Vitamins http://www.mindmapcharts.com/index.php/notes/biology/2729-vitamin...

Vitamins

Vitamins Organic compounds which are essential for normal growth and
nutrition and are required in small quantities in the diet because
they cannot be synthesized by the body.

Types There are 13 vitamins A, C, D, E, K, B12, and 7 grouped under the

vitamin B complex.
Human body can synthesize vitamin B(niacin) and vitamin D on their
own.
Vitamins are categorized into two groups;
1. Fat soluble Vitamins - A, D, E and K. Lipids such as
triglycerides contain these vitamins, which are absorbed from the
intestine into the bloodstream and then stored in fatty tissue such as
liver.
2. Water soluble Vitamins - Vitamin C, B complex and B 12.
only small amounts of Vitamin C and B complex are stored by the
body and hence, regular intake of these vitamins is necessary.

Vitamin A Functions: normal growth, formation of bones and teeth, maintenance

of night vision, and protecting the linings of the respiratory, digestive,
and urinary tracts against infection.
Vitamin A is absorbed by the body in the form of retinol. Carotene, the
precursor of retinol, is found in various vegetables(carrots) and fruits.
Dietary sources: liver, fish-liver oils, egg yolk and dairy products.
Deficiency diseases: Night blindness, Xerophthalmia,
Keratomalacia, and complete blindness.
Excessive intake leads to loss of appetite, reduced resistance to
infection, skin peeling, stunted growth, hair loss and irregular
menstruation. Excessive intake during pregnancy may cause birth
defects. In infants, excessive intake may cause skull deformities, which
disappear if the diet is corrected.

Vitamin B12 Functions: production of the genetic material, production of red blood
(cyanocobalamin) cells in bone marrow, utilization of folic acid and carbohydrates in the
diet, and functioning of the nervous system.
Dietary sources: liver, kidney, chicken, pork, fish, eggs, and dairy

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products.
Deficiency diseases: Megaloblastic anaemia, sore mouth and tongue,
numbness and tingling in the limbs, depression and memory loss. High
intake of vitamin B12 has no known harmful effects.

Vitamin B 1. Thiamine(vitamin B1)(Aneurin)

complex
Functions: Essential for various enzymes involved in the utilization of
carbohydrates, functioning of nerves, muscles, and the heart.
Dietary sources: whole-grain cereals, wholemeal breads, brown rice,
pasta, liver, kidney, pork, fish, beans, nuts, and eggs.
Mild deficiency results in tiredness, irritability, and loss of appetite.
Severe deficiency causes abdominal pain, constipation, depression,
memory impairment, and beriberi.
In alcoholics, it causes WernickeKorsakoff syndrome, which
leads to loss of memory for recent events although long term memory is
intact.
Vitamin B1 is lost in polished rice.

2. Riboflavin(vitamin B2)

Functions: necessary for enzymes involved in the breakdown and

utilization of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins; the production of energy
in cells; the utilization of other B vitamins; and hormone production by
the adrenal glands.
Dietary sources: Liver, whole grains, milk, eggs, and brewers yeast.
Deficiency disorders: soreness in and around tongue and mouth, eye
disorders such as amblyopia and photophobia.

3. Niacin(Nicotinic acid)

Functions: needed by enzymes involved in the metabolism of

carbohydrates and fats, the functioning of the nervous and
digestive systems, the manufacture of sex hormones, and the
maintenance of healthy skin.
Dietary sources: liver, lean meat, fish, nuts, and dried beans.
Deficiency disorders: Pellagra - causes gastrointestinal disturbances
and erythema, dermatitis, diarrhoea, and nervous or mental disorders.
Pellagra is often linked to over-dependence on maize as a staple food.

4. Pantothenic acid

Functions: essential for the enzymes involved in metabolism of

carbohydrates and fats, manufacture of corticosteroids
and sex hormones, utilization of other vitamins, functioning of the

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nervous system and adrenal glands, and growth and development.

Dietary sources: vegetables, cereals, and animal foods.
Deficiency leads to fatigue, headache, nausea, abdominal pain,
numbness and tingling, muscle cramps, and susceptibility to respiratory
infections. Prolonged deficiency leads to peptic ulcer.

5. Pyridoxine(vitamin B6)

Functions: needed by enzymes and hormones involved in the utilization

of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, manufacture of red blood cells and
antibodies, functioning of the digestive and nervous systems, and
maintenance of healthy skin.
Dietary sources: liver, chicken, pork, fish, whole grains, wheat germ,
bananas, potatoes, and dried beans.
Pyridoxine is also synthesised by intestinal bacteria.
Deficiency may cause weakness, irritability, depression, skin disorders,
inflammation of the mouth and tongue, anaemia, and, in infants,
seizures. In very large amounts, pyridoxine may cause neuritis.

6. Biotin(vitamin H)

Functions: essential for enzymes involved in the breakdown of fatty

acids and carbohydrates and for the excretion of the waste products of
protein breakdown.
Dietary sources: liver, peanuts, dried beans, egg yolk, mushrooms,
bananas, grapefruit, and watermelon.
Biotin is also synthesised by intestinal bacteria.
Deficiency causes weakness, tiredness, poor appetite, hair loss,
depression, inflammation of the tongue, enteritis and eczema.

7. Folic acid

Functions: necessary for enzymes involved in the manufacture of nucleic

acids and consequently for growth and
reproduction, production of red blood cells, and functioning of the
nervous system.
Dietary sources: green vegetables, mushrooms, liver, nuts, dried beans,
peas, egg yolk, and wholemeal bread.
Deficiency disorders: anaemia, sores around the mouth, and, in
children, poor growth.
Severe deficiency may occur during pregnancy or breastfeeding.

Vitamin C Functions: growth and maintenance of healthy bones, teeth, gums,

Ascorbic acid ligaments, and blood vessels; production of certain neurotransmitters

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and adrenal gland hormones; immunity against infection and wound

healing and absorption of iron.
Dietary sources: citrus fruits and vegetables.
Mild deficiency leads to weakness, general aches, swollen gums, and
nosebleeds.
Serious deficiency leads toscurvy and anaemia.
Excessive consumption forms kidney stones(calculi).
Vitamin C is lost when foods are processed, cooked, or kept warm.

Vitamin D Vitamin D2 - Calciferol

Vitamin D3 - Cholecalciferol
Function: regulates the balance of phosphate and calcium in the body,
aids calcium absorption in the intestine, and promote strong bones and
teeth.
Dietary sources: oily fish, liver, and egg yolk.
Vitamin D is synthesized by the action of ultraviolet light on a particular
chemical in the skin.
Deficiency leads to: rickets in children; long-term deficiency in adults
leads to osteomalacia.
Excessive intake of vitamin D may lead to hypercalcaemia and
abnormal calcium deposits in the soft tissues, kidneys, and blood vessel
walls. In children, it may cause growth retardation.

Vitamin E Functions: essential for normal reproduction, maintaining the activities

Tocopherol of certain enzymes and formation of red blood cells.
Vitamin E also protects the lungs and other tissues from damage by
pollutants and slows aging of cells by neutralizing free radicals.
Dietary sources include vegetable oils, nuts, meat, green vegetables,
cereals, and egg yolk.
Deficiency leads to anaemia.

Vitamin K Functions: aids in formation of substances that promote blood

clotting.
Dietary sources: green vegetables, vegetable oils, egg yolk, cheese, pork,
and liver.
Vitamin K is also synthesised by intestinal bacteria.
Deficiency leads to nosebleeds and bleeding from the gums, intestine,
and urinary tract. Severe cases lead to brain haemorrhage.

Vitamin P Bioflavonoid(citrin)
Regulates the permeability of the capillary walls, found in citrus fruit,

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blackcurrants and rosehips.

Other facts Vitamin was first discovered by F.G. Hopkins but the term 'vitamin' was
coined by Casimir Funk.
Vitamin F is obsolete.
Vitamin G is another name for Vitamin B2.
Vitamin B complex was formerly regarded as single vitamin.

Medical Vitamin D - used to treat osteomalacia.

preparations Vitamin A - used to treat severe acne.

Scientific Golden rice - variety of rice (Oryza sativa) produced through genetic
innovations engineering to biosynthesize beta-carotene, a precursor of
vitamin A, in the edible parts of rice.
In 2005, a new variety called Golden Rice 2, which produces up to 23
times more beta-carotene than the original golden rice, was announced.
Although golden rice was developed as a humanitarian tool, it has met
with significant opposition from environmental and anti-globalization
activists.

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Proteins

Protein A protein is a biologically functional molecule made up of polymers of

amino acids. Proteins may also contain sugars (glycoproteins) and lipids
(lipoproteins).
Proteins are an essential part of all living organisms, especially as structural
components of body tissues such as muscle, hair, etc., and as enzymes and
antibodies. Proteins account for more than 50% of the dry mass of most
cells.

Types There are 2 main types of proteins.

Fibrous proteins - insoluble form of proteins which form the structural
basis of many body tissues.
Globular proteins - soluble form of proteins which include all enzymes,
hormones, etc
Based on function, proteins are classified into 8 groups:
Enzymes - act as catalysts in biochemical reactions. e.g. Digestive
enzymes.
Receptors - these proteins mediate between a chemical agent that acts on
nervous tissue and the physiological response. All organs having nerve
endings, which respond to stimuli with the help of receptors.
Hormones - These are regulatory proteins which control the physiological
processes such as growth and development, metabolic rates(insulin) etc
Defensive proteins - These are components of immune system which
protect the organism from external agents such as virus and bacteria. e.g.
antibodies
Transport proteins - these are special type of proteins capable of
transporting substances throughout the circulatory system. e.g.
Haemoglobin carries oxygen, lipoprotein carries lipids etc
Structural proteins - These proteins form a structural part of organism
and provide protection along with response and stimuli against external
agents.
e.g. Keratin(hair, horns, feathers), connective tissues(Collagen, elastin)
etc
Storage proteins - Proteins stored for consumption of offspring. e.g.
protein in eggs(albumin), milk(casein), seeds etc

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Contractile and motor proteins - These proteins are essential for

locomotion. e.g. Actin and myosin.

Metabolism Before absorption, proteins are broken down into their constituent amino
acids. In the absence of carbohydrates, proteins are consumed for energy.
Human body requires a mixture of eight amino acids to maintain
nitrogenous equilibrium. These amino acids are also known as
essential(indispensable) amino acids. These include isoleucine, leucine,
lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and valine. In
addition, infants require histidine.

Dietary Meat, nuts, legumes, egg, milk etc

sources

Deficiency Marasmus:
diseases Cause: malnutrition or semi-starvation conditions. It normally affects the
children below 3 years.
Effects: stunted growth, emaciation, brittle hair, dehydration and loose
folds of skin on the limbs and buttocks due to loss of muscle and fat.
Persistent marasmus can cause mental handicap and impaired growth.
Treatment: providing a high-energy, protein rich diet.

Kwashiorkor: It is one of the most important causes of ill health and

death among children in the tropics. It affects typically the small child
weaned from the breast and not yet able to cope with an adult diet, or for
whom an adequate amount of first-class protein is not available.
Cause: malnutrition.
Effects: stunted growth and a puffy appearance due to oedema,
enlargement of liver, dehydration, and the child loses resistance to
infection, which may have fatal consequences. The more advanced stages
are marked by jaundice, drowsiness, and a fall in body temperature.
Treatment: Child is kept warm and frequently fed with first-class proteins
such as small amounts of milk, and vitamin and mineral tablets. A
nutritious diet is then gradually introduced. Most treated children recover,
but those less than 2 years old may suffer from permanently stunted
growth.

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Lipids

Lipids are organic compounds insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. Lipids form
essential structural component of living cells. Biologically important lipids include fats,
phospholipids, and steroids.

Fats Fats in human beings are a form of body tissue that serves as a source
of energy. It also function as cushion and insulates vital organs. Each
gram of fat can produce 93 Calories. An enzyme called lipase
secreted in the digestive tract, catalyses the breakdown of fats into
individual fatty acids before they are absorbed into the bloodstream.

Composition Fats are made up of two types of molecules namely, glycerol and fatty acids.
Fats are hydrophobic due to the nonpolar nature of C-H bonds in fatty
acids.

Types Fats are divided into 2 main groups, saturated and unsaturated, depending
on the proportion of hydrogen atoms.
Saturated fats:
Fatty acids whose carbon chain cannot absorb any more hydrogen atoms
are called saturated fatty acids.
Animal fats are saturated fats. Excessive consumption of these fats is not
good for health.
Unsaturated fats:
A fatty acid whose carbon chain can absorb additional hydrogen atoms are
called unsaturated fatty acids.
Unsaturated Fats are abundant in fish and vegetable oils such as soya, bean,
maize, sunflower etc
Monounsaturated fatty acids(MUFA) are unsaturated fats with only
one vacant site in carbon chain that could take an extra hydrogen.
Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acids(PUFA): fatty acid whose carbon chain
can absorb relatively high number of additional hydrogen atoms are called
polyunsaturated fats.
Essential fatty acids: Essential fatty acids are a form of unsaturated fatty
acids, which our body cannot synthesise on its own .
e.g. linoleic acid, linolenic acid, omega-3 fatty acids etc..

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Dietary sources: Fatty fish(cod fish), nuts and vegetable oils.

Diseases Atherosclerosis: Major cause of heart strokes and high blood pressures.
caused by fats Cause: excessive consumption of saturated fats.
Formation: fatty deposits inside the arterial walls narrows the arteries and
impede the blood flow.

FAQ What is body fat?

Fat stored beneath the skin and around various internal organs to serve as a
source of energy and provide insulation to vital organs are called body fats
or Adipose tissue. Excessive accumulation of adipose tissue as a result of
eating more food than is metabolized by exercise and the bodys basic
energy needs leads to obesity.
Why fats doesn't mix with water?
Fats separate from water because the hydrogen in water molecules bond
with each other and exclude the fats.
What are hydrogenated vegetable oils?
Hydrogenated vegetable oils are unsaturated fatty acids synthetically
converted to saturated fats by adding hydrogen to prevent them from
becoming rancid.
What are trans-fats?
As a result of hydrogenation, unsaturated fatty acids form trans
arrangement of the carbon atoms adjacent to its double bonds. Trans fats
contribute more to atherosclerosis(cardiovascular disease) by increasing the
ratio of LDL to HDL.

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Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates Essential structural components of living cells and source of

energy for animals. Carbohydrates are essential in formation of
amino acids and fatty acids.

Composition Carbohydrates are composed of Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen.

Hydrogen and Oxygen are composed in the same ratio as water(2:1).

Types Carbohydrates are broadly classified into two groups,

1. Monosaccharides(Simple carbohydrates or simple sugars)
with small molecules.
Major monosaccharides:

Sugar Source

Glucose Occurs naturally in several forms in many food

sources. e.g. dextrose.

Galactose Milk .

Fructose Found in honey and in many ripe fruits.

Glucose is absorbed directly by the body, without any breakdown.

Galactose and fructose are converted into glucose by liver, before their
utilization by body cells.
Surplus glucose is converted and stored in the form of glycogen and fat
by liver, muscles, and fat cells.
Hydrolysis breaks glycogen to form glucose monomers.
2. Polysaccharides(Complex carbohydrates or Starches) are
polymers formed by combination of monosaccharides through
covalent bonds. Polysaccharides are insoluble in water.
Polysaccharides either serve as storage material(glycogen) or forms
building material(cellulose, chitin etc..) for organisms' structures.
Oligosaccharides: carbohydrates containing between two and ten
monosaccharide units linked together.
Disaccharides(double sugars) - formed by combination of two
monosaccharides joined by a covalent bond.
Major disaccharides:

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Disaccharide Source

Sucrose Cane, Beet and many other plants.

Maltose Formed by the action of malt or diastase on

starch.

Lactose One glucose molecule linked to a galactose

molecule. Found only in milk.

These complex sugars are broken down into simple sugars before their
absorption.

Dietary Fruits, cereals and all starch foods.

sources

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Composition of elements in human body

Essential elements:

Element Characteristics % of
Body
mass

Oxygen Oxygen is essential for life. It is absorbed by the lungs and 65.0%
transported by haemoglobin within the erythrocytes to the
tissues.
Within the individual cell it is involved in the production of
adenosine triphosphate(ATP), a compound that stores chemical
energy for muscle cells, by the oxidative metabolism of fats and
carbohydrates.
Hypoxia causes anaerobic metabolism with a resulting build-up
in Lactic acid, the result of muscle cell activity. If severe enough,
the lack of ATP causes a breakdown in cellular function and the
death of the individual.
Indications for oxygen therapy include high altitude, heart
failure, anaemia, pulmonary hypertension, carbon monoxide
poisoning, anaesthesia and post-operative recovery.

Carbon Carbon forms an essential part in all compounds found in living 18.5%
tissues.

Two isotopes of carbon, C11 and C14, are used in medicine.

Carbon-11 is used in positron-emission tomography(PET).
Carbon-14 is used as a tracer element in studying various
aspects of metabolism.

Hydrogen Universal element present in most of the organic 9.5%

compounds.

Nitrogen Essential for all organic compounds involving amino 3.3%

functional group. Especially amino acids which are essential
in formation of protein.

Trace elements:

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Element Characteristics % of
Body
mass

Calcium It is the most abundant mineral in human body. 1.5%

Calcium is essential for cell function, muscle contraction,
the transmission of nerve impulses, and blood
clotting. Calcium is especially needed by the growing child
and the pregnant and nursing mother. The uptake of calcium
by the baby is helped by vitamin D.
Chief sources of calcium are dairy products, eggs, and green,
leafy vegetables.
Hypocalcaemia: Tetany - Clinical neurological syndrome
characterized by muscular twitching and cramps and (when
severe) seizures.
Hypercalcaeima: Calculi(stones) in the kidneys or
gallbladder.
Recommended daily intake:
500 mg for children.
700 mg for adolescents.
500900 mg for adults and
1,200 mg for pregnant or nursing mothers.
Medicinal preparations:
Calcium carbonate(chalk)
Calcium chloride - used as dehydrating agent.
Calcium gluconate - used to prepare calcium injections.
Calcium hydroxide(slaked lime)
Liquor of calcium hydroxide (lime-water)
Calcium lactate - used as supplementary calcium.
Calcium phosphate

Chlorine 0.2%

Magnesium Magnesium is essential for formation of bones and teeth, 0.1%

muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and activation
of many enzymes. The adult body contains around 25 grams of
magnesium, the greater part of which is in the bones.
Dietary sources include cereals, nuts, soya beans, milk, and
fish. More than two-thirds of our daily supply comes from
cereals and vegetables.

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Deficiency leads to muscular weakness and interferes with the

efficient working of the heart.
Medicinal preparations:
Magnesium carbonate and Magnesium trisilicate - Used to
make Antacids.
Sulphate of magnesium(Epsom salts) - Used as purgative.

Phosphorus Phosphorus in combination with calcium forms the 1.0%

bones and teeth. It is also essential for formation of
Phospholipids and nucleic acids.
Some phosphorus-containing compounds such as adenosine
triphosphate(ATP) and Creatine phosphate are essential
participants in the conversion and storage of energy.
Dietary sources include cereals, dairy products, and meat.

Potassium Maintains the normal heart rhythm, regulate the bodys water 0.4%
balance, conduct nerve impulses, and contract muscles.
Deficiency causes nervous disorders and poor muscle
coordination.
Dietary sources of potassium include lean meat, whole
grains, green leafy vegetables, beans, and various fruits, such as
bananas, apricots, dates, and peaches.
Hypokalaemia:
Cause: loss of fluids through diarrhoea and/or vomiting.
Effects: fatigue, drowsiness, dizziness, and muscle weakness.
In more severe cases, there may be abnormal heart rhythms
and muscle paralysis.
Hyperkalaemia:
Cause: excessive intake of potassium supplements, severe
kidney failure, Addisons disease, or prolonged treatment with
potassium-sparing diuretics.
Effects: numbness and tingling, disturbances of the heart
rhythm, and muscle paralysis. In severe cases, there may be
heart failure.

Sodium Sodium helps to regulate the bodys water balance through 0.2%
osmotic pressure and maintain normal heart rhythm and is
involved in conduction of nerve impulses and contraction of
muscles.
The level of sodium in the blood is controlled by the kidneys,

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which eliminate any excess in the urine.

Deficiency is caused due to excessive loss of the mineral
through persistent diarrhoea or vomiting, or profuse sweating.
Symptoms include weakness, dizziness, and muscle cramps. In
severe cases, there may be a drop in blood pressure, leading to
confusion, fainting, and palpitations. Treatment is with
supplements. In hot climates, sodium supplements may help to
prevent heat disorders by compensating for sodium lost
through heavy sweating.
Excessive sodium intake is thought to be a contributory
factor in hypertension. Another adverse effect is fluid
retention, which, in severe cases, may cause dizziness and
swelling of the legs.
Medicinal preparations:
Sodium bicarbonate(baking soda) - used as an antacid in
relieving indigestion associated with increased acidity of the
gastric secretion.
Sodium citrate and Sodium acetate: used as diuretics.

Sulphur Sulphur is an essential constituent of vitamin B1 and several 0.3%

essential amino acids.
It is necessary for manufacture of collagen and is a constituent
of keratin.

Boron < 0.01%

Chromium Aids in glucose metabolism. < 0.01%

Cobalt It is a constituent of vitamin B-12. < 0.01%

Copper Copper forms an essential part of several enzymes. < 0.01%

Excess of copper results in a rare inherited disorder called
Wilsons disease. There is no evidence of dietary deficiency
of copper in humans.
Recommended daily intake:
Adult - 2 mg.
Medicinal preparations:
Copper sulphate(blue stone) - in small doses acts as a powerful
astringent and in larger doses acts as an irritant.
Nitrates of copper - used as topical application on unhealthy
ulcers and growths to stimulate the granulation tissue to heal

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rapidly.

Fluorine In the form of fluoride it is one of the constituents of bone and < 0.01%
teeth. Daily intake of fluorine prevents dental caries and also
aids to reduce the acid-producing ability of microorganisms in
plaque. It is also applied directly to the teeth as part of dental
treatment or used in the form of mouthwashes or toothpastes.
Ingestion of excess fluoride during tooth formation can lead
to fluorosis.

Iodine Iodine is essential to synthesise thyroid hormones(thyroxine). < 0.01%

Iodine has a highly irritating action and, when applied to the
skin, stains the latter dark brown and causes it to peel off in
flakes, while internally it is a violent irritant poison in large
doses.
Due to antiseptic properties Iodine is used to sterilize the
unbroken skin before an operation.
Radioactive iodine is used for diagnosing and treating disease
of the thyroid gland.

Iron Iron is an essential constituent of the red blood corpuscles, in < 0.01%
the form of haemoglobin(the oxygen-carrying pigment). It is
also present in muscle as Myoglobin, and in certain
respiratory pigments.
Iron is absorbed principally in the upper part of the small
intestine and stored in the liver(to a lesser extent in the spleen
and kidneys), for use in the bone marrow to form haemoglobin
in red blood corpuscles.
Recommended daily intake:
Adults - 1520 milligrams. Requirement is high in during
pregnancy.
Medicinal uses:
Treatment of iron-deficiency anaemias. Iron supplements may
cause nausea, abdominal pain, constipation, or diarrhoea and
may colour the faeces black.

Dietary sources include liver, cereals, fish, green leafy

vegetables, nuts, and beans.
Iron deficiency anaemia:
Cause: abnormal blood loss, such as from a peptic ulcer or

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heavy periods and improper diet.

Haemochromatosis:
Cause: excessive iron in the tissues
Effects: Cirrhosis.

Manganese Necessary for normal growth and development of bones. < 0.01%

Molybdenum < 0.01%

Selenium < 0.01%

Silicon < 0.01%

Tin < 0.01%

Vanadium < 0.01%

Zinc Zinc is essential for essential for normal growth, the < 0.01%
development of the reproductive organs, normal functioning of
the prostate gland, healing of wounds, and the manufacture of
proteins and
nucleic acids in the body.
Dietary sources: lean meat, wholemeal breads, whole grain
cereals, dried beans, and seafood.
Deficiencies:
Deficiency of zinc results in lack of growth, slow sexual
development and anaemia.
Deficiency is also associated with a skin disorder known as
acrodermatitis enteropathica.
In children, zinc deficiency impairs growth and delays
sexual development.
Prolonged excessive intake of zinc may interfere with the
intestinal absorption of iron and copper, leading to a deficiency
of these minerals.
Symptoms of deficiency include impairment of taste and
loss of appetite; there may also be hair loss and inflammation
of the skin, mouth, tongue, and eyelids.
Medicinal preparations:
Zinc chloride + Zinc sulphate - used as an astringent
mouthwash.
Zinc sulphate - used in the form of eye-drops in the treatment
of certain forms of conjunctivitis.

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Zinc oxide is included in many preparations for treating skin

and scalp disorders.
Zinc oxide, zinc stearate, and zinc carbonate are made up in
dusting powders, in ointments, in paste bandages or suspended
in water as lotions for the astringent action they exert upon
abraded surfaces of the skin.
Zinc is a main ingredient in ointment preparations used in
treating ringworm.

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Antibiotics

Antibiotics Literally antibiotics are chemical substances extracted from a mould

or bacterium that can kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms.
Antibiotics - substances from one microorganism that can kill or
inhibit the growth of another microorganism.
Semisynthetic antibiotics - antibiotic substances derived from a
substance produced by a microorganism.

First Penicillin(derived from the mould Penicillium notatum).

antibiotic Discovered by: Sir Alexander Fleming in 1928.

Drug Antibiotics destroy the cell wall, inhibits protein and nucleic acid
mechanism synthesis and synthesis of other essential metabolites. Antibiotics,
such as penicillin and its derivatives, prevent the synthesis of bacterial
cell wall called peptidoglycan.
Since gram-positive cells are composed of more peptidoglycan, these
antibiotics are most effective against gram-positive bacteria.

Types Narrow spectrum antibiotics:

Antibiotics capable of working on limited types of bacteria, such as
penicillin are called narrow spectrum antibiotics.
Wide spectrum antibiotics:
Antibiotics that work on many types of bacteria by preventing cell wall
synthesis, without affecting the host cells are called wide spectrum
antibiotics. These include cephalosporins, bacitracin, isoniazid,
and vancomycin.
Inhibitors of protein synthesis:
Antibiotics that work on many types of bacteria by interfering with
ribosome function such as chloramphenicol, erythromycin,
tetracycline, streptomycin, and gentamicin.
Inhibitors of nucleic acid synthesis:
Antibiotics that inhibit nucleic acid synthesis either interfere with
DNA replication or transcription, may also harm the host. Some of the
DNA replication inhibiting antibiotics include Rifampin,
quinolones, nalidixic acid, nofloxacin, and ciprofloxacin.
Competitive inhibitor antibiotics such as Sulfanilamide, a
sulfa drug, mimics the structure of Para Amino Benzoic Acid(PABA)

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and competes to bind with the enzyme that normally binds PABA,
inhibiting the synthesis of folic acid.
Humans are not affected, since, humans obtain folic acid through diet
rather than synthesizing it.

Important Bacitracin Effective against several types of

antibiotics Gram-positive organisms.

Cephalosporins Broad spectrum antibiotics.

Chloramphenicol Used against serious infections such as

typhoid fever.

Ciprofloxacin Used against anthrax infections.(Trade

name: Cipro)

Erythromycin Used to treat infections caused by gram

positive bacteria.

Gentamicin Used to treat urinary tract infections.

Isoniazid Used to treat tuberculosis

Penicillin Used in the treatment of various infections.

Quinolones Used against gram negative organisms

Rifampin Used to treat tuberculosis.

Streptomycin Used to treat Tuberculosis

Sulfa drugs Used to inhibit the growth of bacteria that

require PABA.

Tetracycline Used to treat infections.

Vancomycin Used against resistant strains of

streptococcus and staphylococcus.

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Algae

Algae Aquatic photosynthetic eukaryotic organisms.

Kingdom Protista

Characteristics Cell structure: Eukaryotic.

Categories: Algae are grouped into seven categories.
Phototrophic: uses energy from sunlight to synthesize organic
compounds for nutrition.
Pigments: Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll b, Chlorophyll c, Carotenoids(-
carotene), Phycobilins and other accessory pigments that absorb light of
different wavelengths.
Reproduction:
Asexual reproduction: some employ mitosis, while others undergo
fragmentation of cells from colonies or from multicellular aggregates or
by produce spores that develop into mature organisms.
Sexual reproduction: involves meiosis, they produce haploid
gametes that combine to form diploid zygotes, a process that results in
greater genetic variation.

Important Algae Golden algae: contains Chlorophyll c and carotenoid called

types fucoxanthin that give them a yellowish brown color.
Fire algae: consists of the dinoflagellates, unicellular algae that also
possess chlorophyll c. This algae have capability to produce oil droplets,
but also store energy as starch. Dinoflagellates are known for their
tendency to form algal blooms.
Yellow green Algae(Xanthophyta): They are unicellular and
contain chlorophyll c.
Red algae: Phycobilins a form of photosynthetic pigments can
capture green and blue light that penetrates deep into the water,
allowing the red algae to survive at greater depths than other algae.
Some red algae have cell walls made of calcium carbonate and play a
role in building coral reefs.
Brown and red algae together constitute seaweed. Some brown
algae can reach up to 100 feet in length.

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Niche Aquatic system: Plays the prominent role as primary

producers.

Ecological Ecosystem: They produce most of the planets oxygen.

Significance Human food chain: Major source of iodine and protein for many
human societies.

Imbalances Sudden increase in nutrients leads to overgrowth of algae in

waterbodies(eutrophication) and disturbs the food webs.
Increased decomposition of algae results in overconsumption of oxygen
in the waterbodies, resulting in the death of
other microorganisms in the ecosystem and increase in BOD.
Red tide: A phenomenon of discoloration of seawater caused by a
bloom of toxic red dinoflagellates calledGymnodinium breve. During
the spring and fall, the waters of the shores of the Pacific, Gulf Coast,
and New England states churn, carrying an abundance of nutrients to
the surface. These conditions allow Gymnodinium breve to thrive, giving
the water a reddish appearance. The algae secrete products that are
toxic to fish and other marine organisms and that concentrate in
shellfish. Though the toxin is harmless to shellfish, it can be harmful
to humans who ingest it, causing neuromuscular problems
such as numbness.

Economic Algae Benefits

significance
Gelidium and Important sources of agar, a substance
Gracilaria that microbiologists use to thicken culture
media and also to produce the gelatin
capsules that contain drugs or vitamins.

Purple seaweed Produces Carrageen, a substance used in

food production, cosmetics, and
pharmaceutical industries.

Red and Brown Used as food source.

algae Kelps(brown algae) - a good source of Iodine.
Also produces algin, a gelling agent used in many
foods such as ice cream and in substances such as
toothpaste. Seaweeds also contain many
vitamins and minerals.

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Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome(AIDS)

AIDS Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome

First reported 1981

Etiology AIDS is caused by theretrovirus called Human

Immunodeficiency Virus(HIV) of Lentivirus family.
There are two genetic but antigenically different variants of HIV
noted among AIDS patients.
1. HIV-1 - commonly found in U.S., Europe, and Central Africa.
2. HIV-2 - commonly found in West Africa.
AIDS also occur in other species such as
1. Felines or cats - Feline Immunodeficiency Virus(FIV) of
Lentivirus family.
2. Monkeys - Simian Immunodeficiency Virus(SIV) of Lentivirus
family.

Epidemiology HIV transmission occurs broadly through exchange of blood or body

fluids contaminated by the virus or virus-infected cells.
Sexual transmission is responsible for more than 75% of all cases of
HIV transmission and especially heterosexual transmission
accounts for most infections. Transmission among intravenous drug
abusers occurs through shared needles, syringes etc contaminated
with HIV. About 1% of all AIDS cases in infants results from vertical
transmission of virus from infected mother to the fetus or newborn.
Mother-to-infant vertical transmission occurs in three
modes
1. In utero - through placental infection
2. Intrapartum - during delivery and
3. Breast feeding.
HIV cannot transmit through normal day-to-day personal contacts
and there is no evidence of infection through insect bites.

Structure of HIV-1 virion is spherical in shape. The virus core contains:

HIV 1. Capsid protein p24
2. Nucleocapsid protein p7/p9
3. Two copies of genomic RNA and

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4. Three viral enzymes(protease, reverse transcriptase, and

integrase).
Capsid protein or p24 is the most readily detected viral antigen
and is therefore the target for the antibodies used to diagnose
HIV infection in blood screening. Extreme variability in antigen
structure poses a formidable barrier for vaccine development.

Symptoms Initial stage symptoms include fever, headache, sore throat, and
swollen lymph nodes.
Symptoms post clinical latency include swollen lymph nodes, fever,
diarrhea, weight loss, and fatigue.

Pathogenesis HIV is a retrovirus, which has the ability to reproduce by

synthesizing DNA from the RNA genome. It mainly infects
immune system and CNS.
Infection and progression of virus occurs through following stages,
1. The retrovirus inserts the synthesized DNA into a host
chromosome.
2. The enzyme called reverse transcriptase in the capsid reads
the RNA template and synthesize the DNA from it.
3. After the penetration of virus into the host cell, the genome gets
converted into DNA.
4. This DNA enters into the host genome and reside dormant for a
long time.
5. Future stimulation of immune system by an unknown cause
activates the replication of virus.
6. Newly assembled virions(a complete virus particles) are released
which subsequently affect other cells and destroys the T cells
having CD4 receptors.
7. B and T lymphocytes attack and destroy the virus from
circulation, but the virus persists in the lymph nodes.
8. Virus replicates at a faster rate than the body can replenish its T
cells and infects other immune system components such as
monocytes, macrophages, and B cells but does not kill these cells,
so they serve as an additional and continual source of new
virions.
9. The person gradually loses the ability to fight infections and
begins to develop opportunistic infections(Diseases caused
by a microorganism that is pervasive in the environment and to
which people are generally resistant, but that affects someone

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with
an impaired immune system).
10. When CD4 T cell count reduces to less than 200 per cubic
millimeter of blood(normal range is between 500 and 1,800),
common opportunistic infections such as toxoplasmosis,
histoplasmosis, Pneumocystis pneumonia, cervical cancer,
herpes, hepatitis C, candidiasis, bacterial diarrheas, and
tuberculosis attacks easily.
11. Successive suppression and inactivity of immune system leads to
the proliferation of diseases and gradual deterioration of the
body.

Diagnosis Two types of diagnosis are common, which includes screening a

blood sample for the presence of antibodies against the virus.
1. Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay(ELISA) -
detects antibodies specific for viral proteins. The test
takes a few weeks to get results. The production of a detectable
level of antibodies by the specific immune system can take up to
eight weeks after the initial exposure to the virus, so this test is
not much accurate when performed immediately after infection.
2. Western Blot Analysis - detects the presence of HIV
proteins in the blood and is used toconfirm a positive
antibody screen result. Results from these tests can be
obtained within 20 minutes.

Treatments There is no cure for AIDS. The drugs are expensive and causes
serious side effects. All contemporary drugs can either slow or stop
viral replication but cannot inactivate all viral particles, which
makes eradication impossible.
Also the problem of the rapid mutation rate exacerbates the
situation to formulate a vaccine for the virus.
Antiviral therapy effectively reduces mother-to-child transmission,
but only 5 percent of women receive this therapy.

Drugs Reverse transcriptase inhibitors:

Reverse transcriptase inhibitor drugs work by inhibiting the enzyme
and halting the life cycle of the virus.
e.g. Azidothymidine(AZT) was the first drug approved for
treating HIV infection.
Protease inhibitors:

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Protease inhibitor drugs work by interfering with a viral protein

called HIV protease. Without this protein the viral particles
cannot assemble properly and become inert.
Fusion inhibitors inhibit the viruses from fusing with the host cell
membranes and stops the replication of virus.
e.g. Selzentry a drug that works by blocking a receptor CCR5, that
the virus often uses to gain entry into the hosts white blood cells.
Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy(HAART) uses
Cocktail drugs(a combination of three or more drugs with
different mechanisms of action) to overcome potential resistance.
HIV mutates very rapidly and quickly becomes resistant to a
once-effective drug.

Statistics Around 95% of HIV infections are recorded in developing countries.

AIDS is the fifth major cause of death in adults between the ages of
25 and 44.
Africa alone carries more than 50% of the HIV patients.
Around 90 percent of the children infected with HIV belong to
sub-Saharan Africa.

Liable factors. Injected drug use.

Commercial prostitution.
Refusal of men to wear a condom during sex.
Forced sex.
Extramarital sex affairs.

Govt. Schemes Govt. has setup State AIDS bodies in 25 states and 7 union
territories in 1992.
Indias first National AIDS Control Programme NACP-I was
launched in 1992
National AIDS Control Organization (NACO) was put into
operation.
The National AIDS Committee was formed in the Ministry of Health
and Family Welfare.

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Types of Addictive drugs

Drug Source Effects

Alcohol, Alcoholic drinks etc.. Sniffing of the drug, damages the brain
barbiturates, directly and also damages the heart, kidneys,
benzodiazepines, and lungs.
and volatile
substances.

Caffeine Coffee, tea, and soft It stimulates the central nervous system and
drinks. it is the only addictive substance not
prohibited in children.

Cannabis Hemp(marijuana or It impairs memory and learning. Causes

hashish) inability to focus and coordinate.

Cocaine Cocaine derived from Highly addictive.

coca and
Amphetamines

Hallucinogens Natural substances: These drugs cause mind-altering effects

1. Psilocybin in magic resulting in unpredictable short term peaks
mushrooms. in blood pressure, body temperature, heart
2. Mescaline in cactus. rate, sweating etc..
Synthetic
compounds:
1. Lysergic acid
diethylamide [LSD]
2. MDMA or ecstasy
3. Phencyclidine [PCP]
or angel dust.

Nicotine Tobacco Gradually destroys the autonomic nervous

system and deteriorates the skeletal muscles.

Opiates 1. Opium Highly addictive.

2. Morphine
3. Heroin
4. Codeine and

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5. Synthetic opiates.

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Branches of Biology

Branch Study

Aerobiology the study of airborne organic particles.

Agriculture the study of producing crops from the land, with an emphasis on
practical applications.

Anatomy the study of form and function, in plants, animals, and other
organisms, or specifically in humans.

Arachnology the study of arachnids(Air-breathing arthropods).

Astrobiology the study of evolution, distribution, and future of life in the

universealso known as exobiology, exo-palaeontology and bio
astronomy..

Biochemistry the study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and
function, usually a focus on the cellular level.

Bioengineering the study of biology through the means of engineering with an

emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to
biotechnology.

Biogeography the study of the distribution of species spatially and temporally.

Bioinformatics the use of information technology for the study, collection, and
storage of genomic and other biological data.

Biomathematics the quantitative or mathematical study of biological processes,

with an emphasis on modelling.

Biomechanics often considered a branch of medicine, the study of the

mechanics of living beings, with an emphasis on applied use
through prosthetics or orthotics..

Biomedical the study of the human body in health and disease.

research

Biophysics the study of biological processes through physics, by applying

the theories and methods traditionally used in the physical
sciences.

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Biotechnology a new and sometimes controversial branch of biology that

studies the manipulation of living matter, including genetic
modification and synthetic biology.

Botany the study of plants.

Building biology the study of the indoor living environment.

Cell biology the study of the cell as a complete unit, and the molecular and
chemical interactions that occur within a living cell.

Conservation the study of the preservation, protection, or restoration of the

biology natural environment, natural ecosystems, vegetation, and
wildlife

Cryobiology the study of the effects of lower than normally preferred

temperatures on living beings.

Developmental the study of the processes through which an organism forms,

biology from zygote to full structure.

Ecology the study of the interactions of living organisms with one

another and with the non-living elements of their environment.

Embryology the study of the development of embryo (from fecundation to

birth).

Entomology the study of insects.

Environmental the study of the natural world, as a whole or in a particular area,

biology especially as affected by human activity

Epidemiology a major component of public health research, studying factors

affecting the health of populations.

Ethology the study of animal behaviour.

Evolutionary the study of the origin and descent of species over time.
biology

Genetics the study of genes and heredity.

Herpetology the study of reptiles and amphibians.

Histology the study of cells and tissues, a microscopic branch of anatomy.

Ichthyology the study of fish..

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Integrative biology the study of whole organisms.

Limnology the study of inland waters.

Marine biology the study of ocean ecosystems, plants, animals, and other living
beings.

Medicine the science and art of healing. It encompasses a variety of

healthcare practices evolved to maintain and restore health by
the prevention and treatment of illness.

Microbiology the study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their

interactions with other living things.

Molecular biology the study of biology and biological functions at the molecular
level, some cross over with biochemistry.

Mycology the study of fungi

Neurobiology the study of the nervous system, including anatomy, physiology

and pathology.

Oceanography the study of the ocean, including ocean life, environment,

geography, weather, and other aspects influencing the ocean.

Oncology the study of cancerprocesses, including virus or mutation,

Oncogenesis, angiogenesisand tissues re-mouldings..

Ornithology study of birds

Palaeontology the study of fossils and sometimes geographic evidence of

prehistoric life.

Parasitology the study of parasites and parasitism.

Pathology the study of diseases, and the causes, processes, nature, and
development of disease.

Pharmacology the study and practical application of preparation, use, and

effects of drugs and synthetic medicines.

Physiology the study of the functioning of living organisms and the organs
and parts of living organisms.

Phytopathology the study of plant diseases (also called Plant Pathology).

Population biology the study of groups of conspecific organisms, including.

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Population ecology the study of how population dynamics and extinction.

Population the study of changes in gene frequencies in populations of

genetics organisms.

Psycho biology the study of the biological bases of psychology.

Socio biology the study of the biological bases of sociology.

Structural biology a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry and

biophysicsconcerned with the molecular structure of biological
macromolecules.

Virology the study of viruses and some other virus-like agents.

Zoology the study of animals, including classification, physiology,

development, and behaviour..

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Taxonomy of Human Beings

Taxonomic Name Common name MYA

rank

Domain Eukaryote Cells with a nucleus 2,100

Kingdom Animalia Animals 590

Phylum Chordata Vertebrates and closely related invertebrates 530

Subphylum Vertebrata Vertebrates 505

Superclass Tetrapoda Tetrapods 395

Unranked Amniota Amniotes, Tetrapods that are fully 340

terrestrially-adapted

Class Mammalia Mammals 220

Subclass Theriiformes Mammals that birth live young (i.e. non-egg-

laying)

Infraclass Eutheria Placental mammals (i.e. non-marsupials) 125

Magnorder Boreoeutheria Supraprimates, bats, whales, most hoofed

mammals, and most carnivorous mammals

Superorder Euarchontoglires Supraprimates (primates, rodents, 100

rabbits, tree shrews, and colugos)

Grand order Euarchonta Primates, colugos and tree shrews

Mirorder Primatomorpha Primates and colugos 79.6

Order Primates Primates 75

Suborder Haplorrhini "Dry-nosed" (literally, "simple-nosed") 40

primates (apes, monkeys, andtarsiers)

Infraorder Simiiformes "Higher" primates (or Simians) (apes,

old-world monkeys, and new-world monkeys)

Parvorder Catarrhini "Downward-nosed" primates (apes and 30

old-world monkeys)

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Superfamily Hominoidea Apes 28

Family Hominidae Great apes(Humans, chimpanzees, gorillas, 15

and orang-utans)

Subfamily Homininae Humans, chimpanzees, and gorillas 8

Tribe Hominini Genera Homo and Australopithecus 5.8

Subtribe Hominina Contains only the Genus Homo 2.5

Genus Homo Humans 2.5

Species (Archaic) Homo Modern humans 0.5

sapiens

Subspecies Homo sapiens Fully anatomically modern humans 0.2

sapiens

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