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NATIONAL SEMINAR, GUNTUR, JAN14

Namo tassa Bhagavato ArahatoSamm-sambuddhassa

BUDDHIST PHILOSOPHY:
THEORY AND PRACTICE

Ganesh Prasad Das

Philosophy in the present-day scenario is held in disrepute as an academic subject. The interest of
the takers has waned and, therefore, the investment of the institutions for maintaining the department is
considered vain. But everybody feels that dwindling of values in every sphere of societal living. So
philosophy departments in ancient centres of learning are/ under the threat of being closed down, whereas
applied ethics has emerged as subject of study in new centres of professional learning. It is not known who
brought the expression applied ethics into currency. But it is Peter Albert David Singer, who first used the
expression practical ethics in his book of even name in 1979, where he recognised officially that this area
of study had been developed during the last two decades thence. It is not exactly a development, it is the
revival of the tradition begun by Socrates and later on articulated by Plato. What I intend to point out is
that philosophy by its very nature is practical-oriented. A votary of philosophy is empowered by his study to
make his life happy and perfect. The dominant Western philosophical tradition makes a distinction between
different branches of philosophical pursuits: Metaphysics, known as the Theory of Reality, Epistemology,
known as the Theory of Knowledge and Axiology, known as the Theory of Values (ethical and aesthetical).
The dominant tradition of Indian philosophy does not have such an exclusive division as Reality,
Knowledge and Value. They lay integrally related to one another. R.K. Puligandla rightly observes,

It is important to observe that Indian philosophical thinking is not just food for the intellect. It must
make a difference to the style and quality of living. If it does not have in bearing on life it is empty
and irrelevant sophistry. The strength of western philosophical is derived from two laws of logic:
the law of contradiction and the law of excluded middle. They demand answers in clear-cut
affirmation and denial, yea yea: nay nay. (Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, 1975/1997.)

Following the lead of the dominant tradition of the West, it is felt that there could be study and
inculcation of moral and ethical values without the presupposition of, dependent on and commitment to
views on metaphysics and epistemology. Ethics and morality are autonomous, so to say, or at least delinked
from metaphysics and theology and their unsavoury fallouts. Ethics is a major part of the Buddhist path that
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leads to the end of suffering. The path is sometimes conceived of as a threefold training in which sila
provides the foundation for samadhi and praja. Ethics is important in the backdrop of the perception that
there is suffering in the world. Suffering is the nature of lives in ignorance. But this not the metaphysical
base of Buddhist ethics; it is the existential condition which is there in the lived life of the individual man.

There is no term in Buddhist canonical texts equivalent to the English word ethics in meaning; the
closest term available is sila (moral discipline). Sila is one of the threefold discipline, along with prajna
(wisdom) and mental samadhi (concentration), which constitute the path leading to the end of suffering.
Sila is most closely identified with the widely known five moral precepts (pacasila) of lay Buddhists.
These are: not to kill, not to steal, not to lie, not to have inappropriate sex, and not to use intoxicants. It is
deplorable to find how pretentious we are with respect to these.

In the contemporary world, Buddhist scholars and leaders have sought to apply Buddhist ethics to
moral questions of this age. This is most clearly evident in the Engaged Buddhism and humanistic
Buddhism movements. Engaged Buddhism is Thich Nhat Hanhs term for bringing Buddhism out of the
monastery to deal with pressing social issues. Barbara E. Reed points out that the first precept is central to
Buddhist discussions of abortion, war, euthanasia, animal rights, environmentalism, and economic justice.

Peter Harvey summed up The field of Buddhist ethics in comparison to Western ethics is summed
up by Peter Harvey, who acknowledges that the rich field of Buddhist ethics would be narrowed by wholly
collapsing it into any single one of the Kantian, Aristotelian or Utilitarian models, though Buddhism agrees
with each in respectively acknowledging the importance of (1) a good motivating will, (2) cultivation of
character, and (3) the reduction of suffering in others and oneself (An Introduction to Buddhist Ethics:
Foundations,Values, and Issues. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, 2000, p. 51).

All the schools of philosophy are broadly classified into two traditions: astika (orthodox) and
nastika (heterodox). Jainism and Buddhism are jostled to the latter class and so this classification is not
accepted as an inclusive one. There is another classification of Indias philosophies into the Brahmanical
tradition and the Sramanical tradition, which lacks the motive of inclusive classification. The Europeans
talk much about the Brahminical tradition and use the term in the pejorative sense. It appears that they
deliberately muddle the understanding of the term coined by them. The Brahmanical tradition originally
commenced and developed round the concept Brahman. The Sramana tradition commenced and developed
around Sama, i.e., equality, tranquility and effort. The word Brahman has so many different meanings of
which attention should be properly drawn to two in the present context: (i) eulogy and prayer; (ii) sacrificial
ritual. Brahman means various eulogies and prayers through the Vedic mantras and suktas. In the same
way, even the sacrificial ritual, in which the Vedic mantras are employed, is known as Brahman. Only
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those who recite the mantras and suktas, i.e., the class of the Purohitas and those who preside over the
performance of sacrifices, are Brahmins. Through the prayers and eulogies of the Vedic mantras and
through the excessive hold of the sacrificial rituals, these Brahmins dominated in the then contemporary
society and religion. This dominance became so firm that the Brahmin class began to believe and started
proclaiming that it was supreme by birth. The same view became firm and steady in the society and this led
to the belief in class-difference. Contrary to this the Sramana dharma believed and proclaimed that in any
society, all men and women have an absolutely equal right to good deeds and status in religion. One, who
proves his qualification through diligence and effort, attains to higher status irrespective of class and sex.
(Pandit Sukhalalji, Essence of Jainism, Tr. R.S. Betai, Ahmedabad, L.D. Institute of Indology, 1988, p. 24.)
It may be noted, in passing, that the two traditions, Brahmana and Sramana, have not remained aloof. On
the contrary, they have come to influence each other.

Buddhism is regarded as a philosophy as well as a religion. A reflective enterprise could be

philosophy without being religion as, for example, Carvaka, Samkhya and Nyaya and a reflective enterprise
could be religion without being philosophy as, for example, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Bahai. But then a
philosophy could be decanted out of such a religion.

What is distinctive of philosophy? And what is distinctive of religion? The distinctiveness of

philosophy is carca and that of religion is carya. Carca and carya make on integrated whole. Those
intellectual enterprises that are recognised as philosophy, not religion and those that are recognised as
religion, not philosophy could be seen as implying the other. The carca of Carvaka gives rise to some carya
and the carya of Christianity involves some carca. The point is that carca predominates in some intellectual
enterprise and carya predominates in some others.

II

Buddhism advocates four noble truths (catvari arya satyani). They are: (1) duhkha, (2) duhkha-
samudaya, (3) duhkha nirodha, and (4) duhkha nirodha gamini pratipat. We can understand these truths
well if we put them under three categories: (i) Phenomenological perception, (ii) Meditation, and (iii)
Vision; (1) is under the first, (2) and (3) are under the second and (4) is under the third category. Duhkha, or
sarvam duhkham duhkham is a phenomenological perception. It comes when Buddha tries to see the
meaning of events around him. It is not that whenever one tries to see the meaning of events around one,
one would have this phenomenological perception. Buddha comes to have this perception that all the events
of the world are sorrowful. Some events might appear to be otherwise, that is, pleasurable, but then their
resultants are painful. Smt. Sarojini Naidu has it in her Village Songs:
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The bridal songs and cradle songs

Have cadences of sorrow,
The laughter of the Sun today
Is the wind of death tomorrow.

There could be three possible phenomenological perceptions. This is one which Buddha has. The
second one could be that everything is happy: sarvam sukham sukham. The resultant of anything appearing
to be painful is happiness one has to undergo hardship to get Krsna kasta na kale Krsna mile na. (Is it
the hardship of killing ones ego? Vide the Bhagavata, Uddhava mane rakhithibu/ mun male mate tu
paibu//) Shellys assertion, Our sweetest songs are those which tell of saddest thoughts could be
construed in this sense. According to the Upanisads, the man hails from ananda, flourishes in ananda and
ends up in ananda. Acharya Samkara shares his realisation thus: kaupinavantam khalu bhagyavantam. If
happiness is not available here and now during this life, then it is assured to be available in the life after, or
to have merger in God after this life. The third perception could be that some events are sorrowful and
some others are pleasurable: kimcit duhkham, kimcit sukham. It has been said by King Vikrama,

sukham apatitam sevyam duhkham apatitam tatha/

cakravat parivartante duhkhani ca sukhani ca//

Further, it is contended that pleasure becomes meaningless without sorrow. So duhkha and sukha are
compresent.

The assertion, Everything is sorrowful, might give rise to a question: Is duhkha in the world of
events or is it in the mind of the person experiencing the events? It is neither in the world, nor in the mind
and it is not that it is not in the world, nor not in the mind. As we have said it is the seeker and seers
exploration of the meaning of events of the world.

Then there is meditation of this phenomenological perception. duhkha samudaya and duhkha
nirodha are the outcome of meditation. In the state of meditation, the principle of causality, which is
applied to understand the states of things, is extended to understand the perception of the states of things.
The principle undergoes modification in its extended application. Pratityasamutpada is the principle which
is applied to understand the phenomenon of duhkha. Ordinarily, the cause and effect relationship is
understood like this:

CE

That is, if there is C, then there is E. The possibilities of there being E without C and there being C without
there being E are not ruled out. In the phenomenological domain as conceived by Buddha, the principle of
causation is understood like this:
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CE

That is, If there is C, there must be E and if there is E, there must be C. Conversely, if there is no C, there is
no E and if there is no E, there is no C. If this comes to be, then that comes to be, and if this ceases to be,
that ceases to be. (asmin sati idam bhavati, asmin na sati idam na bhavati) Duhkha is there, and the
cause of duhkha is there. The cause of duhkha being there, it is possible to eliminate the cause and thus
possible to eliminate duhkha, the effect thereof. According to C.D. Sharma, the Buddhist doctrine of
pratityasamutpada is implied by duhkha-samudaya and duhkha nirodha. Pratityasamutpada, in its turn,
implies ksanabhangavada, that is, Everything is momentary. (This doctrine of Buddha is compared with
the doctrine of the ancient Greek philosopher Heraclitus, according to whom one cannot step into the same
stream twice.)

There is a whole series of Cs and Es being born, growing old dying and being born again. It is
known as the cycle of birth and death (jara-marana cakra, or bhava cakra, or samsara cakra, or dharma
cakra, or pratityasamutpada cakra). It consists of twelve links, whose initial link is avijja or avidya (lack of
right knowledge). The twelve links are as follows:

avidya (lack of right knowledge) samskara (impression of the forces of karma) vijnana
(consciousness of the embryo) nama-rupa (psycho-physical organism) sadayatana (six sense
organs including mind) sparsa (sense-object contact) vedana (sense experience) trsna
(thirst for sense enjoyment) upadana (clinging to this enjoyment) bhava (will to be born)
jati (birth and rebirth) jara marana (old age and death)

The cycle is spread over three times, past, present and future. It goes on and on unless and until the initial
link, i.e., avidya (lack of right knowledge) is snapped.

Meditation on the phenomenological perception evolves into a vision with regard to the technology
of putting off duhkha. This is duhkhanirodhagamini pratipat. This is an eight-fold path consisting of (i)
samyak (right) drsti (faith), (ii)samyak samkalpa (resolve), (iii) samyak vak (speech), (iv) samyak karmanta
(action), (v) samyak ajiva (living), (vi) samyak vyayama (effort), (vii) samyak smrti (thought), and (viii)
samyak samadhi (contemplation). This eight-fold path is contained in the four noble truths, to use the
language of C.D. Sharma. This leads to the destination of nirvana.

Attainment of nirvana ensues attainment of prajna. These are two sides of the same coin.
Attainment of prajna is the discernible aspect and the attainment of nirvana is the transcendental (not
transcendent) facet of one and the same thing. In this discernible facet we have sila (character/ behavior/
practice) and samadhi (contemplation/ meditation/precept). We can say as well that sila and samadhi bring
forth prajna and prajna brings forth nirvana.
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Sila is five pronged. Hence it is called pancasila. Pancasila is a concept, which is very important
and extremely relevant in socio-politico-cultural affairs. The Buddhist pancasila is enumerated in the
following five undertakings/ pledges:

1. panatipata veramani sikkha-padam samadiyami. (I undertake the precept to refrain from

destroying living creatures.)

2. adinnadana veramani sikkha-padam samadiyami. (I undertake the precept to refrain from taking
what is not given.)

3. kamesu michacara veramani sikkha-padam samadiyami. (I undertake the precept to refrain from
sexual misconduct.)

1. musabada veramani sikkha-padam samadiyami. (I undertake the precept to refrain from incorrect
speech.)
2. suramerayamajja pamadaththana veramani sikkha-padam samadiyami. (I undertake the precept to
refrain from intoxicating drinks and drugs that lead to carelessness.)

We know from history that in the context of Sino-Indian relationship, a pancasila came to be, both the
countries signing an agreement in 1954 to act upon five principles of peaceful co-existence. They are:

1. Mutual respect for each others territorial integrity and sovereignty,

2. Mutual non-aggression against any one,
3. Mutual non-interference in each others internal affairs,
4. Equality and mutual benefit, and
5. Peaceful co-existence.

Pancasila, in a different formulation, is the State Philosophy of Indonesia. They are:

1. Belief in the one and only God,

2. Just and civilised humanity,
3. The unity of Indonesia,
4. Democracy guided by inner wisdom, and
5. Social justice for all people of Indonesia.

III

It is characteristic of Anguttara Nikaya, a very important discourse collection that it mainly deals
with the practical aspects of Buddhism; ethics (lay and monastic), mind training (meditation) and the
community life of monks. It is the primacy of the ethical that we find in Buddhist philosophy. The thrust of
the ethical is on the development of mind that is unstable all the time.
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No other thing do I know, O monks, that is so intractable as an undeveloped ( abhavitam) mind. An

undeveloped mind is truly intractable. No other thing do I know, O monks, that is so tractable as a
developed mind. A developed mind is truly tractable.

No other thing do I know, O monks, that brings so much suffering as an undeveloped and
uncultivated mind. An undeveloped and uncultivated mind truly brings suffering. No other thing do
I know, O monks, that brings so much happiness as a developed and cultivated mind. A developed
and cultivated mind truly brings happiness. (1:3.110; selected)

No other thing do I know, O monks, that brings so much harm as a mind that is untamed,
unguarded, unprotected and uncontrolled. Such a mind truly brings much harm. No other thing do I
know, O monks, that brings so much benefit as a mind that is tamed, guarded, protected and
controlled. Such a mind truly brings great benefit. (1:4.110; selected)

No other thing do I know, O monks, that changes so quickly as the mind. It is not easy to give a
simile for how quickly the mind changes. (1:5.8)

How can the seeker have a developed mind? Several processes are involved one leading to the other as
follows.

Masters teaching meditation by the seeker follows the masters advice consumes food
contributed by countrymen - produces a thought of loving kindness (karuna) - attends to it.
Diligence is needed for it. (1:6.69) Gradually the seeker grows in wisdom. Wisdom is essential. The
increase of wisdom is the highest gain and the loss of wisdom is the greatest loss. (1:8.610)

Monks, if for just the time of a finger-snap a monk produces a thought of loving kindness,
develops it, gives attention to it, such a one is rightly called a monk. Not in vain does he
meditate. He acts in accordance with the Masters teaching, he follows his advice, and eats
deservingly the countrys alms-food. How much more so if he cultivates it! (1:6.35)

Since monks and nuns depend for sustenance upon the generosity of householders, they must make
themselves worthy of their offerings by devoting their efforts to the development of the mind. Anguttara
distinguishes four modes in which monks might use the offerings they receive: (i) an immoral monk uses
them as a thief; (ii) a virtuous worldling who does not reflect uses them as a debtor; (iii) a trainee (one at
the lower three stages of awakening) uses them as an inheritance; and (iv) the arahant uses them as a
proper owner.

Unremittingly shall I struggle and resolve: Let only my skin, sinews and bones remain; let the flesh
and blood in my body dry up; yet there shall be no ceasing of energy till I have attained whatever
can be won by manly strength, manly energy, manly effort! (2.1.5)
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Abandon evil, O monks! Cultivate the good.

Abandonment of evil and cultivation of the good is the aim of all seers. There is no the evil but
evils in the plural as there are variously varied evils, but there is the good as good is one, unitary and
definite. The distinctiveness of Buddhism is that its teachings seek to achieve the desired goal without
cumbersome thinking and rigorous action.

When, brahmin, a person is impassioned with lust depraved through hatred bewildered
through delusion, overwhelmed and infatuated by delusion, then he plans for his own harm, for the
harm of others, for the harm of both; and he experiences in his mind suffering and grief. But when
lust, hatred, and delusion have been abandoned, he neither plans for his own harm, nor for the harm
of others, nor for the harm of both; and he does not experience in his mind suffering and grief. In
this way, brahmin, Nibbna is directly visible, immediate, inviting one to come and see, worthy of
application, to be personally experienced by the wise. Since he experiences the complete
destruction of lust, hatred, and delusion, in this way, brahmin, Nibbna is directly visible,
immediate, inviting one to come and see, worthy of application, to be personally experienced by the
wise. (3:55)

As the English poet Ben Jonson sings, In small proportions life may perfect be. Buddha harps
on small and simple things that we neglect and unwittingly side with the evil only to invite suffering. Let us
take the example of sleep. Sound sleep comes down to simple beds; nightmares come down on luxurious
ones.

But, Lord, the winter nights are cold and this is a week of frost. Hard is the ground trampled by the
hoofs of cattle, thin is the spread of leaves, sparse are the leaves on the trees, thin are the tawny
monks robes and cold blows the wind. Yet the Blessed One says that he has slept well and that he
is one of those in the world who always sleep well.

Suppose there is a householder or a householders son living in a house with a gabled roof,
plastered inside and out, protected against the wind, with fastened door bolts and windows closed.
And there is a couch in the house, covered with a long fleeced, black woolen rug, with a bedspread
of white wool, a coverlet decorated with flowers, spread over with an exquisite antelope skin,
having a canopy overhead, and scarlet cushions at both ends. Also a lamp is burning there and his
four wives attend on him pleasantly. What do you think, prince: would that person sleep well or not,
or what is your opinion about this? He will surely sleep well, Lord. He will be one of those in the
world who sleep well. What do you think, prince? Might there not arise in that householder or
householders son vexations of body or mind caused by lust, hatred, and delusion, which torment
him so that he would sleep badly? (3.34)

A happy life is not one of saving time for useless thought, useless speech, useless activities,
grabbing money for having useless arte facts, trotting from this part of the globe to that part on dreamy
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pursuits, or spending huge wealth not to alleviate abundant misery and deprivation of fellow of the suffering
lot, but to invest virtues to reap happiness in the life after.

The first assurance he has won is this: If there is another world, and if good and bad deeds bear
fruit and yield results, it is possible that with the breakup of the body, after death, I shall arise in a
good destination, in a heavenly world. The second assurance he has won is this: If there is no
other world, and if good and bad deeds do not bear fruit and yield results, still right here, in this
very life, I live happily, free of enmity and ill will. (3:65)

There are four kinds of persons in the world marked by their nature.

1. There is the person going with the stream. It is one who indulges his sensual desire and
commits wrong deeds.
2. There is the person going against the stream. It is one who does not indulge sensual desire and
commit wrong deeds. He lives the holy life, though in painful struggle, with difficulty, sighing
and in tears.
3. There is the person standing firm. It is one who, with the utter destruction of the five lower
fetters, is due to be reborn spontaneously (in a celestial realm) and there attain final Nibbna,
without ever returning from that world.
4. There is the person who has crossed over and gone to the far shore standing on dry land. It is
one who, with the destruction of the taints, in this very life enters and dwells in the taintless
liberation of mind, liberation by wisdom, having realised it for himself by direct knowledge.
4.5)

There are four wonderful things, as Buddha tells his monks. On the manifestation of a Tathgata, an
Arahant, a Fully Enlightened One, four wonderful and marvelous things are manifested, the cravings,
attachments put on the reverse gear and gradually set at naught.

People generally find pleasure in attachments, take delight in attachments and enjoy attachments.
But when the Dhamma of non-attachment is taught by the Tathgata, people wish to listen to it, give ear,
and try to understand it. This is the first wonderful and marvelous thing that appears on the manifestation of
a Tathgata, an Arahant, a Fully Enlightened One. People generally find pleasure in conceit, take delight in
conceit and enjoy conceit. But when the Dhamma is taught by the Tathgata for the abolition of conceit,
people wish to listen to it, give ear, and try to understand it. This is the second wonderful and marvellous
thing that appears on the manifestation of a Tathgata, an Arahant, a Fully Enlightened One. People
generally find pleasure in a life of excitement, take delight in excitement and enjoy excitement. But when
the peaceful Dhamma is taught by the Tathgata, people wish to listen to it, give ear, and try to understand
it. This is the third wonderful and marvellous thing that appears on the manifestation of a Tathgata, an
Arahant, a Fully Enlightened One. People generally live in ignorance, are blinded by ignorance, and fettered
by ignorance. But when the Dhamma is taught by the Tathgata for the abolition of ignorance, people wish
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to listen to it, give ear, and try to understand it. This is the fourth wonderful and marvellous thing that
appears on the manifestation of a Tathgata, an Arahant, a Fully Enlightened One. On the manifestation of a
Tathgata, an Arahant, a Fully Enlightened One, these four wonderful and marvellous things become
manifest. (4:128)

There is no mysterious way to observe the being and becoming of human nature and character.
Buddha does not admit a permanent and abiding mind and so this problem does not arise. The nature of a
man is manifested in his action behavior in context. This view could be labeled as logical behaviourism,
but this would be quite sophisticated in view of the teachings of Buddha in simple terms carrying no load of
high philosophy. This part of Buddhas teachings could be guidelines for evaluation of personality in any
sphere. By living together with a person his virtue can be known; by having dealings with a person his
integrity can be known, in misfortune a persons fortitude can be known and by conversation a persons
wisdom can be known. This can be known only after a long time, not casually; by close attention, not
without attention; by one who is wise, not by one who is stupid. Buddha explains in detail. (4:192)

Good life is different from happy life and both are different from life of realisation. Good life
begins with virtuous ways of conduct. It culminates in the knowledge and vision of liberation (nirvana).
Happy life is a link in between.

What, Lord, is the benefit of virtuous ways of conduct, what is their reward?
Non-remorse, nanda, is the benefit and reward of virtuous ways of conduct.
And what, Lord, is the benefit and reward of non-remorse?
Gladness, nanda.
And what, Lord, is the benefit and reward of gladness?
Joy.
And what, Lord, is the benefit and reward of joy?
Serenity.
And what, Lord, is the benefit and reward of serenity?
Happiness.
And what, Lord, is the benefit and reward of happiness?
Concentration of the mind.
And what, Lord, is the benefit and reward of concentration?
Knowledge and vision of things as they really are.
And what, Lord, is the benefit and reward of knowledge and vision of things as they really are?
Revulsion and dispassion.
And what, Lord, is the benefit and reward of revulsion and dispassion?
The knowledge and vision of liberation. (10.1)

IV
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Buddhas teaching are such as they apply to all spheres of human action, family, society, polity,
religion, economics, business, education, environment, and everything else. Buddhism is a body of
pragmatic teachings, which starts from certain fundamental propositions about how we experience the
world and how we act in it as explained above. The enormous literature of Buddhism is not a literature
of revelation and authority.

The Buddhist writing on social action, unlike secular writings, makes finite proposals
which must ultimately refer to this Wisdom, but which also are arguable in terms of our common
experience. It is like, to use the words of Berkeley, thinking with the wise and talking with the
vulgar (common folk). Let us take the issue of the religious and the secular. People have peculiar
ideas about both. The religious and the secular are not only alternatives; there is a middle way. The
religious and the secular are not antithetical to one another. Religion is compatible with and a
cooption of secularism. Buddhism is a force a spiritual force that steers clear of religion and no
religion. Religion has its drawbacks; secularism has no less. Buddhism cleanses the drawbacks of
religion. The Buddha once visited a small town called Kesaputta in the kingdom of Kosala. The
inhabitants of this town were known by the common name Kalama. When they heard that the
Buddha was in their town, the Kalamas paid him a visit, and told him: Sir, there are some recluses
and brahmanas who visit Kesaputta. They explain and illumine only their own doctrines, and
despise, condemn and spurn others doctrines. Then come other recluses and brahmanas, and they,
too, in their turn, explain and illumine only their own doctrines, and despise, condemn and spurn
others doctrines. But, for us, Sir, we have always doubt and perplexity as to who among these
venerable recluses and brahmanas spoke the truth, and who spoke falsehood. Then the Buddha
gave them this advice, unique in the history of religions: Yes, Kalamas, it is proper that you have
doubt, that you have perplexity, for a doubt has arisen in a matter which is doubtful. Now, look you
Kalamas, do not be led by reports, or tradition, or hearsay. Be not led by the authority of religious
texts, nor by mere logic or inference, nor by considering appearances, nor by the delight in
speculative opinions, nor by seeming possibilities, nor by the idea: this is our teacher. But, O
Kalamas, when, you know for yourselves that certain things are unwholesome (akusala), and
wrong, and bad, then give them up . . . And when you know for yourselves that certain things are
wholesome (kusala) and good, then accept them and follow them. Ashoka, inspired by Buddha
had the following edict commissioned:
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One should not honour only one's own religion and condemn the religions of others, but one should
honour others' religions for this or that reason. So doing, one helps one's own religion to grow and
renders service to the religions of others too. In acting otherwise one digs the grave of one's own
religion and also does harm to other religions. Whosoever honours his own religion and condemns
other religions, does so indeed through devotion to his own religion, thinking I will glorify my
own religion. But on the contrary, in so doing he injures his own religion more gravely. So
concord is good: Let all listen, and be willing to listen to the doctrines professed by others.

Walpola Rahul puts it thus,

Buddhism arose in India as a spiritual force against social injustices, against degrading
superstitious rites, ceremonies and sacrifices; it denounced the tyranny of the caste system
and advocated the equality of all men; it emancipated woman and gave her complete
spiritual freedom. (What the Buddha Taught, New York, Grove Press, 1974.)

But it has its preceptor, precepts, discipline as an institutionalised religion has. Truth unalloyed is
all that needs to uphold. Sabbadanam dhammadanam jinati (The gift of Truth excels all other gifts).
Truth needs no label: it is neither Buddhist, nor Christian, or Hindu or Moslem. It is not the monopoly of
anybody. Sectarian labels are a hindrance to the independent understanding of Truth, and they produce
harmful prejudices in mens minds. Once a group of brahmans had interaction with Buddha. One of the
group, a Brahmin youth of 16 years of age, named Kapathika, put a question to the Buddha: Venerable
Gotama, there are the ancient holy scriptures of the Brahmins handed down along the line by unbroken oral
tradition of texts. With regard to them, Brahmins come to the absolute conclusion: This alone is Truth, and
everything else is false. Now, what does the Venerable Gotama say about this? The Buddha inquired:
Among Brahmins is there any one single Brahmin who claims that he personally knows and sees that
This alone is Truth, and everything else is false.? The young man was frank, and said: No. Then, is
there any one single teacher, or a teacher of teachers of Brahmins back to the seventh generation, or even
any one of those original authors of those scriptures, who claims that he knows and he sees: This alone is
Truth, and everything else is false? No. Asked by the young Brahmin to explain the idea of maintaining
or protecting truth, the Buddha said: A man has a faith (saddha). If he says This is my faith, so far he
maintains truth. But by that he cannot proceed to the absolute conclusion: This alone is Truth, and
everything else is false. In other words, a man may believe what he likes, and he may say I believe this.
So far he respects truth. But because of his belief or faith, he should not say that what he believes is alone
the Truth, and everything else is false.

Buddha rejects worshipping in the ritual sense of the term, but not in its rational sense. We may
take, for example, the worship of directions. The worship is useless without proper knowledge; useful with
 13

proper knowledge. The Sigala-sutta (No. 31 of the Digha-nikaya) shows with what great respect the
layman's life, his family and social relations are regarded by the Buddha. A young man named Sigala used
to worship the six cardinal points of the heavenseast, south, west, north, nadir and zenithin obeying
and observing the last advice given to him by his dying father. The Buddha told the young man that in the
noble discipline (ariyassa vinaye) of his teaching the six directions were different. According to his noble
discipline, the six directions were: east: parents; south: teachers; west: wife and children; north: friends,
relatives and neighbours; nadir: servants, workers and employees; zenith: religious men. One should
worship these six directions said the Buddha. Here one worships something sacred, something worthy of
honour and respect. These six family and social groups mentioned above are treated in Buddhism as sacred,
worthy of respect and worship. But how is one to 'worship' them? The Buddha says that one could
worship them only by performing ones duties towards them. These duties are explained in his discourse
to Sigala. First: Parents are sacred to their children. The Buddha says: Parents are called Brahma
(Brahmeti matapitaro). The term Brahma denotes the highest and most sacred conception in Indian thought,
and in it the Buddha includes parents. Children have to perform certain duties towards their parents ; they
should look after their parents in their old age; should do whatever they have to do on their behalf; should
maintain the honour of the family and continue the family tradition; should protect the wealth earned by
their parents; and perform their funeral rites after their death. Parents, in their turn, have certain
responsibilities towards their children: they should keep their children away from evil courses; should
engage them in good and profitable activities; should give them a good education; should marry them into
good families; and should hand over the property to them in due course. Second: The relation between
teacher and pupil: a pupil should respect and be obedient to his teacher; should attend to his needs if any;
should study earnestly. And the teacher, in his turn, should train and shape his pupil properly; should teach
him well; should introduce him to his friends; and should try to procure him security or employment when
his education is over. Third: The relation between husband and wife: love between husband and wife is
considered almost religious or sacred. It is called sadara-Brahmacariya sacred family life. Here, too, the
significance of the term Brahma should be noted: the highest respect is given to this relationship. Wives and
husbands should be faithful, respectful and devoted to each other, and they have certain duties towards each
other: the husband should always honour his wife and never be wanting in respect to her; he should love her
and be faithful to her; should secure her position and comfort; and should please her by presenting her with
clothing and jewellery. (The fact that the Buddha did not forget to mention even such a thing as the gifts a
husband should make to his wife shows how understanding and sympathetic were his humane feelings
towards ordinary human emotions.) The wife, in her turn, should supervise and look after household affairs;
should entertain guests, visitors, friends, relatives and employees; should love and be faithful to her
husband; should protect his earnings; should be clever and energetic in all activities. Fourth: The relation
 14

between friends, relatives and neighbours: they should be hospitable and charitable to one another; should
speak pleasantly and agreeably; should work for each other's welfare; should be on equal terms with one
another; should not quarrel among themselves; should help each other in need; and should not forsake each
other in difficulty. Fifth: The relation between master and servant: the master or the employer has several
obligations towards his servant or his employee: work should be assigned according to ability and capacity;
adequate wages should be paid; medical needs should be provided; occasional donations or bonuses should
be granted. The servant or employee, in his turn, should be diligent and not lazy; honest and obedient and
not cheat his master; he should be earnest in his work. Sixth: The relation between the religious (lit. recluses
and brahmanas) and the laity: lay people should look after the material needs of the religious with love and
respect; the religious with a loving heart should impart knowledge and learning to the laity, and lead them
along the good path away from evil. (Adopted from Walpola Rahula, op. cit.)

Buddhism postulates ten duties of kings. This applies today to all those who constitute the
government, such as the head of the state, ministers, political leaders, legislative and administrative officers,
etc. The first of the Ten Duties of the King is liberality, generosity, charity ( dana). The ruler should not
have craving and attachment to wealth and property, but should give it away for the welfare of the people.
Second: A high moral character (sila). He should never destroy life, cheat, steal and exploit others, commit
adultery, utter falsehood, and take intoxicating drinks. That is, he must at least observe the Five Precepts of
the layman. Third: Sacrificing everything for the good of the people (pariccaga), he must be prepared to
give up all personal comfort, name and fame, and even his life, in the interest of the people. Fourth:
Honesty and integrity (ajjava). He must be free from fear or favour in the discharge of his duties, must be
sincere in his intentions, and must not deceive the public. Fifth: Kindness and gentleness (maddava). He
must possess a genial temperament. Sixth: Austerity in habits (tapa). He must lead a simple life, and should
not indulge in a life of luxury. He must have self-control. Seventh: Freedom from hatred, ill-will, enmity
(akkodha). He should bear no grudge against anybody. Eighth: Non-violence (avihimsa), which means not
only that he should harm nobody, but also that he should try to promote peace by avoiding and preventing
war, and everything which involves violence and destruction of life. Ninth: Patience, forbearance, tolerance,
understanding (khanti). He must be able to bear hardships, difficulties and insults without losing his temper.
Tenth: Non-opposition, non-obstruction (avirodha), that is to say that he should not oppose the will of the
people, should not obstruct any measures that are conducive to the welfare of the people. In other words he
should rule in harmony with his people.
 15

If a country is ruled by men endowed with such qualities, it is needless to say that that country must
be happy. But this was not a Utopia, for there were kings in the past like Asoka of India who had established
kingdoms based on these ideas. The world today is sitting on a silent volcano with constant fear, suspicion,
and tension. Everyday new warheads are being manufactured and tested. Human beings in fear of the
situation they have themselves created, want to find a way out, and seek some kind of solution. They raise
the dust and complain they cannot see! But the only savior is Buddhahis message of non-violence and
peace, of love and compassion, of tolerance and understanding, of truth and wisdom, of respect and regard
for all life, of freedom from selfishness, hatred and violence. The Buddha says: Never by hatred is hatred
appeased, but it is appeased by kindness. This is an eternal truth. One should win anger through kindness,
wickedness through goodness, selfishness through charity, and falsehood through truthfulness. There is
nothing like just war. This is only a false term coined and put into circulation to justify and excuse hatred,
cruelty, violence and massacre. Who decides what is just or unjust? The mighty and the victorious are 'just',
and the weak and the defeated are unjust. Our war is always 'just', and your war is always unjust.
Buddhism does not accept this position. The Buddha not only taught non-violence and peace, but he even
went to the field of battle itself and intervened personally, and prevented war, as in the case of the dispute
between the Sakyas and the Koliyas, who were prepared to fight over the question of the waters of the
Rohini. And his words once prevented King Ajatasattu from attacking the kingdom of the Vajjis. To sum it
up in Walpolas words,

Buddhism aims at creating a society where the ruinous struggle for power is renounced; where calm
and peace prevail away from conquest and defeat; where the persecution of the innocent is
vehemently denounced; where one who conquers oneself is more respected than those who conquer
millions by military and economic warfare; where hatred is conquered by kindness, and evil by
goodness; where enmity, jealousy, ill-will and greed do not infect men's minds; where compassion
is the driving force of action; where all, including the least of living things, are treated with
fairness, consideration and love; where life in peace and harmony, in a world of material
contentment, is directed towards the highest and noblest aim, the realization of the Ultimate Truth,
Nirvana. (Op. cit, p. 88.)

VI

E.F. Schumacher has written a book entitled as Small is Beautiful in four decades back and this can be taken
as a blueprint of Buddhist economics or of Gandhian economics, which have the same format so far as our
present concern goes. It is a study of economics as if people mattered. Schumachers precise statement is,

While the materialist is mainly interested in goods, the Buddhist is mainly interested in liberation.
But Buddhism is The Middle Way and therefore in no way antagonistic to physical well-being...
 16

The keynote of Buddhist economics is simplicity and non-violence. From an economist's point of
view, the marvel of the Buddhist way of life is the utter rationality of its pattern -- amazingly small
means leading to extraordinarily satisfying results. (London, Vintage Books, p. 52).

Schumacher then outlines a Buddhist economics in which production would be based on a middle range
technology yielding on the one hand an adequate range of material goods (and no more), and on the other a
harmony with the natural environment and its resources. The above principles suggest some kind of diverse
and politically decentralised society, with co-operative management and ownership of productive wealth. It
would be conceived on a human scale, whether in terms of size and complexity of organization or of
environmental planning, and would use modern technology selectively rather than being used by it in the
service of selfish interests. In Schumachers words, It is a question of finding the right path of
development, the Middle Way, between materialist heedlessness and traditionalist immobility, in short, of
finding Right Livelihood. Clearly, all the above must ultimately be conceived on a world scale. Today
we have become so interdependent and so closely connected with each other that without a sense of
universal responsibility, irrespective of different ideologies and faiths, our very existence or survival would
be difficult. This statement underlines the importance of Buddhist internationalism and of social policy and
social action conceived on a world scale. The above is not offered as some kind of blueprint for utopia.
Progress would be as conflict-ridden as the spiritual path of the ordinary Buddhist -- and the world may
never get there anyway.

Ours is a society in which cravings and greed have ossified into social structures.These cravings,
argues David Brandon, have become cemented into all forms of social structures and institutions. People
who are relatively successful at accumulating goods and social position wish to ensure that the remain
successful... Both in intended and unintended ways they erect barriers of education, finance and law to
protect their property and other interests... These structures and their protective institutions continue to
exacerbate and amplify the basic human inequalities in housing, health care, education and income. They
reward and encourage greed, selfishness, and exploitation rather than love, sharing and compassion. Certain
people's life styles, characterised by greed and overconsumption, become dependent on the deprivation of
the many. The oppressors and oppressed fall into the same trap of continual craving. (Brandon, David, Zen
and the art of helping, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1976, p.10-11. Stanford Encyclopedia.)

VII

Thus Buddhism conflates the precept and practice. The former is maha prajna and the latter is
maha karuna. The precepts have a tremendous healing power for man feeling the pangs of duhkha of his
space and time. Thanissaro Bhikkhu says that Buddha is like a doctor, treating the spiritual ills of the
 17

human race. His path of practice is like a course of therapy for suffering hearts and minds. Lily de Silva
considers that the five precepts of Buddha (enumerated above) serve as a radical therapy for the ills of the
modern world, which is plagued by various kinds of conflicts: ethnic, racial, religious and ideological.
The modern man is compared to a person who has one leg tied to a jet plane while the other leg is tied to a
bullock cart. This means his development is lopsided as he is mentally imbalanced. Man thinks violent
thoughts. Therefore, there is violence in the society. The mind needs to be trained for wholesome thoughts,
healthy attitudes need to be inculcated and the physical and the verbal activities need to be disciplined. This
precisely is what the precepts of Buddha seek to do. It needs to be noted here that the pratityasamutpada
cakra is also known as dvadasa nidana cakra and in the medical context nidana means pathology or
investigation into causes of diseases. Hence their relevance at any time can hardly be overestimated.

Traditionally these five precepts were being regarded as parameters of private morality. But they
have a momentous relevance to modern society. As such, they are parameters of public morality. If we
pause to reflect on each of the precepts, we would find how relevant it is in the present context of the
techno-tronic global society. We may hesitate to accept or reject or even refuse to think over the logical,
epistemological and the metaphysical (whatever metaphysics is there) segments of Buddhas teaching, we
can never do away with or do without the moral segments of his teaching. It may be remarked, in passing,
that nirvana is possible for a bhiksu, not for a house-holder. So a house-holder need not be worried about
that. He needs only to follow the moral precepts in order to become a successful house-holder and
contribute to the making of a healthy society. Buddhism does not uphold asceticism. But it withholds
worldliness. It endorses a middle path (madhyama pratipat) between the two extremes. Buddhas moral
teachings constitute the solid foundation for a global morality. Moral precepts are like traffic rules. They
impose certain restraints with a dual purpose. One is to grant maximum satisfaction to the individual in the
long run. The other is to prevent him from hindering other individuals from getting their satisfaction.

The social order to which Buddhist social action is ultimately directed must be one that minimises
non-volitionally caused suffering, whether in mind or body. The Buddhist way is, with its compassion,
equanimity, tolerance, concern for self-reliance and individual responsibility. These are the most promising
of all the models for the New Society in the 21 st century. What is needed are political and economic
relations and a technology which will:
(a) Help people to overcome ego-centeredness, through co-operation with others, in place of either
subordination and exploitation or the consequent sense of righteous struggle against all things.
(b) Offer to each a freedom which is conditional only upon the freedom and dignity of others, so
that individuals may develop a self-reliant responsibility rather than being the conditioned animals of
institutions and ideologies.
 18

The emphasis should be on the non-dogmatic acceptance of a diversity of tolerably compatible

material and mental ways, whether of individuals or of whole communities. The good society towards
which we should aim should simply provide a means, an environment, in which different ways,
appropriate to different kinds of people, may be cultivated in mutual tolerance and understanding. A
prescriptive commonwealth of saints is totally alien to Buddhism. (c) The good society will concern itself
primarily with the material and social conditions for personal growth. Production of materials would only
be of secondary concern. It is noteworthy that the 14 th Dalai Lama, on his visit to the West in 1973, saw
nothing wrong with material progress provided man takes precedence over progress. In fact it has been my
firm belief that in order to solve human problems in all their dimensions we must be able to combine and
harmonize external material progress with inner mental development. The Dalai Lama contrasted the
many problems like poverty and disease, lack of education in the East with the West, in which the living
standard is remarkably high, which is very important, very good. Yet he notes that despite these
achievements there is mental unrest, pollution, overcrowding, and other problems. Our very life itself is a
paradox, contradictory in many senses; whenever you have too much of one thing you have problems
created by that. You always have extremes and therefore it is important to try and find the middle way, to
balance the two.

We cannot refuse the most difficult problems of life as we have not yet attained to Wisdom. In such
a situation, we simply have to do our mindful and vigilant best, without guilt or blame. I wish to conclude
with the words of Ken Jones that Buddhism is a very practical and pragmatic kind of idealism and there is,
as always, really no alternative but to try. (Ken Jones, Buddhism and Social Action: An Exploration, Wheel
Publication No. 308/311,1981). It seeks to foster in man clarity of mind, purity at heart and spontaneity in
action. There cannot be a simpler, better and nobler teaching than this.
<><><><><>

Formerly, Professor of Philosophy, Utkal University, and

Formerly, I.C.P.R. Senior Research Fellow,
RUTAYANI, 396, Paika Nagar, Bhubaneswar-751 003.
At Siivatthi. Standing to one side, that devata recited this verse
in the presence of the Blessed One:
17 "Those who dwell deep in the forest,
Peaceful, leading the holy life,
Eating but a single meal a day:
Why is their complexion so serene?"l8
.,
[The Blessed One:]
18 "They do not sorrow over the past,
Nor do they hanker for the future.
 19

They maintain themselves with what is present:

Hence their complexion is so serene.
19 "Through hankering for the future,
Through sorrowing over the past,
Fools dry up and wither away
Like a green reed cut down." (Samyuttanikaya)

4 things for ordinary men and women

A man named Dighajanu once visited the Buddha and said: Venerable Sir, we are ordinary lay men,
leading the family life with wife and children. Would the Blessed One teach us some doctrines which will
be conducive to our happiness in this world and hereafter?' The Buddha tells him that there are four things
which are conducive to a man's happiness in this world: First: he should be skilled, efficient, earnest, and
energetic in whatever profession he is engaged, and he should know it well (uttbana-sampada); second: he
should protect his income, which he has thus earned righteously, with the sweat of his brow ( arakkba-
sampadd); (This refers to protecting wealth from thieves, etc. All these ideas should be considered against
the background of the period.) third: he should have good friends (kalyana-mitta) who are faithful, learned,
virtuous, liberal and intelligent, who will help him along the right path away from evil; fourth: he should
spend reasonably, in proportion to his income, neither too much nor too little, i.e., he should not hoard
wealth avariciously, nor should he be extravagantin other words he should live within his means
(samajivikata). Then the Buddha expounds the four virtues conducive to a layman's happiness hereafter: (i)
Saddha: he should have faith and confidence in moral, spiritual and intellectual values; (2) S i l a : he
should abstain from destroying and harming life, from stealing and cheating, from adultery, from falsehood,
and from intoxicating drinks; (3) Caga: he should practise charity, generosity, without attachment and
craving for his wealth; (4) Patina: he should develop wisdom which leads to the complete destruction of
suffering, to the realization of Nirvana.1 Sometimes the Buddha even went into details about saving money
and spending it, as, for instance, when he told the young man Sigala that he should spend one fourth of his
income on his daily expenses, invest half in his business and put aside one fourth for any emergency.2 Once
the Buddha told Anathapindika, the great banker, one of his most devoted lay disciples who founded for
him the celebrated Jetavana monastery at Savatthi, that a layman, who leads an ordinary family life, has
four kinds of happiness. The firsthappiness is to enjoy economic security or sufficient wealth acquired by
just and righteous means (attki-sukha); the second is spending that wealth liberally on himself, his family,
his friends and relatives, and on meritorious deeds (bhoga-sukha); the third to be free from debts (anana-
sukha); the fourth happiness is to live a faultless, and a pure life without committing evil in thought, word
or deed (anavajja-sukha). It must be noted here that three of these kinds are economic, and that the Buddha
finally reminded the banker that economic and material happiness is 'not worth one sixteenth part' of the
spiritual happiness arising out of a faultless and good life.3 From the few examples given above, one could
see that the Buddha considered economic welfare as requisite for human happiness, but that he did not
recognize progress as real and true if it was only material, devoid of a spiritual and moral foundation. While
encouraging material progress, Buddhism always lays great stress on the development of the moral and
spiritual character for a happy, peaceful and contented society. The Buddha was just as clear on politics, on
war and peace. It is too well known to be repeated here that Buddhism advocates and preaches non-violence
and peace as its universal message, and does not approve of any kind of violence or destruction of life.
Etiquette:
Etiquette is not only a matter of interpersonal relations, but also governs maintenance of the material objects
 20

of Buddhism, such as robes, bowls, icons, and monastery boundaries.

Buddha explains to Sariputta the first expedient out of countless expedient means leading the mass to
Buddha-Wisdom:
Shariputra! Listen carefully

To the Dharma obtained by the Buddhas,

Which by infinitely skilful means,
They expound for all creatures.
This Dharma cannot be understood
Through pondering or analysis.
Like the udumbara,
Seldom seen in flower,
So the Buddhas rarely teach
This subtle, wonderful Dharma.
The Buddha, thoroughly knowing
The thoughts of living beings,
The nature of their desires,
And the ways they tread,
According to their capacity,
With various reasonings, parables,
Terms and tactful ways,
Causes them all to rejoice.
To the dull who have failed,
Under countless Buddhas,
To walk the profound and mystic Way,
But who delight in petty rules,
And to those greedily attached to mortality,
Being harassed by suffering
- To these I teach Nirvana. (Saddharmapundarika Sutra-An Abridged Rendering, pp. 6-7)

Buddhist teaching provides space for both men and women to grow spiritually, and they are equal for their
spiritual potentiality to achieve enlightenment. (Women in Buddhism: Questions and Answers, Qun. 22)

WOMEN IN GLOBALISED BUDDHISM

An Important factor one may find in Buddhism is the Indian cultural baggage which tends to suppress
women. Critical American Buddhists became more aware of the need to do away with unnecessary cultural
burdens and by so doing they have, to a great extent freed Buddhist women from suppressing elements. A
unique characteristic of Buddhism in the US is the strong participation of women in Buddhism. In Asia,
women have limited opportunity both in their role and responsibility toward Buddhism. This not only bars
womens participation in Buddhism but also prevents the natural growth of Buddhism as a whole. (Qun. 36)
Abortion
To the argument which raises a question whether abortion is killing life or not, Buddhism supplies a
detailed explanation of conception and its various stage of formation. This explains the coming together of
sperm and egg, then through 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th week to a stage called Pancasakha or 5 branches
namely head, arms, legs, Life is present through all these stages since conception. To complete killing
there are at least 5 factors:
1. that it has life,
2. knowing that it has life,
3. willingness to kill,
4. try to kill,
 21

5. that life is destroyed.

If one has completed these five factors, killing is completed bearing fruit of action (vipakkarma).
As a Buddhist woman, one may be forced to choose abortion but must be willing to receive the fruit of her
action without trying to explain away the teaching to suits ones choice. (Qun. 28)

Buddhism teaches people to be free themselves from suffering by transcending it. This then can do by being
a lamp unto themselves. When they enkindle their discriminating mind, they are empowered to solve all
sorts of problems confronting them during their earthly journey. Freedom from suffering and resolving all
conflicting situations of life (in family, society and profession) is the greatest relevance of Buddhism to
social action at all times.
He who has understanding and great wisdom does not think of harming himself or another, nor of
harming both alike. He rather thinks of his own welfare, of that of others, of that of both, and of the
welfare of the whole world. In that way one shows understanding and great wisdom. Anguttara
Nikaya (Gradual Sayings) Fours, No. 186

By protecting oneself (e.g., morally), one protects others; by protecting others, one protects
oneself. Samyutta Nikaya (Kindred Sayings), 47; Satipatthana Samy., No. 19

MIDDLE PATH

It is not three-valued logic. It is many-valued logic.