a 23 F capacitor when
connected to a 240 V, 50 Hz supply.
V V
Current I D D D 2fCV D 2
50
23 106
240
XC 1
2fC
D 1.73 A
15.4 R L series a.c. In an a.c. circuit containing inductance L and resistance R, the applied
circuit voltage V is the phasor sum of VR and VL (see Figure 15.6), and thus
the current I lags the applied voltage V by an angle lying between 0 and
90 (depending on the values of VR and VL ), shown as angle . In any
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a.c. series circuit the current is common to each component and is thus
taken as the reference phasor.
From the phasor diagram of Figure 15.6, the voltage triangle is derived.
For the RL circuit: VD
V2R C V2L (by Pythagoras theorem)
VL
and tan D (by trigonometric ratios)
VR
applied voltage V
In an a.c. circuit, the ratio is called the impedance Z,
current I
i.e.
V
Z = Z
I
Figure 15.6 If each side of the voltage triangle in Figure 15.6 is divided by current I
then the impedance triangle is derived.
For the RL circuit: ZD
R2 C X2L
XL XL R
tan D , sin D and cos D
R Z Z
(Lagging infers that the current is behind the voltage, since phasors
revolve anticlockwise.)
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(b) Impedance, Z D
R2 C X2L D
42 C 32 D 5 Z
V 240
(c) Current, I D D D 48 A
Z 5
The circuit and phasor diagrams and the voltage and impedance triangles
are as shown in Figure 15.6.
XL XL 3
Since tan D , D arctan D arctan D 36.87
R R 4
D 36 52 lagging
d.c. voltage 12
Resistance R D D D6
d.c. current 2
a.c. voltage 240
Impedance Z D D D 12
a.c. current 20
Since Z D
R2 C X2L , inductive reactance, XL D
Z2 R2
D
122 62
D 10.39
XL 10.39
Since XL D 2fL, inductance L D D D 33.1 mH
2f 2
50
This problem indicates a simple method for finding the inductance of a
coil, i.e. firstly to measure the current when the coil is connected to a
d.c. supply of known voltage, and then to repeat the process with an a.c.
supply.
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V 240
(c) Current I D D D 1.073 A
Z 223.6
(d) The p.d. across the coil, VL D IXL D 1.073 100 D 107.3 V
The p.d. across the resistor, VR D IR D 1.073 200 D 214.6 V
[Check:
V2R C V2L D [
214.62 C
107.32 ] D 240 V, the supply
voltage]
XL 100
(e) From the impedance triangle, angle D arctan D arctan
R 200
Hence the phase angle f = 26.57 = 26 34 lagging
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VR 6
Current I D D D 0.20 A
R 30
Inductive reactance XL D 2fL D 2
5 103
1.273 103
D 40
Impedance, Z D
R2 C X2L D
302 C 402 D 50
Supply voltage V D IZ D
0.20
50 D 10 V
Voltage across the 1.273 mH inductance, VL D IXL D
0.2
40 D 8 V
The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 15.7(b).
(Note that in a.c. circuits, the supply voltage is not the arithmetic sum of
the p.d.s across components but the phasor sum)
V 240
(b) Circuit current, I D D D 2.544 A
Z 94.34
XL
(c) Circuit phase angle D arctan D arctan
50/80
R
D 32 lagging
Figure 15.8
From Figure 15.8(a):
(d) VR D IR D
2.544
60 D 152.6 V
(e) VCOIL D IZCOIL , where ZCOIL D
RC
2
C X2L D
202 C 502
D 53.85
Hence VCOIL D
2.544
53.85 D 137.0 V
(f) For the phasor diagram, shown in Figure 15.9,
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VR COIL D IRC D
2.544
20 D 50.88 V
The 240 V supply voltage is the phasor sum of VCOIL and VR
15.5 R C series a.c. In an a.c. series circuit containing capacitance C and resistance R, the
circuit applied voltage V is the phasor sum of VR and VC (see Figure 15.10)
and thus the current I leads the applied voltage V by an angle lying
between 0 and 90 (depending on the values of VR and VC ), shown as
angle .
From the phasor diagram of Figure 15.10, the voltage triangle is
derived. For the RC circuit:
VD
V2R C V2C (by Pythagoras theorem)
VC
and tan D (by trigonometric ratios)
VR
R D 25 ; C D 45 F D 45 106 F; V D 240 V; f D 50 Hz
The circuit diagram is as shown in Figure 15.10
1 1
Capacitive reactance, XC D D D 70.74
2fC 2
50
45 106
(a) Impedance Z D
R2 C X2C D [
252 C
70.742 ] D 75.03 Z
V 240
(b) Current I D D D 3.20 A
Z 75.03
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XC
Phase angle between the supply voltage and current, D arctan
R
70.74
hence D arctan D 70.54 D 70 32 leading
25
(Leading infers that the current is ahead of the voltage, since phasors
revolve anticlockwise.)
(a) Impedance Z D
R2 C X2C
Hence XC D
Z2 R2 D
502 402 D 30
1 1 1
XC D hence C D D F
2fC 2fXC 2
6030
D 88.42 mF
V
(b) Since Z D then V D IZ D
3
50 D 150 V
I
XC 30
(c) Phase angle, D arctan D arctan D 36.87
R 40
D 36 52 leading
(d) P.d. across resistor, VR D IR D
3
40 D 120 V
(e) P.d. across capacitor, VC D IXC D
3
30 D 90 V
The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 15.11, where the supply voltage
V is the phasor sum of VR and VC .
15.6 R LC series a.c. In an a.c. series circuit containing resistance R, inductance L and capac-
circuit itance C, the applied voltage V is the phasor sum of VR , VL and VC
(see Figure 15.12). VL and VC are anti-phase, i.e. displaced by 180 , and
there are three phasor diagrams possible each depending on the relative
values of VL and VC
When XL > XC (Figure 15.12(b) : ZD [R2 C
XL XC 2 ]
XL XC
and tan D
R
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Figure 15.12
When XC > XL (Figure 15.12(c) : ZD [R2 C
XC XL 2 ]
XC XL
and tan D
R
When XL = XC (Figure 15.12(d)), the applied voltage V and the current
I are in phase. This effect is called series resonance (see Section 15.7)
XL D 2fL D 2
50
120 103 D 37.70 Z
1 1
XC D D D 31.83 Z
2fC 2
50
100 106
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Impedance Z D [R2 C
XL XC 2 ] D [
52 C
5.872 ] D 7.71
V 300
(a) Current I D D D 38.91 A
Z 7.71
XL XC 5.87
(b) Phase angle D arctan D arctan D 49.58
R 5
D 49 35
(c) Impedance of coil ZCOIL D
R2 C X2L D [
52 C
37.702 ]
D 38.03
Voltage across coil VCOIL D IZCOIL D
38.91
38.03 D 1480 V
XL 37.70
Phase angle of coil D arctan D arctan D 82.45
R 5
D 82 270 lagging
(d) Voltage across capacitor VC D IXC D
38.91
31.83 D 1239 V
Figure 15.14 The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 15.14. The supply voltage V is
the phasor sum of VCOIL and VC
Figure 15.15
For example, the circuit of Figure 15.15(a) showing three impedances has
an equivalent circuit of Figure 15.15(b).
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The circuit diagram is shown in Figure 15.16(a). Since the total circuit
resistance is 8 C 5 C 10, i.e. 23 , an equivalent circuit diagram may be
drawn as shown in Figure 15.16(b)
Problem 17. Determine the p.d.s V1 and V2 for the circuit shown
in Figure 15.17 if the frequency of the supply is 5 kHz. Draw the
phasor diagram and hence determine the supply voltage V and the
circuit phase angle.
Figure 15.17
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For impedance Z1 :
R1 D 4 and XL D 2fL D 2
5 103
0.286 103 D 8.985
V1 D IZ1 D I
R2 C X2L D 5
42 C 8.9852 D 49.18 V
XL 8.985
Phase angle 1 D arctan D arctan D 66 0 lagging
R 4
For impedance Z2 :
1 1
R2 D 8 and XC D D D 25.0
2fC 2
5 103
1.273 106
V2 D IZ2 D I
R2 C X2C D 5
82 C 25.02 D 131.2 V
XC 25.0
Phase angle 2 D arctan D arctan D 72 150 leading
R 8
The phasor diagram is shown in Figure 15.18.
The phasor sum of V1 and V2 gives the supply voltage V of 100 V at a
phase angle of 53 8 leading. These values may be determined by drawing
or by calculation either by resolving into horizontal and vertical compo-
Figure 15.18 nents or by the cosine and sine rules.
15.7 Series resonance As stated in Section 15.6, for an RL C series circuit, when XL D XC
(Figure 15.12(d)), the applied voltage V and the current I are in phase.
This effect is called series resonance. At resonance:
(i) VL D VC
(ii) Z D R (i.e. the minimum circuit impedance possible in an L CR
circuit)
V
(iii) ID (i.e. the maximum current possible in an L CR circuit)
R
1
(iv) Since XL D XC , then 2fr L D
2fr C
1
from which, f2r D
22 LC
1
and, fr = p Hz,
2p .LC /
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1
Resonant frequency, fr D p Hz
2
LC
1
D Hz
125 60
2
103 106
1 1
D D p
125 6 [
125
6]
2 2
108 104
104
D p D 58.12 Hz
2 [
125
6]
1
Hence capacitance C D
2f2 L
1
D F
2 200 103 2
50 106
106
106
D F
42
1010
50
D 0.0127 mF or 12.7 nF
VL IXL XL 2pfr L
Hence Q-factor D D D D
V IR R R
VC IXC XC 1
Alternatively, Q-factor D D D D
V IR R 2pfr CR
1 1
At resonance fr D p i.e. 2fr D p
2
LC
LC
2fr L 1 L 1 L
Hence Q-factor D D p D
R
LC R R C
(Q-factor is explained more fully in Chapter 28, page 495)
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104
D p
2 2
D 1125.4 Hz D 1.1254 kHz
V 100
(b) Current at resonance I D D D8A
R 12.5
Voltage across inductance, at resonance,
VL D IXL D
I
2fL
D
8
2
1125.4
80 103
D 4525.5 V
I 8
VC D IXC D D D 4525.5 V
2fC 2
1125.4
0.25 106
VL Vc 4525.5
Voltage magnification at resonance D or D
V V 100
D 45.255 V
i.e. at resonance, the voltage across the reactances are 45.255 times
greater than the supply voltage. Hence Q-factor of circuit is 45.255.
1 L 1 60 103
At resonance, Q-factor D D
R C 2 30 106
1 60 106
D
2 30 103
1p
D
2000 D 22.36
2
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1 1
(a) Resonant frequency, fr D p D
2
LC 100 2
2
103 106
1 1 104
D D p D p
20 2 20 2 20
2
108 104
D 355.9 Hz
V 50
(b) Current at resonance I D D D5A
R 10
(c) Voltage across coil at resonance,
VL D IXL D I
2fr L
D
5
2 355.9 100 103
D 1118 V
I
VC D IXC D
2fr C
5
D
2
355.9
2 106
D 1118 V
VL VC
(d) Q-factor (i.e. voltage magnification at resonance) D or
V V
1118
D D 22.36
50
2fr L 1
Q-factor may also have been determined by or
R 2fr CR
1 L
or
R C
15.9 Bandwidth and Figure 15.20 shows how current I varies with frequency in an RL C
selectivity series circuit. At the resonant frequency fr , current is a maximum value,
shown as Ir . Also shown are the points A and B where the current is 0.707
of the maximum value at frequencies f1 and f2 . The power delivered to
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fr fr
Q= or .f2 f1 / =
f2 f1 Q
Figure 15.20
Problem 23. A filter in the form of a series L RC circuit is
designed to operate at a resonant frequency of 5 kHz. Included
within the filter is a 20 mH inductance and 10 resistance. Deter-
mine the bandwidth of the filter.
r L
25000
20 103
Qr D D D 62.83
R 10
Since Qr D fr /
f2 f1
fr 5000
bandwidth,
f2 f1 D D D 79.6 Hz
Qr 62.83
15.10 Power in a.c. In Figures 15.21(a)(c), the value of power at any instant is given by the
circuits product of the voltage and current at that instant, i.e. the instantaneous
power, p D vi, as shown by the broken lines.
(a) For a purely resistive a.c. circuit, the average power dissipated, P,
is given by:
V2
P = VI = I 2 R = watts (V and I being rms values).
R
See Figure 15.21(a).
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(b) For a purely inductive a.c. circuit, the average power is zero. See
Figure 15.21(b).
(c) For a purely capacitive a.c. circuit, the average power is zero. See
Figure 15.21(c).
Figure 15.22 shows current and voltage waveforms for an RL circuit
where the current lags the voltage by angle . The waveform for power
(where p D vi) is shown by the broken line, and its shape, and hence
average power, depends on the value of angle .
For an RL, RC or RL C series a.c. circuit, the average power P
is given by:
P = VI cos f watts
or
The formulae for power are proved in Chapter 26, page 459.
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15.11 Power triangle and Figure 15.23(a) shows a phasor diagram in which the current I lags the
power factor applied voltage V by angle . The horizontal component of V is V cos
and the vertical component of V is V sin . If each of the voltage phasors
is multiplied by I, Figure 15.23(b) is obtained and is known as the power
triangle.
True power P
Power factor =
Apparent power S
P VI cos
For sinusoidal voltages and currents, power factor D D , i.e.
S VI
Figure 15.23
R
p f. = cos f = (from Figure 15.6)
Z
The relationships stated above are also true when current I leads
voltage V. More on the power triangle and power factor is contained
in Chapter 26, page 464.
Apparent power S D VI
S 300
Hence current I D D D2A
V 150
V 150
Inductive reactance XL D D D 75
I 2
XL 75
Since XL D 2fL, inductance L D D D 0.239 H
2f 2
50
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P 400
(a) Power P D I2 R. Hence R D D D 6.25 Z
I 2
82
V 120
(b) Impedance Z D D D 15 Z
I 8
(c) Since Z D
R2 C X2L , then XL D
Z2 R2
D [
152
6.252 ]
D 13.64 Z
true power VI cos 400
(d) Power factor D D D D 0.4167
apparent power VI
120
8
(e) p.f. D cos D 0.4167.Hence phase angle D arccos 0.4167
D 65.37
D 65 22 lagging
true power
(a) Power factor D
apparent power
100 100
i.e. 0.5 D . Hence I D D2A
100
I
0.5
100
(b) Power factor D 0.5 D cos . Hence phase angle D arccos 0.5
D 60 leading
P 100
(c) Power P D I2 R. Hence resistance R D D D 25 Z
I2
22
V 100
(d) Impedance Z D D D 50 Z
I 2
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(e) Capacitive reactance, XC D
Z2 R2 D
502 252
D 43.30
1 1 1
XC D hence capacitance C D D F
2fC 2fXc 2
60
43.30
D 61.26 mF
15.12 Further problems A.c. circuits containing pure inductance and pure capacitance
on single-phase series a.c.
circuits 1 Calculate the reactance of a coil of inductance 0.2 H when it is
connected to (a) a 50 Hz, (b) a 600 Hz and (c) a 40 kHz supply.
[(a) 62.83 (b) 754 (c) 50.27 k]
2 A coil has a reactance of 120 in a circuit with a supply frequency
of 4 kHz. Calculate the inductance of the coil. [4.77 mH]
3 A supply of 240 V, 50 Hz is connected across a pure inductance and
the resulting current is 1.2 A. Calculate the inductance of the coil.
[0.637 H]
4 An e.m.f. of 200 V at a frequency of 2 kHz is applied to a coil of
pure inductance 50 mH. Determine (a) the reactance of the coil, and
(b) the current flowing in the coil. [(a) 628 (b) 0.318 A]
5 Calculate the capacitive reactance of a capacitor of 20 F when
connected to an a.c. circuit of frequency (a) 20 Hz, (b) 500 Hz,
(c) 4 kHz [(a) 397.9 (b) 15.92 (c) 1.989 ]
6 A capacitor has a reactance of 80 when connected to a 50 Hz
supply. Calculate the value of its capacitance. [39.79 F]
7 A capacitor has a capacitive reactance of 400 when connected to
a 100 V, 25 Hz supply. Determine its capacitance and the current
taken from the supply. [15.92 F, 0.25 A]
8 Two similar capacitors are connected in parallel to a 200 V, 1 kHz
supply. Find the value of each capacitor if the circuit current is
0.628 A. [0.25 F]
R L a.c. circuits
9 Determine the impedance of a coil which has a resistance of 12
and a reactance of 16 [20 ]
10 A coil of inductance 80 mH and resistance 60 is connected to
a 200 V, 100 Hz supply. Calculate the circuit impedance and the
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current taken from the supply. Find also the phase angle between
the current and the supply voltage.
[78.27 , 2.555 A, 39 570 lagging]
11 An alternating voltage given by v D 100 sin 240t volts is applied
across a coil of resistance 32 and inductance 100 mH. Determine
(a) the circuit impedance, (b) the current flowing, (c) the p.d. across
the resistance, and (d) the p.d. across the inductance.
[(a) 40 (b) 1.77 A (c) 56.64 V (d) 42.48 V]
12 A coil takes a current of 5 A from a 20 V d.c. supply. When
connected to a 200 V, 50 Hz a.c. supply the current is 25 A.
Calculate the (a) resistance, (b) impedance and (c) inductance of
the coil. [(a) 4 (b) 8 (c) 22.05 mH]
13 A coil of inductance 636.6 mH and negligible resistance is connected
in series with a 100 resistor to a 250 V, 50 Hz supply. Calcu-
late (a) the inductive reactance of the coil, (b) the impedance of the
circuit, (c) the current in the circuit, (d) the p.d. across each compo-
nent, and (e) the circuit phase angle.
[(a) 200 (b) 223.6 (c)1.118 A
(d) 223.6 V, 111.8 V (e) 63 260 lagging]
R C a.c. circuits
14 A voltage of 35 V is applied across a CR series circuit. If the
voltage across the resistor is 21 V, find the voltage across the
capacitor. [28 V]
15 A resistance of 50 is connected in series with a capacitance of
20 F. If a supply of 200 V, 100 Hz is connected across the arrange-
ment find (a) the circuit impedance, (b) the current flowing, and
(c) the phase angle between voltage and current.
[(a) 93.98 (b) 2.128 A (c) 57 510 leading]
16 An alternating voltage v D 250 sin 800 t volts is applied across a
series circuit containing a 30 resistor and 50 F capacitor. Calcu-
late (a) the circuit impedance, (b) the current flowing, (c) the p.d.
across the resistor, (d) the p.d. across the capacitor, and (e) the phase
angle between voltage and current
[(a) 39.05 (b) 4.527 A (c) 135.8 V
(d) 113.2 V (e) 39 480 ]
17 A 400 resistor is connected in series with a 2358 pF capacitor
across a 12 V a.c. supply. Determine the supply frequency if the
current flowing in the circuit is 24 mA. [225 kHz]
R LC a.c. circuits
18 A 40 F capacitor in series with a coil of resistance 8 and induc-
tance 80 mH is connected to a 200 V, 100 Hz supply. Calculate
(a) the circuit impedance, (b) the current flowing, (c) the phase angle
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between voltage and current, (d) the voltage across the coil, and
(e) the voltage across the capacitor.
[(a) 13.18 (b) 15.17 A (c) 52 380
(d) 772.1 V (e) 603.6 V]
19 Three impedances are connected in series across a 100 V, 2 kHz
supply. The impedances comprise:
Figure 15.24
Series resonance and Q-factor
21 Find the resonant frequency of a series a.c. circuit consisting of a coil
of resistance 10 and inductance 50 mH and capacitance 0.05 F.
Find also the current flowing at resonance if the supply voltage is
100 V. [3.183 kHz, 10 A]
22 The current at resonance in a series L CR circuit is 0.2 mA. If the
applied voltage is 250 mV at a frequency of 100 kHz and the circuit
capacitance is 0.04 F, find the circuit resistance and inductance.
[1.25 k, 63.3 H]
23 A coil of resistance 25 and inductance 100 mH is connected
in series with a capacitance of 0.12 F across a 200 V, variable
frequency supply. Calculate (a) the resonant frequency, (b) the
current at resonance and (c) the factor by which the voltage across
the reactance is greater than the supply voltage.
[(a) 1.453 kHz (b) 8 A (c) 36.52]
24 Calculate the inductance which must be connected in series with a
1000 pF capacitor to give a resonant frequency of 400 kHz.
[0.158 mH]
25 A series circuit comprises a coil of resistance 20 and inductance
2 mH and a 500 pF capacitor. Determine the Q-factor of the circuit at
resonance. If the supply voltage is 1.5 V, what is the voltage across
the capacitor? [100, 150 V]
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