Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research

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Gender-biased Interaction in the Classroom: The

influence of gender and age in the relationship
between teacher and pupil

Charlotta Einarsson & Kjell Granstrm

To cite this article: Charlotta Einarsson & Kjell Granstrm (2002) Gender-biased
Interaction in the Classroom: The influence of gender and age in the relationship between
teacher and pupil, Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 46:2, 117-127, DOI:
10.1080/00313830220142155

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Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research,
Vol. 46, No. 2, 2002

Gender-biased Interaction in the

Classroom: the in uence of gender
and age in the relationship between
teacher and pupil
M
CHARLOTTA EINARSSON & KJELL GRANSTRO
Department of Behavioural Sciences, Linkoping University, S-581 83 Linkoping,
Sweden

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to investigate whether any signs of gender-biased
provocation between teachers and pupils could be traced at the upper level of compulsory school.
In order to examine whether any indications of such communication are present in the classroom
situation, classroom observations were carried out in 40 lessons. The classroom observations
revealed that boys, in general, are given more attention than girls. However, male teachers
increase the attention paid to girls when the pupils get older, while female teachers always give
more attention to boys. Gender is a universal frame factor that is inevitable in classroom
interactions. The results indicate that teachers, as well as other professionals working with
clients, could be involved in unconscious gender-related processes of an aggressive as well as
libidinous nature. This subject is worth paying attention to, even though it is often considered
to be taboo.

Key words: gender; classroom interaction; teacher behaviour; pupil behaviour

INTRODUCTION
Teachers as professionals are permanently involved in interaction with their pupils
when working in the classroom. On the one hand, this interaction could be seen as
a positive dynamic process where a teacher educates, tutors and provides for the
pupils needs. On the other hand, the process could be seen as a confrontation where
the teacher intends to catch the pupils attention and where pupils try to acquire
appropriate space for their own needs and fancies.
There are several international studies (see for example Dyson, 1987; Alton-
Lee & Nuthall, 1993) showing that teachers, independent of national context,
perceive a number of similar pupil behaviours as disturbing and as a hindrance to
their education. Certainly, such a perception of disturbance is of great importance
ISSN 0031-3831 print; ISSN 1430-1170 online/02/020117-11 2002 Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research
DOI: 10.1080/00313830220142155
118 C. Einarsson & K. Granstrom

to teachers daily life in the classroom and their professional activities. On a surface
level, disturbing activities constitute a complication for educational processes and
classroom work and may result in poor work performance. However, on a deeper
level, such pupil behaviours can be perceived, by the teacher, as a personal violation
or insult and thereby constitute a threat to his or her self-perception and self-esteem.
Consequently, there is a risk of teachers becoming rather sensitive to what is
regarded as troublesome behaviour among pupils as this might be perceived as an
attack on the teachers personal qualities.
A study by Merret & Whelldall (1993) demonstrated what kind of pupil
behaviour teachers in England and Wales found troublesome. The most frequently
mentioned disturbing behaviours were lack of motivation (including apathy, lethargy
and failure to carry out instructions), talking out of turn, lack of manners, rudeness,
inattentiveness, lack of concentration, disaffection, noise, hindering other pupils and
verbal and physical aggression.
The teachers answers in the above study were very similar to those obtained
from teachers in St Helena (Jones et al., 1995). The ndings are also in accordance
with results from a Swedish study (Granstrom, 1996). Not explicitly mentioned by
the teachers in any of these studies are behaviours that could be described as
coquettish or sexually enticing. Certainly, in this context we do not mean sexual
invitations but, rather, the exchange of unconscious and sophisticated signals.
Probably, sexual features are so forbidden that they are not perceived at a
conscious level. Nevertheless, young teenage girls are able to send, consciously or
unconsciously, such signals to male teachers, just as young men can behave provoca-
tively towards a female teacher. On the other hand, teachers may, unintentionally,
arouse sexual fantasies among physically mature pupils. This area is de nitely taboo
in the school context and, as far as we know, no studies have been carried out on
this subject.
Studies of the impact of pupil gender on classroom interactions report, to some
extent, contradictory results. Several studies conclude that boys dominate in the
classroom. They get more attention from teachers and interact more with them than
do girls (see for example French & French, 1984; Nairn, 1991, 1995; O hrn, 1993;
Ilatov et al., 1998). Some other research concluded that gender makes no general
difference in the classroom (see for example Warrall & Tsarna, 1987; De Voe, 1991;
Jungwirth, 1991). However, there may be differences in more speci c ways. Jung-
wirth concluded that the strategies used in interactions between boys and their
teachers differ from those used by girls in their interaction with teachers. De Voe
(1991) found that boys are subject to directing and criticising comments or justify-
ing statements from their teachers than are girls. Consequently, more attention from
teachers does not necessarily imply attention in a positive sense. Furthermore, most
research concerning classroom interaction has focused on pupil gender but neglects
the gender of teachers. Surprisingly, teachers are treated as if they were gender-less.
Maybe the contradictory results from different studies are a consequence of neglect-
ing the gender of teachers.
Like other leaders and administrators, the teachers situation is characterized by
loneliness in their position and absence of spontaneous and unconstrained feedback
 Gender-biased Interaction in the Classroom 119

from peers (cf. Kernberg, 1980). A teacher seldom gets to know if his or her
decisions are right or appropriate. Such conditions may all produce anxiety and
vulnerability. Teaching is of a generally invasive nature, especially as a teachers
professional role gives limited protection from outside attacks, such as insults,
provocation or seduction.
Kernberg (1980) holds the opinion that groups and members in an organization
only too readily tempt their leaders into impulsive actions. Such actions could be of
an aggressive or sexual character. The activation of primitive aggressive needs in a
teacher usually depends upon pupil behaviour and group processes in the classroom.
Several researchers have investigated such troublesome pupil behaviours (some of
these studies are mentioned above). However, no attention has been paid to sexual
temptation in the teaching profession. In schools, as well as in other organizations,
it is quite possible that there could be exciting and romanticized pressure around the
teacher which creates an emotional bond between him/her and mature pupils of the
opposite sex. Kernberg is convinced that in normal organizations and under optimal
circumstances such a bond is expressed in a working relationship mildly in ltrated
with sublimated erotic trends (Kernberg, 1980, p. 248). He considers such pro-
cesses as a natural and almost inescapable part of regular life in organizations and,
at best, as a support for the working process. As life in classrooms is characterized
by interpersonal interaction, the same or similar processes as those operating in
other organizations might well be present in the school context.
Teachers in the classroom can be described as targets of pupils feelings,
expectations, disappointments, fears and fantasies. All these projections have to be
handled by them in their professional role. A teachers professional role is, as a
matter of fact, rather ambiguous. Consequently, it could be hard for a teacher to
handle aggressive attacks or sexual temptation directed towards him/her. Other
professionals working with human relations, such as psychologists, social workers
and, above all, psychotherapists are trained to handle their clients projections and
transferences. They are also trained to identify such processes and to use them in
treatment. They have learned to separate attacks and enticements directed at their
professional role from attacks and temptations directed at their personal identity.
Attention has increasingly been focused on gender issues in the analytical situation
(Karme, 1993). Information from such encounters may increase the understanding
of the professional relationship between therapist and patient. A similar profession-
alization process is not prevalent among teachers. As a consequence, a teacher could
be more vulnerable to, and thus more easily become a victim of, clients (pupils)
attacks and temptations than other professionals.
Professional therapists are familiar with concepts such as projection and trans-
ference. This means that they pay attention to such processes in the therapistclient
relation and are trained to handle feelings provoked by the dynamics in the
relationship. As teachers do not have such training, there is an obvious risk that they
handle such situation in an intuitive and private way. For instance, they react in a
more primitive way to projection. Certainly, this is a very natural way of managing
the situation. Another way could be to deny any feelings aroused by the pupils,
especially if some pupils are more provocative than others. Teachers have learned
120 C. Einarsson & K. Granstrom

that all pupils have the right to be treated equally. They are not allowed to openly
like or dislike any individual child. Consequently, one could assume that teachers
would deny such feelings, if asked.
Even if teachers, according to their ethical code, are not allowed to express their
preferences for different pupils, it is not likely that they really like every single pupil
to the same extent and treat them equally. In order to search for evidence of the
above assumptions, the following analyses of a classroom study were carried out.

AIMS OF THE STUDY

The principal aim of this study was to identify any differences in interaction patterns
between male and female teachers and their male and female pupils. Data include
pupils before and after sexual maturity. If there were any signs of gender-biased
interaction which could be interpreted as reactions to sexual signals, they should be
manifested in teachers interactions with their older pupils.

METHOD
The formal interaction between teachers and pupils was observed during normal
lessons at different school levels (intermediate level, age 1012, and upper level, age
1316) of Swedish compulsory school. The approximate sexual maturity boundary
used in this study is that between intermediate and upper school level, which means
below and above the age of 13. Direct observation was used to collect data
concerning the pattern of teacherpupil interaction. In all 40 lessons were observed,
20 at each level. At both levels the number of female and male teachers was equal,
as was the number of lessons in mathematics and Swedish. Thus there were 10 male
and 10 female teachers in each subject at each school level. The ages of the teachers
were between 30 and 55 and all were experienced. At the intermediate level the
pupils were mainly taught by the same teacher in most subjects, while at the upper
level mathematics and Swedish were taught by different teachers. The impact of
subject proved to be almost zero. Consequently, the forthcoming analyses concen-
trate on gender and school level.
The classes observed were all in compulsory comprehensive schools; in all 10
different schools were included in the study. The sample was assumed to represent
ordinary schools and teachers. As only 27% of the teachers in Sweden are men,
sampling was carried out in order to obtain an equal number of male and female
teachers. However, there are no contextual or social differences between the selected
classes educated by female and male teachers.
The purpose of the data collection was to obtain a simple measure of how
visible different teachers and pupils are to each other. The number of turns (replies)
exchanged between a teacher and a pupil during a lesson was chosen as an
indication of mutual visibility. Pupils who are, for some reason, more visible or
present in a teachers preferences are assumed to have been involved in more verbal
exchanges during lessons. For this reason, each turn was registered for all pupils
 Gender-biased Interaction in the Classroom 121

during the lessons observed. This was done by using a map of the pupils places in
the classroom and each turn was noted on this map. This mode of registration made
it possible to indicate who initiated the interaction (teacher or pupil) as well as the
number of turns. A trained observer, well acquainted with classroom interaction,
carried out the observations. The method proved to be simple and reliable; the
correlation between two independent observers in a pilot study was 0.74 (Pearsons
correlation).
A standardized quotient was used to compare the number of interactions in
different classrooms. The interaction quotient is based on turns (replies) exchanged
between teachers and pupils. All turns (T) for the individual pupil were divided by
the time (t) observed. This gives a mean number for the total turns an individual
pupil had with his or her teacher per minute. The interaction quotient (IT) is
expressed by the following formula IT 5 T/t

RESULTS
As the purpose of the speci c analysis of data presented in this study was to identify
any differences in interaction patterns between male and female teachers and pupils
of the same or opposite sex, the analyses covered pupils before and after sexual
maturity. We assume that adolescence appears at about the time of entrance to the
upper level.
The presentation of results, which is based on the interaction quotients, will be
displayed in three parts. The rst part accounts for the general pattern of gender-
dependent interaction. The second part scrutinizes the interaction initiated by
teachers, while the third part concerns interaction initiated by pupils. In order to
visualize any shifts in degree of attention, the presentation will be illustrated by
ANOVA analyses and by means of gures.

Gender-dependen t Interaction
It is evident from the results displayed in Table I and Figure 1 that pupil gender has
a clear impact on the interaction pattern between teachers and pupils.

TABLE I. Interaction between teacher and pupil

Source SS df MS F P

Level (A) 0.005 1 0.005 0.07 0.79

Teacher gender (B) 0.00 1 0.00 0.00 0.97
Pupil gender (C) 0.51 1 0.51 7.64 0.006
A3 B 0.74 1 0.74 10.96 0.001
A3 C 0.05 1 0.05 0.76 0.38
B3 C 0.11 1 0.11 1.59 0.21
A3 B3 C 0.07 1 0.07 0.98 0.32
Residual 56.45 841 0.07
122 C. Einarsson & K. Granstrom

FIG. 1. Interaction between teachers and pupils.

It is also obvious that boys have more frequent interaction with their teacher
during lessons (F 5 7.64, P 5 0.006). Pupil age (F 5 0.07, P 5 0.79) and teacher
gender (F 5 0.00, P 5 0.97) do not seem to have an effect on interaction during
lessons separately, but level and gender of the teacher do have an effect on
interaction (F 5 10.96, P 5 0.001).
This statistical interaction implies that male teachers have more interaction with
their pupils at the intermediate level than do their female colleagues (t 5 2.23,
P 5 0.02). This pattern changes at the upper level, when female teachers have more
interaction with their pupils than do male teachers (t 5 2 2.42, P 5 0.02). In
addition, female teachers interact more frequently with their pupils at the upper level
than at the intermediate level (t 5 2 2.17, P 5 0.03). The pattern of interaction in
the case of male teachers also changes over the two levels, but in the opposite
direction, i.e. male teachers have more frequent interaction with their pupils at the
intermediate level than at the upper level (t 5 2.52, P 5 0.01).
There is also a tendency, although not signi cant (F 5 1.59, P 5 0.21), towards
an interaction effect of the gender of teachers and pupils. This trend indicates that
male teachers switch their focus from boys to girls at the upper level. At the
intermediate level male teachers have more frequent interaction with boys, but at the
upper level they seem to reduce their interaction with boys in favour of girls. This
could be interpreted as a sign of a shift in gender-bias in the male teachers
interaction with their pupils, as they seem to pay more attention to the girls.
However, the evidence is not overwhelming. The above analysis is based on turns
initiated by teachers as well as by pupils. In order to scrutinize the pattern of
interaction initiated by teachers, separated from interaction initiated by pupils, a
division was made, as presented below.
 Gender-biased Interaction in the Classroom 123

Interaction Initiated by Teachers

The patterns of interaction initiated by female and male teachers are illustrated in
Figure 2 (ANOVA values are displayed in Table II).
It is evident from the analyses that female teachers initiate more interactions
with boys than with girls (F 5 5.74, P 5 0.02). This difference is valid for the two
levels. Concerning interaction initiated by male teachers, there is no single
signi cant effect of either level or gender of pupil. However, there is a tendency
towards interaction affecting level and gender of pupils. A separate analysis concern-
ing male teachers interaction with boys and girls discloses that the statistical
interaction noticeable in Figure 2 is almost signi cant (F 5 2.96, P 5 0.09). This
tendency indicates that male teachers initiate more interaction with boys than with
girls at the intermediate level (t 5 1.98, P 5 0.05). At the upper level male teachers
initiate interaction with boys and girls to the same extent (t 5 2 0.49, P 5 0.62).
The conclusion from this analysis has to be that female teachers interact more
frequently with boys than with girls. This pattern is stable irrespective of pupil age.
Male teachers also pay more attention to boys at the intermediate level. This

TABLE II. Interaction initiated by teachers

Source SS df MS F P

Level (A) 0.00 1 0.00 0.14 0.71

Teacher gender (B) 0.11 1 0.11 3.81 0.05
Pupil gender (C) 0.16 1 0.16 5.76 0.02
A3 B 0.01 1 0.01 0.40 0.53
A3 C 0.05 1 0.05 1.77 0.18
B3 C 0.03 1 0.03 0.96 0.33
A3 B3 C 0.03 1 0.03 1.20 0.27
Residual 23.31 841 0.03

FIG. 2. Interaction initiated by teachers.

124 C. Einarsson & K. Granstrom

difference is reduced at the upper level, indicating that male teachers pay relatively
more attention to female pupils as they mature.

Interaction Initiated by Pupils

Interaction with teachers initiated by pupils is presented in Figure 3 (ANOVA
analyses in Table III).
Boys initiate generally more interaction with female teachers than girls do
(F 5 4.60, P 5 0.03). As concluded above (Figure 1), female teachers have more
interaction with their pupils at the upper level. However, it is obvious that the pupils
are responsible for this increased interaction, not the female teachers themselves.
Boys as well as girls become more active and initiate more interaction with female
teachers at the upper level compared with the intermediate level. In general, boys are
more active than girls at both levels. When pupils are older they increase their
interaction with female teachers. This could be interpreted as an increased need for
being visible to female teachers among both boys and girls.

TABLE III. Interaction initiated by pupils

Source SS df MS F P

Level (A) 0.00 1 0.00 0.00 0.97

Teacher gender (B) 0.10 1 0.10 3.66 0.06
Pupil gender (C) 0.10 1 0.10 3.66 0.06
A3 B 0.58 1 0.58 20.67 , 0.0001
A3 C 0.00 1 0.00 0.00 0.98
B3 C 0.03 1 0.03 0.97 0.32
A3 B3 C 0.01 1 0.01 0.20 0.66
Residual 23.06 841 0.03

FIG. 3. Interaction initiated by pupils.

 Gender-biased Interaction in the Classroom 125

From Figure 3 it is obvious that pupils initiate more interaction with male
teachers at the intermediate level than at the upper level. Boys and girls initiate
interaction to the same extent with male teachers at both levels. The conclusion
concerning male teachers has to be that they receive a decreasing amount of
attention as the pupils grow older.
To sum up, female teachers pay more attention to boys than to girls, irrespec-
tive of school level. Male teachers seem to increase their interaction with girls,
compared to boys, as they mature. Pupils increase their interaction with female
teachers and reduce their interaction with male teachers as they grow older. Boys
interact more with female teachers than do girls at both levels. However, there are
no gender differences as regards pupils activities directed at male teachers.

DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to investigate whether any signs of gender-biased
provocation between teachers and pupils could be traced at the upper level of
compulsory school. Teachers were assumed to be rather sensitive to troublesome
behaviour among pupils, thereby easily becoming victims of pupil aggression, as well
as sexuality, more so than, for instance, therapists.
In order to examine whether any indications of gender-biased communication
are present in the lesson situation, classroom observations with respect to frequency
of verbal interaction were carried out. The observations revealed that boys, in
general, are given more attention than girls. These results are in line with a number
of classroom studies (see for example French & French, 1984; Nairn, 1991, 1995;
O hrn, 1993; Ilatov et al., 1998). However, the results also show that this general
pattern is not valid for male teachers at the upper level. When girls grow older they
seem to become more visible to male teachers. This change in the attention of male
teachers has not been demonstrated in any previous research. Further, the results
reveal that boys take the initiative more than do girls in interactions with female
teachers at both levels. So, somewhat simpli ed, we may conclude that: (i) teenage
boys initiate more interactions with female teachers than with male teachers,
compared with girls; (ii) male teachers increase the attention paid to girls, compared
to boys, as they grow older; (iii) female teachers always give more attention to boys.
Certainly, there could be several other reasons than sexuality for the above-
mentioned pattern. However, as the results concern interaction with the opposite
sex, it is not unlikely that slight elements of sexual enticement could be at work. It
should be noted that we are not talking about a conscious or planned behaviour.
Teachers are, of course, aware of differences in interaction with boys and girls, but
this condition may be dif cult to handle as the possible reasons for such differences
in interaction are not often discussed or interpreted. The different focus in male and
female interactions is probably unconscious, but in line with sexual projection, in the
case of teenage boys. The process could be operating in the opposite way in the case
of teachers at the upper level, as both male and female teachers tend to pay more
attention to pupils of the opposite gender.
This means that the results could be taken as indications, but not, of course, as
126 C. Einarsson & K. Granstrom

proof, of the presence of sexuality in regular classroom situations at the upper level.
However, the signs are fairly innocent and there is no reason to sensationalize these
results. In spite of a weak professional role, teachers seem to handle the relations in
a proper way. Their professional role seems to be strong enough to handle any
sexuality, if present, in a proper way in the classroom context. However, the results
indicate that teachers, as well as other professionals working with clients, could be
involved in processes of both an aggressive and a sexual nature. The aggressive
features in classroom work are much discussed and studied, while plausible sexual
elements in teacher and pupil classroom communication are still unexplored. This
subject is worth paying attention to, even though it is often considered to be taboo.
The general pattern of interaction in this study is an increased amount of
communication between female teachers and pupils as the latter grow older. Male
teachers on the other hand decrease their interaction with boys and make girls more
visible. One plausible interpretation could be that girls are usually more mature as
teenagers and therefore take more part in classroom interaction than their male
classmates. However, such an explanation is not con rmed by the interaction
between female teachers and boys, since these interactions also increase. That could
imply that female teachers, in contrast to male teachers, are for some reason more
sensitive and also give attention to childish boys. From the reasoning of Nodding
(1984) and Gilligan (1982) it could be hypothesized that female teachers may be
more caring than male teachers. As a consequence, they attend to boys as well as
girls. Irrespective of what explanation is preferred; there is an obvious need for
further studies. One purpose of the present study was to rise the question of
sexuality in the classroom.
In contrast to aggressive and destructive elements in classroom work, innocent
sexuality could be seen as a creative feature in the daily life in the classroom.
Kernberg (1980) considers that for adult organizations
If and when a functional, mutually respectful, and open work-relationship
between the sexes develops in an organisation, eroticized perhaps, but still
maintaining work boundaries, the exhilarating experience of men and
women who work together as friends can be a most creative experience
and indirectly foster a sexually mature and tolerant atmosphere. (p. 249)
This ought to be valid for the school as well. A primary aim for every school system
is to foster the younger generation as responsible members of society. Besides being
provided with knowledge and skills, every citizen is expected to handle his or her
aggressiveness and sexuality in a proper way. Consequently, it is important that
teachers are informed and aware of their own aggressiveness and sexuality, as well
as that of their pupils. Destructive and aggressive behaviour in the classroom has
been subject to evaluation and research. Maybe the time has come to unveil
sexuality in the classroom.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The Swedish National Agency for Education nanced the research reported here.
 Gender-biased Interaction in the Classroom 127

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