EXPLOSIVE SABOTAGE

Mahfodzah md padzi
 INTRODUCTION
DAMAGE BY EXPLOSIVE SABOTAGE continues
to be a serious and increasing threat to structures all
over the world.

In such accidents, positive identification of damages

caused by the explosive forces is extremely important.

This task becomes dicult because of the extensive

subsequent damage to the struc- ture by the crash
impact forces.
 INTRODUCTION
Explosive chemicals under suitable impulse undergo decomposition at
a very fast rate.

In the primary zone of explosion, that is, close to the detonating

charge, the energy is sucient to shatter the aircraft material

Away from this primary zone, the forces may not be sucient to
shatter the material but can produce large tears.

The pieces from these two zones have certain characteristic features,
such as surface markings, edge characteristics, specific shapes, and
microstructural changes that could have been caused only by explosive
forces.
SIGNATURES OF EXPLOSION

In aircraft accidents, fractures of metals caused by

explosive forces are distinct from those caused by
normal crash impact.

The signatures of explosive deformation and fracture

are found only in a small fraction of shatter fragments.

Disintegration of such ductile metals as aluminum

into a very large number of tiny fragments is a feature
not normally found in wreckages due to other causes.
ments of aircraft materials that disintegrated as a result of the ex-
plosion. These have been useful in the detection of explosive sab-
otage of aircraft (Ref 26).
Three major accidents have taken place in the history of Indian
civil aviation due to mid-air explosion: the Super Constellation air-
6.1.1 Petaling and Curling
The metal nearest to the explosive charge fractures first as a
result of the high-intensity shock. The adjacent areas are re-
strained. Hence, the part that fractured first tends to curl over onto
the restrained area, away from the blast center. Figure 6.1 shows

PETALING AND CURLING

craft, Kashmir Princess of Air India over the South China Sea, in
1955; the Boeing 737 aircraft, VT-ECR, of Indian Airlines on a
scheduled flight from Trivandrum to Madras, in 1979; and the
Boeing 747 aircraft, VT-EFO, Kanishka, of Air India over the At-
the typical petaling and curling on the reverse side of a sheet sub-
jected to explosion.

lantic Ocean, in 1985, during a scheduled flight from Montreal to 6.1.2 Chemical Residues
London. The details of the latter two are described in later sections. When an explosive detonates near a structure, the decomposi-
Explosive chemicals under suitable impulse undergo decom- tion is never complete, and hence, residues of the explosive chem-
position at a very fast rate. This liberates a large amount of energy ical or its decomposition products get deposited on nearby sur-
The metal nearest to the
with the evolution of a large volume of gas at very high pressure faces. Modern high explosives such as trinitrotoluene (TNT),
and temperature. Particle velocities during explosion can be as
explosive charge fractures first
high as 8000 m per second. Pressures generated can be of the order
of 200,000 to 400,000 atm and temperatures of the order of
3000 K. as a result of the high-
In the primary zone of explosion, that is, close to the detonating
intensity shock. The adjacent
charge, the energy is sufficient to shatter the aircraft material. The
primary fragments are either those of the container of the explosive
areas are restrained. Hence,
or the metal in contact with the explosive device. Away from this
the part that fractured first
primary zone, the forces may not be sufficient to shatter the ma-
terial but can produce large tears. The pieces from these two zones
tends to curl over onto the
have certain characteristic features, such as surface markings, edge
characteristics, specific shapes, and microstructural changes that
restrained area, away from the
could have been caused only by explosive forces. These are the
signatures that help in confirming damage due to explosion.
blast center. Figure shows the
typical
6.1 petaling
Signatures of Explosion and curling on
In the
aircraft reverse sideof metals
accidents, fractures of acaused
sheet
by explosive Fig. 6.1 Petaling and curling on the reverse side of a sheet subjected to
forces are distinct from those caused by normal crash impact explosive fracture
subjected to explosion.
 CHEMICAL RESIDUES

When an explosive detonates near a structure,

the decomposition is never complete, hence,
residues of the explosive chemical or its
decomposition products get deposited on nearby
surfaces.

Micro- chemical analysis is complementary to

metallurgical examination
 SHAPES OF FRAGMENTS

Wire and Rod Curled Curved

Spalling
Fragments Fragments. Fragments
When fracture occurs in sheet Some of the Explosions
occurs in sheet metal due to fragments assume produce shock
metal due to explosion shallow shapes with waves both
explosion and results results in a tear small radii of longitudinal and
in a tear, the free the free end of the curvature. These are transverse
end of the strip of strip of metal is not formed by The encounters
metal is subjected to subjected to high impact forces and between the
high acceleration acceleration forces their presence in the various waves
forces while the formation of tight wreckage may be create highly lo-
other end is still rolls of one or two taken as an calized stress
attached to the main turns in thin sheet indication of inhomogeneities,
sheet. and spirals in explosive damage. which lead to
thicker sheets peculiar fractures.
 and potassium nitrate from gun powder. Curved Fragments. Some of the fragments assume shallow this s
6.1.3 Shapes of Fragments are not formed by impact forces and their presence in the wreckage
shapes with small radii of curvature, as shown in Fig. 6.3. These Sp
ShapesWire
of Fragments
and Rod Fragments. The fragments shattered from by
are not formed theimpactmay
forcesbeandtaken
theiras an indication
presence of explosive damage.
in the wreckage
spike
mayshapes.
be taken Spalling.
as an indication Explosions
of explosive damage. produce shock waves both longitudinal
re and primary zone of The
Rod Fragments. explosion have
fragments certainfrom
shattered characteristic
the Some
size r
ry zoneof them arehave
of explosion in the form
certain of thin rods,
characteristic their
shapes. Some Spalling.
cross section Explosions
being a and transverse,
produce whichboth
shock waves traverse through the thickness of metal. As
longitudinal
m are in the form of thin rods, their cross section being awhen and transverse, which traverse
the wavesthrough the the
meet thickness
edgesofofmetal. As
the sheet, additional waves are cre-
parallelogram or triangular. These are formed two 45! shears
elogramrun
SHAPES OF FRAGMENTS
or triangular.
across the These are formed
thickness of awhen
metaltwosheet,
45! shears
cross the thickness of a metal sheet, parallel to each other or
intersecting at an angle. The length-to-thickness ratio
ecting at an angle. The length-to-thickness ratio of such frag-
mentsinisthegenerally
is generally range 20:1intothe range 20:1 to 50:1.
50:1.
the waves
parallelated.
to each
The
of
calized such
meet
other
stress
the

frag-
edges
or between
encounters
of
calized
Fig.
inhomogeneities,
the sheet, additional waves
the various waves create highly lo-
are cre-
ated. The encounters between the various waves create highly lo-
stress inhomogeneities, which lead to peculiar fractures. A
6.2
which lead to peculiar
A curled
compression wave through the sheet metal is reflected asthe
compression wave through
fractures. A
fragment
sheet metal is reflected as a tension
a tension
wave from the rear surface wave from
of the theTheir
sheet. rear interference
surface of the sheet. Their interference results
results
in a fracture
in a fracture on a plane parallel on asurface.
to the sheet plane parallel
This phenom-to the sheet surface. This phenom-
enon 6.4
enon is called spalling. Figure is called
shows spalling. Figurefragment
a typical spalled 6.4 shows a typical spalled fragment
where part of the thickness is lost.
where partSpalled
of thefragments
thickness areisfound
lost. inSpalled fragments are found in
the primary zone of explosion.
the primary zone of explosion.
6.1.4 Edge Features
6.1.4 Edge Features
Reverse slant fracture is a characteristic feature that can be
Reverse produced
observed on the edges of fragments slant fracture is a (Fig.
by explosion characteristic feature that can be
6.5). The metal has failedobserved
in a 45! on
slantthe edgesover
fracture of fragments
a short dis- produced by explosion (Fig.
tance. The fracture continues
6.5).inThethe same
metalgeneral direction
has failed in but withslant fracture over a short dis-
a 45!
the slope of the slant reversed.
tance. The Thefracture
frequency of the reversal
continues in theofsame general direction but with
this slant fracture is greatest close to the explosion center.
the slope of the slant reversed. The frequency of the reversal of
Spikes. By a combination of tear and shear forces, a series of
spikes are formed alongthis the slant fracture
fracture edges inissmall
greatest close of
fragments to the explosion center.
size ranging from 6 to 50 mm. Spikes. By a combination
The number of spikes rangesof from
tear and shear forces, a series of
spikes are formed along the fracture edges in small fragments of
size ranging from 6 to 50 mm. The number of spikes ranges from
.2 A curled fragment

Fig. 6
Fig. 6.2 A curled fragment Fig. 6.3 A curved fragment

Fig. 6.4 A spalled fragment. Note the fracture on a plane parallel to the
 EDGE FEATURES
a few to several dozen. The spikes need not be sharp; they can 6.1.5 Sheet
also be wavy. Figures 6.6 and 6.7 show a typical set of spikes on Craters. Exp
the fracture edge of a fragment. These are produced only by ex- nation, these po
plosive forces and not by any other means. These jets impi
merous craters,
with raised rim
Reverse slant fracture Spikes. and filler materi
duce these crate
Presence of thes
ical detonation.
can be observed on the edges of By a combination of tear and shear Metal Depo
metal surface c
fragments produced by explosion forces, a series of spikes are formed deposited in reg
posits are gene
The metal has failed in a 45oC along the fracture edges
Chapter 6: Explosive Sabotage / 47
in small lyzed. Residues
Surface Eros
slant fracture over a short
a few to several dozen. The spikes need not be sharp; they can
fragments of size ranging from 6 to
6.1.5 Sheet Surface Features
previously men
can be seen as
distance.
also be wavy. Figures 6.6 and 6.7 show a typical set of spikes on
the fracture edge of a fragment. These are produced only by ex-
50
Craters. mm.
Fig. 6.5
Explosive Reverse slant fracture
charges contain minute porosity. On deto-
nation, these pores collapse to form tiny gas jets of high velocity.
thick sheets. In
finding eroded f
plosive forces and not by any other means. These jets impinge on the sheet metal surface and produce nu- Rippling. De
merous craters, ranging in size from pinpoint to pinhead, usually duces a rippled
with raised rims. Particles of incompletely detonated explosives can happen whe
and filler materials can also strike the sheet metal surface and pro- velocity shock
duce these craters. These craters cannot form by any other means. also be produce
Presence of these craters is a conclusive proof of damage by chem- velocity.
ical detonation. Figure 6.8 shows typical craters. Fissures. By
Metal Deposits. High-velocity shock waves moving over a of a shatter frag
metal surface can erode and transport the metal, which can get open cracks run
deposited in regions away from the center of explosion. Such de- in tiny fragmen
posits are generally loose and can be easily peeled off and ana-
lyzed. Residues of explosives may be found on such deposits.
Surface Erosion. Whenever metal has been removed by the 6.1.6 Micro
previously mentioned mechanism, the remaining parent surface Deformation
can be seen as severely eroded. This is generally observable in strain rates, of t
Fig. 6.5 Reverse slant fracture thick sheets. In thin sheets, fragmentation follows erosion, and changes, namel
finding eroded fragments
Fig. 6.6 inSpikes
a wreckage is generally
on the fracture edge ofdifficult.
a fragment der such condit
Rippling. Deformation of the surface layers sometimes pro-
SHEET SURFACE FEATURES
Craters Metal Deposits Surface Erosion Rippling Fissures

Particles of High-velocity Whenever metal Deformation of The numerous

incompletely shock waves on a has been the surface open cracks run
detonated metal surface can removed, the layers through the
explosives and erode and remaining parent sometimes sheet thickness.
filler materials transport the surface can be produces a This feature is
can also strike metal,deposited seen as severely rippled surface seen in tiny
the sheet metal in regions away eroded. can happen fragments from
surface and pro from the center when the the primary
duce these of explosion. surface of the zone of
craters. sheet is explosive
Conclusive disturbed by a fracture.
proof of high- velocity
damage by shock wave
chemical moving
detonation obliquely
 of a shatter fragment assumes a fissured appearance. The numerous had bo
open cracks run through the sheet thickness. This feature is seen reported (Ref 9). Twins in the microstructure of aluminum alloy plosiv
in tiny fragments from the primary zone of explosive fracture. fragments from an aircraft wreckage is conclusive proof for ex- nounc
plosive damage. tongue
With a knowledge of the previously mentioned signatures of deform
6.1.6 Microstructural Changes explosive damage, the cause of two major aircraft accidents,
SHEET SURFACE FEATURES
Deformation under explosive conditions takes place at very high
strain rates, of the order of 106 s!1. Two important microstructural
namely, the accident to a Boeing 737 aircraft of Indian Airlines at
Madras and the accident to a Boeing 747 aircraft of Air India, off
ognize
Fur
nature
changes, namely, adiabatic shear and twinning, can take place un- the west coast of Ireland, has been established to be explosive
der such conditions.

Fig. 6.8 Typical explosion craters in a fragment

Fig. 6.9 A fragment showing a rippled surface Fig. 6

Craters Ripples
 AIRCRAFT ACCIDENTS DUE TO IN-FLIGHT
DETONATION

Accident to a Boeing 737 Aircraft

In 1979, a Boeing 737 aircraft on a scheduled flight from

Trivandrum to Madras suered a mid-air explosion about 20
minutes before landing.

Although it was known that a mid-air explosion had occurred, it

was necessary to provide material evidence.

A large number of tiny metal fragments were recovered from the

front toilet compartment, the cockpit, and the ground below
 AIRCRAFT ACCIDENTS DUE TO IN-FLIGHT
DETONATION

Accident to a Boeing 747Aircraft

In 1985, a Boeing 747 aircraft on a scheduled flight from Montreal

to London en route to India suddenly plunged into the Atlantic
Ocean, about 110 miles o the west coast of Ireland.

The wreckage was distributed over an area of 15 square miles on

the floor of the ocean, 6700 feet deep.

Study of the disintegrated aircraft indicated maximum damage in

the front portion of the aircraft, especially in and around the front
cargo hold.
 SIGNATURES
Chapter 6: Explosive Sabotage / 49

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i)

Signatures
Fig. 6.11 Signatures of explosive of explosive
deformation deformation
and fracture on fragmentsand fracture
retrieved fromon
thefragments retrieved
wreckage. (a) Reverse from
slant. (b) Curled fragment. (c) Curved
fragment. (d) Dent. the wreckage.
(e) Spalled (a) Reverse
fragment. (f) Petalingslant. (b) Curled
and curling. fragment.
(g) Spikes (c) Curved
along fracture fragment.
edge. (h) Craters on(d)
sheet metal surface. (i) Nondescript
fragments Dent. (e) Spalled fragment. (f) Petaling and curling. (g) Spikes along fracture
edge. (h) Craters on sheet metal surface. (i) Nondescript
fragments
 sheets. All the features described previously could be recognized
retrieved from the front cargo area, on petals around holes, on
regions adjacent to the spikes, and on regions close to the curl in
the stantion. Twins were seen in the microstructure on all of them.
Figure 6.17 shows a typical microstructure revealing twins.
To obtain a further confirmation of the earlier conclusions, frag-

SIGNATURES
ments were also produced in the laboratory by deliberately ex-
ploding 2024 aluminum alloy sheets and boxes made out of such
sheets. All the features described previously could be recognized

dology
Petaling &curling Fig. 6.14

s mem- in the fragments thus generated. This produced further evidence

racture for confirming the cause of the two accidents described previously
inward, as in-flight explosion (Ref 10, 11).
inward In this chapter, methods of identifying damages caused by ex-
h, Fig. plosive forces have been described. These have helped in the in-
vestigation of accidents to aircraft, caused by deliberate detonation
graphy. of explosives in flight. The principles can be extended to damages Fig. 6.13 Petaling around holes inFig.
the 6.14
bottomCurling
skin of of
themetal
front tongues. Source: Ref 11
cargo hold.
gments on other structures as well. Source: Ref 11
les, on
curl in
f them.
s.
s, frag-
ely ex-
Curling fragment
of such Fig. 6.13 Petaling around holes in the bottom skin of the front cargo hold. (a)
Source: Ref 11
ognized

(a)

Spikes (b)

Fig. 6.16
Fig. 6.14 Curling of metal tongues. Source: Ref 11 Fig. 6.15 Spikes along fracture edge. Source: Ref 11