Sir2010 5070 G

Descriptive and Geoenvironmental Model for
Cobalt-Copper-Gold Deposits in Metasedimentary Rocks
1 cm
Scientific Investigations Report 20105070G
U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
COVER. Upper left, Blacktail open pit in the Blackbird district, central Idaho, U.S.A.; view looking
approximately northwest (bulldozer for scale in bottom center). Upper right, Skuterud open pit in the
Modum district, southern Norway; view looking south (wooden fence on left is about 1.5 meters high).
Middle left, South Idaho underground mine in the Blackbird district, showing stratabound lenses
and discordant veins of Cu-rich sulfide in dark argillite wall rock. Middle right, hand sample from the
Sunshine open pit in the Blackbird district, showing layers of granoblastic cobaltite with a matrix of
white quartz and dark green chlorite. Lower left, underground photo of the Skuterud mine showing
pink secondary erythrite (a hydrated cobalt arsenate mineral). Lower right, water sampling of acid
mine drainage in the Blackbird district, view looking approximately east.
Descriptive and Geoenvironmental Model
for Cobalt-Copper-Gold Deposits in
Metasedimentary Rocks
Edited by John F. Slack
Chapter G of
Mineral Deposit Models for Resource Assessment

SALLY JEWELL, Secretary

Suzette M. Kimball, Acting Director
U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2013
For more information on the USGSthe Federal source for science about the Earth, its natural and living
resources, natural hazards, and the environment, visit http://www.usgs.gov or call 1888ASKUSGS.
For an overview of USGS information products, including maps, imagery, and publications,
visit http://www.usgs.gov/pubprod
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Any use of trade, product, or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the
U.S. Government.
Although this report is in the public domain, permission must be secured from the individual copyright owners to
reproduce any copyrighted materials contained within this report.
Suggested citation:
Slack, J.F., ed., 2013, Descriptive and geoenvironmental model for cobalt-copper-gold deposits in metasedimentary
rocks (ver. 1.1, March 14, 2014): U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 20105070G, 218 p.,
http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20105070g.
ISSN 23280328 (online)

iii
Acknowledgments
This report benefited greatly from field guidance and discussions in the Blackbird district
with Art Bookstrom and Tom Nash, both now retired from the USGS. We also thank Terje
Bjerkgrd and Jan Sverre Sandstad of the Geological Survey of Norway in Trondheim for lead-
ing an informative geological tour of the Modum district in Norway, and for providing esti-
mated production data (tonnage and cobalt grade) for the Skuterud mine; thanks also to Arne
Bjrlykke of the University of Oslo for helpful information on the Modum district. Discussions
with Murray Hitzman of the Colorado School of Mines (Golden), Mark Barton of the Univer-
sity of Arizona (Tucson), and Robin Goad of Fortune Minerals Ltd. (London, Ontario, Canada)
have been helpful. Appreciation is also extended to Xiaolin Wang of Nanjing University in
China and I-Ming Chou of the USGS for translating parts of several articles in Chinese, Eric
Morrissey of the USGS for drafting many of the illustrations, and Pasi Eilu of the Geological-
Survey of Finland for providing grade and tonnage data for deposits in Finland and figure 43;
Matts Willdn (Wiking Mineral AB) and Matti Talikka (Dragon Mining Oy) supplied results
of recent exploration on the Gladhammer deposit of Sweden and deposits in the Kuusamo belt
of Finland, respectively. Special thanks to Greg Hahn and Jerry Zieg for detailed and helpful
reviews of this report, and to Murray Hitzman and Art Bookstrom for comments on an early
draft; these colleagues do not agree with all of the interpretations and conclusions presented
herein, and are not responsible for any errors or shortcomings that may remain. Finally, we are
especially indebted to Richard Goldfarb of the USGS for a comprehensive and incisive review
that greatly improved and focused the final version.
v
Contents
1. Introduction
References Cited............................................................................................................................................7
2. Deposit Type and Associated Commodities

Name and Synonyms...................................................................................................................................13
Brief Description...........................................................................................................................................13
Associated Deposit Types...........................................................................................................................13
Primary and Byproduct Commodities........................................................................................................13
Trace Constituents........................................................................................................................................13
Example Deposits.........................................................................................................................................13
Tonnage-Grade Variations...........................................................................................................................13
References Cited..........................................................................................................................................17
3. Historical Evolution of Descriptive and Genetic Knowledge and Concepts

4. Regional Environment
Geotectonic Environment............................................................................................................................33
Temporal (Secular) Relations......................................................................................................................39
Duration of Mineralizing Processes..........................................................................................................39
Relations to Structures................................................................................................................................40
Relations to Igneous Rocks.........................................................................................................................40
Relations to Sedimentary Rocks................................................................................................................43
Relations to Metamorphic Rocks...............................................................................................................44
5. Physical Description of Deposits

Geology and Dimensions in Plan View......................................................................................................53
Blackbird District, USA.......................................................................................................................53
Modum District, Norway....................................................................................................................53
NICO Deposit, Canada........................................................................................................................55
Werner Lake Deposit, Canada...........................................................................................................55
Kuusamo Schist Belt, Finland............................................................................................................58
Size of Hydrothermal System Relative to Extent of Economically Mineralized Rock........................58
Vertical Extent...............................................................................................................................................58
Form and (or) Shape.....................................................................................................................................60
Host Rocks.....................................................................................................................................................60
Structural Setting(s) and Controls.............................................................................................................60
Remote Sensing............................................................................................................................................60
6. Geophysical Characteristics
Magnetic Signature......................................................................................................................................67
vi
Gravity Signature .........................................................................................................................................70

Electrical Signature .....................................................................................................................................71
Electromagnetic Signature ........................................................................................................................71
Gamma-Ray Spectrometric Signature .....................................................................................................72
7. Hypogene Ore and Gangue Characteristics

Mineralogy ....................................................................................................................................................79
Mineral Paragenesis ...................................................................................................................................80
Zoning Patterns ............................................................................................................................................80
Textures and Structures .............................................................................................................................80
Grain Size ......................................................................................................................................................80
8. Hydrothermal Alteration
Relations Among Alteration, Gangues, and Ore .....................................................................................87
Mineralogy and Textures ............................................................................................................................87
Albite... ..................................................................................................................................................87
Biotite.. ..................................................................................................................................................88
Scapolite...............................................................................................................................................89
Tourmaline............................................................................................................................................90
Quartz.. ..................................................................................................................................................90
Mineral Assemblages .................................................................................................................................90
Lateral and Vertical Dimensions ...............................................................................................................90
Alteration Intensity ......................................................................................................................................91
Zoning Patterns ............................................................................................................................................91
9. Supergene Ore and Gangue Characteristics

10. Weathering/Supergene Processes

References Cited........................................................................................................................................104
11. Geochemical Characteristics

Trace Elements and Element Associations ...........................................................................................109
Fluid Inclusion Thermometry and Geochemistry ..................................................................................109
Stable Isotope Geochemistry ..................................................................................................................110
Radiogenic Isotope Geochemistry ..........................................................................................................111
12. Petrology of Associated Igneous Rocks

vii
13. Petrology of Associated Sedimentary Rocks

Importance of Sedimentary Rocks to Deposit Genesis .......................................................................127
Rock Names/Mineralogy/Texture/Grain Size ........................................................................................127
Environment of Deposition .......................................................................................................................129
14. Petrology of Associated Metamorphic Rocks

Importance of Metamorphic Rocks to Deposit Genesis .....................................................................137
Rock Names/Mineralogy and Assemblages/Grain Size .....................................................................137
Mineral Facies ............................................................................................................................................139
Deformation and Textures ........................................................................................................................139
15. Theory of Deposit Formation

Evidence for Epigenetic Mineralization .................................................................................................147
Age of Mineralization ................................................................................................................................147
Ore Deposit System Affiliations ...............................................................................................................148
Evaluation of SEDEX and VMS Affiliations ...................................................................................148
Evaluation of Sediment-Hosted Stratiform Copper Affiliations .................................................149
Evaluation of Five-Element Vein Affiliations .................................................................................149
Evaluation of Orogenic Gold Affiliations .......................................................................................149
Evaluation of IOCG Affiliations ........................................................................................................149
Sources of Metals and Other Ore Components ....................................................................................150
Sources of Fluids and Ligands Involved in Ore Component Transport .............................................151
Chemical Transport and Transfer Processes ........................................................................................151
Fluid Drive, Including Thermal, Pressure, and Geodynamic Mechanisms ......................................151
Character of Conduits/Pathways that Focus Ore-Forming Fluids .....................................................152
Nature of Traps and Wallrock Interaction that Trigger Ore Precipitation ........................................152
Structure and Composition of Residual Outflow Zones ......................................................................152
16. Exploration/Resource Assessment Guides

Geological ...................................................................................................................................................163
Geochemical ...............................................................................................................................................163
Isotopic ........................................................................................................................................................164
Geophysical ................................................................................................................................................164
Attributes Required for Inclusion in Permissive Tracts at Various Scales ......................................166
Factors Influencing Undiscovered Deposit Estimates (Deposit Size and Density) ........................166
17. Geoenvironmental Features and Anthropogenic Mining Effects

Mining Methods and the Volume of Mine Waste and Tailings ..........................................................173
Ore Processing and Smelting ..................................................................................................................175
Climate and Geographic Effects ..............................................................................................................175
Human Health and Ecosystem Effects ...................................................................................................175
viii
18. Knowledge Gaps and Future Research Directions

Age of Mineralization.................................................................................................................................187
Relationship to Igneous (Granitic) Rocks...............................................................................................187
Timing of Alteration Relative to Deposit Formation...............................................................................187
Role of Sedimentary Rocks in Deposit Genesis.....................................................................................187
Role of Tectonism in Deposit Genesis.....................................................................................................187
Possible Relationship to Iron Oxide-Copper-Gold (IOCG) Deposits...................................................187
Geoenvironmental Issues..........................................................................................................................187
Appendix 1. Database for Co-Cu-Au Deposits Included in This Report............................................189
Appendix 2. Database for Co-Cu-Au Deposits Not Included in This Report....................................210
Figures
21. Tonnage-grade data for Co-Cu-Au deposits in metasedimentary rocks compared
to data for other types of Co-bearing deposits.......................................................................14
22. Co versus Cu (A) and Co versus Au (B) data for Co-Cu-Au deposits in
metasedimentary rocks compared to those for other Co-bearing deposits......................16
41. Geologic map of the area near the Blackbird district showing mineralized
zones..............................................................................................................................................37
42. Cross sections showing structures near Blackbird mining district ...................................41
43. Simplified geologic map of the Kuusamo schist belt in northeastern Finland
showing mineral deposits and occurrences...........................................................................42
51. Generalized geologic map of the Blackbird district showing the settings
of stratabound and discordant mineral deposits...................................................................54
52. Geological map of the Modum district, southeastern Norway............................................55
53. Geology of the NICO Co-Au-Bi-Cu-Ni deposit, Northwest Territories,
Canada...........................................................................................................................................56
54. Geologic cross section of the Bowl zone of the NICO deposit, Northwest
Territories, Canada......................................................................................................................57
55. Geologic map and block diagram of the Werner Lake Co-Cu-Au deposit,
Ontario...........................................................................................................................................59
61. Airborne magnetic total component field and ground vertical component magnetic
anomaly in the Kuusamo area, Finland....................................................................................68
62. Magnetic field, in-phase electromagnetic field, and quadrature electromagnetic field
for the Juomasuo deposit and surrounding area, Kuusamo belt, Finland.........................69
63. Potassium, eTh/K, eU/Th, total magnetic field, and geology images with geology
explanation for the area near Lou Lake, Northwest Territories, Canada...........................70
64. Geological cross section and corresponding total magnetic field and potassium
profiles crossing the mineralized zone at the NICO deposit................................................72
81. Geological cross section of the Kouvervaara Co-Cu-Au deposit in the Kuusamo
schist belt of Finland...................................................................................................................88
82. Geological cross section of the Merle deposit in the Blackbird district, Idaho................89
111. Sulfur isotopic compositions of sulfide minerals from Co-Cu-Au deposits in
metasedimentary rocks............................................................................................................110
ix
121. Compositional characteristics of metagranitic augen gneiss from north of the

Blackbird district........................................................................................................................118
122. Chondrite-normalized REE and trace element patterns for metagranitic augen
gneiss from north of the Blackbird district............................................................................119
161. Simplified flow chart for selecting airborne geophysical anomalies for further
investigation..............................................................................................................................165
171. Sample locations in the Idaho cobalt belt.............................................................................174
172. Concentration of Cu, Co, Fe, Mn, and As versus pH for unfiltered water from the
Idaho cobalt belt.......................................................................................................................178
173. Concentration of Cu in unfiltered water versus distance from mines in the
Blackbird area............................................................................................................................179
174. Concentration of Co in unfiltered water versus distance from mines in the
Blackbird area............................................................................................................................179
175. Concentration of Cu versus Co soil collected from the Ram and Goose prospect
areas, Idaho cobalt belt............................................................................................................180
Tables
11. Selected features of Co-Cu-Au deposits in metasedimentary rocks....................................6
41. Regional environment.................................................................................................................34
111. Fluid inclusion types recognized in Co-Cu-Au deposits in metasedimentary rocks......109
131. Setting and character of sedimentary rocks........................................................................128
141. Petrology of associated metamorphic rocks........................................................................138
171. Geochemical data for water, mine waste, stream sediment, and soil collected
proximal to mines and from background sites in the Idaho cobalt belt...........................177
x
Conversion Factors
Inch/Pound to SI
Multiply By To obtain
Length
meter (m) 3.281 foot (ft)
kilometer (km) 0.6214 mile (mi)
meter (m) 1.094 yard (yd)
Volume
liter (L) 1.0567 quart (qt)
cubic meter (m3) 35.31 cubic foot (ft3)
cubic meter (m3) 1.308 cubic yard (yd3)
Mass
gram (g) 0.03527 ounce, avoirdupois (oz)
gram (g) 0.03220 ounce, troy (t oz)
tonne (t) 1.10231 ton, short
tonne (t) 2204.62 pound (lb)
Density
gram per cubic centimeter (g/cm ) 3
62.4220 pound per cubic foot (lb/ft3)
Temperature in degrees Celsius (C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (F) as follows:
F=(1.8C)+32
Abbreviations Used in This Report
Units of Measure
Ga giga-annum, billion years (b.y)
Ma mega-annum, million years
g/L micrograms per liter
mg/L milligrams per liter
per mil parts per thousand
ppm parts per million
mGal milligal
mS/m milliSiemens per meter
Mt million metric tonnes
nT nanoTeslas
ohm-m ohm-meter
xi
Symbols
D delta deuterium (hydrogen-2)
18O delta oxygen-18
34S delta sulfur-34
eK equivalent potassium
eTh/K equivalent thorium/potassium ratio
eU/Th equivalent uranium/thorium ratio
Chemical elements and compounds

Ag silver K potassium
As arsenic Mn manganese
Au gold Mo molybdenum
Ba barium Na sodium
Be beryllium Nb niobium
Bi bismuth Ni nickel
Br bromine O oxygen
C carbon P phosphorus
Ca calcium Pb lead
Cl chlorine S sulfur
Co cobalt SO4 sulfate
CO2 carbon dioxide Ta tantalum
Cu copper Te tellurium
F fluorine Th thorium
Fe iron U uranium
Hf hafnium W tungsten
Hg mercury Y yttrium
H2O
water Zn zinc
H2S
hydrogen sulfide Zr zirconium
Initialisms
b.y. billion years
EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
IOCG iron oxide-copper-gold
REE rare earth elements
xii
SEDEX sedimentary-exhalative
SHRIMP sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe
USGS U.S. Geological Survey
VMS volcanogenic massive sulfide
1. Introduction
By John F. Slack
1 of 18
Descriptive and Geoenvironmental Model for Cobalt-
Copper-Gold Deposits in Metasedimentary Rocks


U.S. Government.
Suggested citation:
Slack, J.F., 2013, Introduction, chap. G1, of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and geoenvironmental model for cobalt-
copper-gold deposits in metasedimentary rocks: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 20105070G,
p. 17, http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20105070g.

3
Contents
References Cited............................................................................................................................................7
Table
11. Selected features of Co-Cu-Au deposits in metasedimentary rocks....................................6
1.Introduction
By John F. Slack
This report is a revised model for a specific type of Despite having a lower average Co grade, the Mt. Cobalt
cobalt-copper-gold (Co-Cu-Au) deposit that will be evaluated deposit in Australia is included here because it has past Co
in the next U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) assessment of production from higher-grade ore zones (Nisbet and oth-
undiscovered mineral resources in the United States (see Ferrero ers, 1983). The Black Pine deposit in the Idaho cobalt belt is
and others, 2012). Emphasis is on providing an up-to-date included because it contains mineable Co- and Au-rich lenses
deposit model that includes both geologic and geoenvironmen- within Cu-rich mineralized zones (Formation Metals, Inc.,
tal aspects. The new model presented here supersedes previous
2012). Six deposits that lack data for average Co grades are
USGS models by Earhart (1986) and Evans and others (1995),
also included because each reportedly contains abundant
which are based solely on deposits in the Blackbird mining
Co (>0.1 weight percent Co), at least locally. Many of the
district of central Idaho. This report is a broader synthesis of
information on 19 Co-Cu-Au deposits occurring in predomi- deposits are noteworthy as possible resources of Ag, Bi, W,
nantly metasedimentary successions worldwide (table 11) Ni, Y, REE, and (or) U. Detailed data on the deposits listed
that generally share common geologic, mineralogical, and in table 11, including references, are available in appendix 1.
geochemical features; preliminary summary versions were Significantly, the grouping in this report of Co-Cu-Au deposits
presented in Slack and others (2010) and Slack and others in metasedimentary rocks into a single model includes deposits
(2011), which are superseded by this report. As defined herein, that other workers have previously classified in different ways.
the individual Co-Cu-Au deposits are located more than For background information, a global overview of different
500 meters from similar deposits and contain 0.1 percent or types of Co deposits worldwide is given in Smith (2001).
more by weight of Co in ore or mineralized rock; some depos- Additional geologically and compositionally similar
its included in the database lack reported average Co grades, deposits are known, but have average Co grades less than
but they contain high Co concentrations, at least locally. Most 0.1 percent. Most of these deposits contain cobalt-rich pyrite
of the deposits also have high As contents, present in Co and lack appreciable amounts of distinct Co sulfide and (or)
arsenide and sulfarsenide minerals. Type examples of the sulfarsenide minerals. Such deposits are not discussed in detail
Co-Cu-Au deposits are those in the Blackbird district,
in the following sections, but these deposits may be revelant to
Skuterud in Norway, and Kouvervarra and Juomasuo in
the descriptive and genetic models presented below. Examples
Finland. Some deposits in the database have low grades
for Cu (for example, NICO in Canada) or Au (for example, include the Scadding Au-Co-Cu deposit in Ontario, Canada;
Lemmonlampi in Finland), but these deposits are included the Vhjoki Co-Cu-Au deposit in Finland; the Tuolugou
because their geological, mineralogical, and alteration features Co-Au deposit in Qinghai Province, China; the Lala Co-Cu-U-
are similar to those of the type examples. Several deposits REE deposit in Sichuan Province, China; the Guelb Moghrein
included in the model are partly hosted by metavolcanic or Cu-Au-Co deposit in Mauritania; and the Great Australia
metaigneous rocks (including granite), but regionally these Co-Cu, Greenmount Cu-Au-Co, and Monakoff Cu-Au-Co-U-
deposits are within metasedimentary successions; no deposits Ag deposits in Queensland, Australia. Detailed information on
are wholly within granite or other plutonic igneous intrusions. these deposits is presented in appendix 2.
6 Descriptive and Geoenvironmental Model for Cobalt-Copper-Gold Deposits in Metasedimentary Rocks
Table 11. Selected features of Co-Cu-Au deposits in metasedimentary rocks.

[%, percent; g/t, grams per tonne, Mt, million metric tonnes; NA, not available; m, meters. Data sources are in appendix 1]
Deposit Country Size (Mt) Co (%) Cu (%) Au (g/t) Major metals Minor associated metals
Blackbird-ICB1 USA 16.80 0.735 1.37 1.04 Co, Cu, As, Au, Bi Y, REE, Ni, Zn, U, Be
Black Pine2 USA 1.0 0.08 4.5 1.03 Co, Cu, As, Au
Cobalt Hill Canada NA NA NA NA Co, Cu, Au, As Ni, Hg, Te
Contact Lake Belt Canada NA NA 3
NA 3
NA 3
Cu, Au, As, Co, U Bi, Ag, Zn
Werner Lake Canada 1.34 0.27 0.27 0.31 Cu, Co, Au, As Mo, Zn, Ag, Ni
NICO Canada 4
30.99 0.12 0.04 0.91 Co, Au, Bi, Cu, As Ni, W, Mo, Te, Se, REE, F
Skuterud Norway 1.0 5 5
0.26 2 1 Cu, Co, Au, As Ni, U, Th
Gladhammar Sweden 0.006 NA NA NA Co, Cu, As, Au Fe, Zn, Pb, Mo, Bi
Haarakumpu Finland 4.68 0.17 0.34 NA Co, Cu, As Au, Bi, Ni
Hangaslampi6, 11 Finland 0.369 0.07 NA 5.0 Au, Co, As Cu, REE, Ni, U, Mo, Pb, W
Juomasuo 7, 12
Finland 5.04 0.13 0.03 1.96 Au, Co, As Cu, Mo, Ni, REE, U, Bi, Te
Kouvervaara Finland 1.58 0.1 0.2 0.4 Co, Cu, Au, As Zn, Mo, Bi, W
Lemmonlampi Finland 0.09 0.3 0.4 0.35 Co, Cu, Au, As
Meurastuksenaho8 Finland 0.366 0.25 0.28 3.6 Co, Au, Cu, As Mo, U, REE
Pohjasvaara 9
Finland 0.095 0.1 0.3 4.9 Co, Cu, Au, As Fe, Hg, Mo, Se, Te, U
Sirkka Finland 0.25 0.1 0.38 0.8 Co, Ni, Au, Cu, As U, Zn, Ag
Mt. Cobalt Australia 10
0.06 0.05 0.33 NA Cu, Co, As, REE W, Ni, Au
Kendekeke China NA NA NA NA Co, Bi, Au, As, Cu Zn, Pb, Te
Dahenglu China NA NA NA NA Co, Cu, As Zn, Pb
1
ICB, Idaho cobalt belt; includes 14 separate deposits (appendix 1) including Idaho, Dandy, Chicago, Brown Bear, Blacktail, Merle, Horseshoe, Burl,
Northfield, Ram, Sunshine, and East Sunshine.
2
Contains mineable Co- and Au-rich lenses within Cu-rich zones (Formation Metals, Inc., 2012)
3
0.27% Cu, 0.10% Co, 1.31% As, 0.15 g/t Au over 24 m.
4
Does not include marginal subeconomic resource of 6.5 Mt.
5
Estimate by the Geological Survey of Norway (T. Bjerkgrd, oral commun., 2010).
6
Recent exploration has identified drill core intervals having 156.9 g/t Au over 2.6 m and 30.2 g/t Au over 9.0 m (Dragon Mining Ltd., 2012a).
7
Locally has Cu grades as high as 1% (Vanhanen, 2001) and Au grades as high as 45.7 g/t over 31.9 m (Dragon Mining Ltd., 2012a).
8
Recent exploration has delineated a resource of 0.89 Mt at 0.20% Co and 2.3 g/t Au (Dragon Mining Ltd., 2012a).
9
Recent exploration has delineated a resource of 0.13 Mt at 0.15% Co and 4.2 g/t Au (Dragon Mining Ltd., 2012a).
10
From 19191934 produced 20,000 tonnes of ore at an average grade of 4% Co (Nisbet and others, 1983).
11
A new mineral resource (measured+indicated+inferred) has been delineated for separate cobalt and gold domains, being 0.329 Mt @ 0.10% Co and
0.403 Mt @ 0.06% Co and 5.1 g/t Au, respectively (Dragon Mining Ltd., 2012b).
12
A new mineral resource (measured+indicated+inferred) has been delineated for separate cobalt and gold domains, being 3.675 Mt @ 0.12% Co and
1.941 Mt @ 0.14% Co and 4.8 g/t Au, respectively (Dragon Mining Ltd., 2012b).
References Cited7
References Cited Nisbet, B.W., Devlin, S.P., and Joyce, P.J., 1983, Geology and
suggested genesis of cobalt-tungsten mineralization at Mt.
Cobalt, north west Queensland: Proceedings of the Austral-
Dragon Mining Ltd., 2012a, Kuusamo gold project: Dragon
asian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, no. 287, p. 917.
Mining Ltd, accessed May 2012, at http://www.dragon-
mining.com.au/exploration/reserves-resources. Slack, J.F., Causey, J.D., Eppinger, R.G., Gray, J.E., Johnson,
Dragon Mining Ltd., 2012b, Reserves and resources C.A., Lund, K.I., and Schulz, K.J., 2010, Co-Cu-Au depos-
Kuusamo gold project: Dragon Mining Ltd, accessed its in metasedimentary rocksA preliminary report: U.S.
December 2012, at http://www.dragon-mining.com.au/ Geological Survey Open-File Report 20101212, 13 p.
exploration/reserves-resources. (Also available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/20101212/)
Earhart, R.L., 1986, Descriptive model of Blackbird Co-Cu Slack, J.F., Johnson, C.A., Lund, K.I., Schulz, K.J., and
sulfide, in Cox, D.P., and Singer, D.A., eds., Mineral deposit Causey, J.D., 2011, A new model for Co-Cu-Au deposits in
models: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1693, p. 142. metasedimentary rocksAn IOCG connection? in Barra,
Fernando, Reich, Martin, Campos, Eduardo, and Tornos,
Evans, K.V., Nash, J.T., Miller, W.R., Kleinkopf, M.D., and Fernando, eds., Proceedings of the 11th Biennial Meeting
Campbell, D.L., 1995 [1996], Blackbird Co-Cu deposits,
of the Society for Geology Applied to Mineral Deposits,
in du Bray, E., ed., Preliminary compilation of descriptive
Antofagasta, Chile, September 2629, 2011: Antofagasta,
geoenvironmental mineral deposit models: U.S. Geological
Chile, Universidad Catlica del Norte, v. II, p. 489491.
Survey Open-File Report 95831, p. 145151.
Ferrero, R.C., Kolak, J.J., Bills, D.J., Bowen, Z.H., Cordier, Smith, C.G., 2001, Always the bridesmaid, never the bride:
D.J., Gallegos, T.J., Hein, J.R., Kelley, K.D., Nelson, P.H., Cobalt geology and resources: Institution of Mining and
Nuccio, V.F., Schmidt, J.M., and Seal, R.R., 2012, U.S. Metallurgy Transactions, v. 110, sec. B (Applied Earth
Geological Survey energy and minerals science strategy: Science), p. B75B80.
U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 20121072, 35 p.
Vanhanen, Erkki, 2001, Geology, mineralogy, and geochem-
(Also available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2012/1072/).
istry of the Fe-Co-Au(-U) deposits in the Paleoproterozoic
Formation Metals, Inc., 2012, Black Pine project: Available at Kuusamo schist belt, northeastern Finland: Geological
http://www.formationmetals.com/s/BlackPine.asp. Survey of Finland Bulletin 399, 229 p.
2. Deposit Type and Associated
Commodities
By John F. Slack, Craig A. Johnson, and J. Douglas Causey
2 of 18


U.S. Government.
Suggested citation:
Slack, J.F., Johnson, C.A., and Causey, J.D., 2013, Deposit type and associated commodities, chap. G2, of Slack, J.F.,
ed., Descriptive and geoenvironmental model for cobalt-copper-gold deposits in metasedimentary rocks: U.S. Geologi-
cal Survey Scientific Investigations Report 20105070G, p. 919, http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20105070g.

11
Contents
Name and Synonyms...................................................................................................................................13
Brief Description...........................................................................................................................................13
Associated Deposit Types...........................................................................................................................13
Primary and Byproduct Commodities........................................................................................................13
Trace Constituents........................................................................................................................................13
Example Deposits.........................................................................................................................................13
Tonnage-Grade Variations...........................................................................................................................13
Figures
21. Tonnage-grade data for Co-Cu-Au deposits in metasedimentary rocks compared to

data for other types of Co-bearing deposits...........................................................................14
22. Co versus Cu and Co versus Au data for Co-Cu-Au deposits in metasedimentary
rocks compared to those for other Co-bearing deposits......................................................16
2. Deposit Type and Associated
Commodities
By John F. Slack, Craig A. Johnson, and J. Douglas Causey
Name and Synonyms Primary and Byproduct Commodities

The deposits described in this report are collectively The primary commodities of the deposits considered in
termed Co-Cu-Au deposits in metasedimentary rocks. This is a this report (table 11) are Co, Cu, and Au. Some deposits have
new model name that is designed to include all deposits of this very high Au contents, whereas others have low Au. High
type that share similar geological, mineralogical, and geochemi- As contents are characteristic of all of the deposits. Potential
cal features. Previous workers have used the terms Blackbird mining byproducts among the deposits are Ag, Bi, Mo, Ni, Pb,
sediment-hosted Cu-Co (Hy, 1995) and Blackbird Co-Cu REE, U, W, Y, and Zn.
deposits (Earhart, 1986; Evans and others, 1995) to refer to
deposits occurring in the Blackbird district of east-central Idaho. Trace Constituents
Metals and other elements that may be present as non-
Brief Description economic but anomalous trace constitutents in the Co-Cu-Au
deposits include Ba, Be, F, P, Se, and Te.
The Co-Cu-Au deposits consist of disseminated to semi-
massive Co-bearing sulfarsenide and sulfide minerals with
associated Fe- and Cu-bearing sulfides, and local gold, Example Deposits
concentrated predominantly in rift-related, siliciclastic
metasedimentary successions chiefly of Proterozoic age. Among the 19 Co-Cu-Au deposits considered here,
several stand out as well-documented examples of the deposit
type. Based on availability of detailed data, relatively large
Associated Deposit Types size, and favorable metal grades, premier examples of the
Co-Cu-Au deposits are Blackbird in Idaho (14 deposits;
Other types of mineral deposits that may have genetic Bookstrom and others, 2007; appendix 1), Modum in Norway
links to the Co-Cu-Au deposits described in this report are iron (Grorud, 1997), Werner Lake in Ontario in Canada (Pan and
oxide-copper-gold (IOCG) deposits (Williams and others, 2005; Therens, 2000), and Juomasuo in Finland (Vanhanen, 2001).
Corriveau, 2007). Some of the deposits classified here as Co-
Cu-Au deposits in metasedimentary rocks have been
classified by other workers as Co-rich variants of IOCG Tonnage-Grade Variations
deposits (Slack, 2013; Slack, 2012). Volcanic-hosted analogs
A tonnage-grade plot (fig. 21) shows that most of the
to the deposits in this model may include Co-Cu-Au depos-
Co-Cu-Au deposits described in this report constitute known
its such as Kiskamavaara in northern Sweden (Martinsson,
resources of 100 to 10,000 metric tonnes (t) of contained Co.
2011). There are also mineralogical and geochemical similari-
Sizes of the Co-Cu-Au deposits overlap those of sedimentary
ties with some sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposits
Cu deposits of the central African copperbelt in terms of Co
(Hitzman and others, 2005, 2010) and with so-called five- content; the Kamoto and related deposits in the Democratic
element veins (Kissin, 1992; Smith, 2001), but both of these Republic of Congo contain the greatest amount of cobalt.
deposit types have different geological features and settings, With the exception of the Blackbird district in central Idaho
as discussed later in this volume, in Theory of Deposit For- (123,480 t of Co in 16.8 million tonnes [Mt] at 0.735 percent
mation. The Co-Cu-Au deposits considered here, including combined production + reserves + resources for 14 deposits),
those that have a stratabound morphology, lack clear metal- the different Co-Cu-Au deposits considered here have smaller
logenic associations with other stratabound deposits, such as Co resources than two individual Co-rich VMS deposits
sedimentary-exhalative (SEDEX) deposits (Goodfellow and (Windy Craggy, British Columbia, Canada; Outokumpu,
Lydon, 2007; Emsbo, 2009), sediment-hosted copper deposits Finland), and numerous magmatic Ni-Cu deposits (for example,
(Hitzman and others, 2005, 2010), and volcanogenic massive Norilsk-Talnakh, Russia). Some large cobaltiferous IOCG
sulfide (VMS) deposits (Galley and others, 2007; Shanks and deposits, such as Olympic Dam and Ernest Henry in Australia,
Thurston, 2012). contain significant Co resources (fig. 21), although Co is not
currently produced from either deposit. Despite the smaller Co Resources, Inc., 2011). The greatest known potential Co
tonnages relative to other deposit types, Co-Cu-Au deposits in resource in the United States is in the magmatic Ni-Cu depos-
metasedimentary rocks can be important national resources, its of the Duluth Complex in northeastern Minnesota, totaling
particularly deposits or groups of deposits as large as Black- 626,000 t of Co in 4,000 Mt of mineralized rock at 0.019 per-
bird, because the United States has few other Co reserves of cent Co (Naldrett, 2004). The large Cornwall, Pennsylvania,
likely economic viability (Shedd, 2012). iron deposit (84.5 Mt production; Lapham, 1968) contained
The only other individual deposit in the United States appreciable Co in pyrite within replacement ores in limestone
having a significant Co resource is Sheep Creek in western adjacent to a diabase intrusion, but no average Co grades are
Montana, a stratiform, sediment-hosted deposit containing available. Elevated Co contents occur in some Mississippi
12,700 t of Co in 12.2 Mt of ore at 0.106 percent Co (Tintina Valley-type Pb-Zn deposits of southeastern Missouri, including
10
102 t 104 t 106 t 108 t
Haazrakumpu
MK
1 Skuterud Blackbird
KM
Cobalt, in weight percent
KB
Werner
Lemmonlampi OK DM
Lake
Meurastuksenaho
Sirkka Juomasuo NICO
0.1 Pohjasvaara VB WC NM NT
SC
Mount Kouvervaara TH SB
Cobalt MI
Hangaslampi GR
EH PC
DL
EXPLANATION BL OD
Metasedimentary rock-hosted Co-Cu-Au LL
JC
0.01 GM
Iron oxide-Cu-Au (IOCG) SR
Volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS)
Sedimentary Cu-Co
Magmatic Ni-Cu
0.001
103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010
Tonnes
Figure 21. Tonnage-grade data for Co-Cu-Au deposits in metasedimentary rocks

compared to data for other types of Co-bearing deposits. Not included are data for
Co-bearing laterite deposits (for example, in New Caledonia, Cuba, and Cameroon);
see Lambiv Dzemua and Gleeson, 2012, and references therein. Dashed lines show
amounts of contained cobalt in tonnes (t). All Co-Cu-Au deposits plotted here are in
Finland except NICO (Canada), Blackbird (USA), Black Pine (USA), Skuterud (Norway),
Werner Lake (Canada), and Mt. Cobalt (Australia); complete data for these and similar
deposits are in appendixes 1 and 2. Abbreviations for other types of deposits: BL, Boleo
(Mexico); DL, Duluth (USA); DM, Dima (D.R. Congo); EH, Ernest Henry (Australia); GM,
Guelb Moghrein (Mauritania); GR, Greenmount (Australia); JC, Jinchuan (China); KB,
Kambalda (Australia); KM, Kamoto and related deposits (D.R. Congo); LL, Lala (China);
MI, Mount Isa (Australia); MK, Mukondo (D.R. Congo); NM, Nkana-Mindola (Zambia);
NT, Norilsk Talnakh (Russia); OD, Olympic Dam (Australia); OK, Outukumpu-Keretti
(Finland); PC, Pechenga (Russia); SB, Sudbury (Canada); SC, Sheep Creek (Montana);
SR, Santa Rita (Brazil); TH, Thompson (Canada); VB, Voiseys Bay (Canada); WC, Windy
Craggy (Canada). Sources of data: metasedimentary rock-hosted Co-Cu-Au deposits
(table 11; appendix 1); iron oxide-Cu-Au deposits (Williams and Pollard, 2001; Kolb and
others, 2006; Chen and Zhou, 2012); volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits (Peter and
Scott, 1999; Eilu and others, 2003); sedimentary Cu-Co deposits (Gustafson and Williams,
1981; Wilson and others, 2013; Baja Mining Corp., 2011; Tintina Resources Inc., 2011);
magmatic Ni-Cu deposits (Naldrett, 2004; Mirabela Nickel Ltd., 2011); data for the Mount
Isa Cu deposit are from Croxford (1974), Mudd (2007), and Mining-technology.com
(2012).
2. Deposit Type and Associated Commodities 15
Mine La Motte-Fredericktown that contained an average of

0.2 percent Co (Seeger, 2008, and references therein), and the
Higdon deposit that has a high Co grade of 0.14 percent (Parra
and others, 2009), but no defined tonnage. High Co contents
are also present in parts of the Boss-Bixby Fe-Cu-Co deposit
in southeastern Missouri (Hagni and Brandom, 1993); no aver-
age Co grade is available. The large deposits of the Viburnum
Trend also contain elevated Co, but this metal is not recovered
during mining (Seeger, 2008). A possible Co resource also
may exist in the large Ruby Creek (Bornite) Cu deposit in
northern Alaska, which contains more than 100 Mt of potential
ore with local concentrations of Co (Bernstein and Cox, 1986).
Other potential Co resources in the United States are discussed
in Peterson and others (1981). A recent report by Wilburn
(2012) summarizes global mineral exploration and supply of
cobalt from 1995 through 2013.
The relation of average Co grades versus average Cu
(A) and Au (B) grades is shown in figure 22. In general, the
metasedimentary Co-Cu-Au deposits considered in this report
have more Co and less Cu, and higher Co/Cu ratios, than other
deposit types, except for numerous Co-rich sedimentary Cu
deposits of the central African copperbelt. Relatively high As
and Au grades are key distinguishing features of the metasedi-
mentary Co-Cu-Au deposits. Four of the Finnish deposits
(table 11) average 2.0 to 6.2 grams per metric tonne (g/t) Au;
recent exploration drilling of the Juomasuo and Hangaslampi
deposits has identified very high grades of 10-45 g/t Au
over intervals of as much as 2535 m (Dragon Mining Ltd.,
2012). By comparison, cobaltiferous sedimentary Cu, VMS,
and IOCG deposits have less than 1 g/t Au, except the Guelb
Moghrein (Mauritania) IOCG deposit that contains an average
of nearly 1.5 g/t Au.
A 8 Figure 22. Co versus Cu (A) and Co

EXPLANATION versus Au (B) data for Co-Cu-Au deposits in
Metasedimentary rock-hosted Co-Cu-Au metasedimentary rocks compared to those for
Iron oxide-Cu-Au (IOCG) other Co-bearing deposits. In A, sedimentary
6 Volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) Cu-Co deposits having very high Cu grades
Sedimentary Cu-Co (>4 weight percent) contain abundant
Magmatic Ni-Cu supergene Cu. In B, samples without reported
Copper, in weight percent
Black Pine gold grades are not plotted. EH, Ernest Henry
(Australia); GM, Guelb Moghrein (Mauritania);
4 NT LW, Luiswishi (D.R. Congo); MI, Mount Isa
SC OK
MI (Australia); MK, Mukondo (D.R. Congo);
LW NT, Norilsk Talnakh (Russia); OD, Olympic
Dam (Australia); OK, Outukumpu-Keretti
2 Skuterud MK (Finland); SC, Sheep Creek (Montana); WC,
OD
WC Windy Craggy (Canada). Sources of data:
Blackbird metasedimentary rock-hosted Co-Cu-Au
Lemmonlampi deposits (table 11; appendix 1); iron oxide-
0
Cu-Au deposits (Williams and Pollard, 2001;
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 Kolb and others, 2006; Chen and Zhou, 2012);
Cobalt, in weight percent volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits
(Peter and Scott, 1999; Eilu and others, 2003);
B 8 sedimentary Cu-Co deposits (Gustafson and
EXPLANATION Williams, 1981; Wilson and others, 2013; Baja
Metasedimentary rock-hosted Co-Cu-Au Mining Corp., 2011; Tintina Resources Inc.,
Hangaslampi Iron oxide-Cu-Au (IOCG) 2011); magmatic Ni-Cu deposits (Naldrett,
6 Volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) 2004; Mirabela Nickel Ltd., 2011); data for
Sedimentary Cu-Co the Mount Isa Cu deposit are from Croxford
Magmatic Ni-Cu (1974), Mudd (2007), and Mining-technology.
Gold, in grams per tonne
Pohjasvaara
com (2012).
4 Meurastuksenaho
Black
Pine Juomasuo
2
GM Sirkka
NICO Skuterud Blackbird
EH
Werner Lake
OD OK
Kouvervaara Lemmonlampi
0
0.0 WC 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Cobalt, in weight percent
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4 spreadsheets.
3. Historical Evolution of Descriptive and
Genetic Knowledge and Concepts
By John F. Slack
3 of 18


U.S. Government.
Suggested citation:
Slack, J.F., 2013, Historical evolution of descriptive and genetic knowledge and concepts, chap. G3, of Slack, J.F.,
ed., Descriptive and geoenvironmental model for cobalt-copper-gold deposits in metasedimentary rocks: U.S. Geologi-
cal Survey Scientific Investigations Report 20105070G, p. 2128, http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20105070g.

23
Contents
3. Historical Evolution of Descriptive
and Genetic Knowledge and Concepts
By John F. Slack
Diverse models have been proposed for the origin of synmetamorphic metasomatic formation of albitite in the
the Co-Cu-Au deposits considered in this report (table 11). district. Grorud (1997), on the basis of detailed textural
For example, in the Blackbird district of east-central Idaho, and paragenetic studies, suggested that the Co sulfides and
the discordant character of vein and breccia deposits was sulfarsenides in the Skuterud deposit formed contemporane-
highlighted by early workers, such as Anderson (1947), Vhay ously with U and Th minerals during the Mesoproterozoic,
(1948), and Bennett (1977), as evidence of granite-related prior to Sveconorwegian (1070- to 1040-mega-annum [million
hydrothermal processes. In contrast, the broadly stratabound years, Ma]) metamorphism. Andersen and Grorud (1998)
ores in the district were interpreted by numerous workers obtained Mesoproterozoic Pb-Pb ages on thorian uraninite
(Hughes, 1983; Modreski, 1985; Eiseman, 1988; Nash, 1989; intergrown with the Co sulfides and sulfarsenides, supporting
Nash and Hahn, 1989; Nold, 1990) to be products of synge- this model of pre-Sveconorwegian sulfide mineralization.
netic mineralization, which formed prior to deformation and Formation of the stratabound Co-Cu-Au Werner Lake
metamorphism either by volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposit in Ontario, Canada, was attributed to post-metamorphic
or sedimentary-exhalative (SEDEX) processes (see Galley skarn processes by Parker (1998), whereas Pan and Therens
and others, 2007; Goodfellow and Lydon, 2007). These (2000) suggested a syngenetic to diagenetic origin for the
pre-lithification, syngenetic to early diagenetic models were deposit. A predominantly syn- and post-metamorphic timing
adopted by USGS and other workers including Earhart (1986), for mineralization has been proposed for the Mt. Cobalt
Evans and others (1995), Johnson and Bennett (1995), Hy Cu-Co-W-REE deposit in Queensland, Australia (Nisbet and
(1995), and Bending and Scales (2001). It is important to note, others, 1983), and the Co-Au-U deposits of the Kuusamo
however, that the stratabound morphology of the deposits schist belt of northeastern Finland (Pankka and Vanhanen,
does not require formation by syngenetic or early diagenetic 1992; Eilu and others, 2003), respectively. Pankka (1997) and
processes, because such a morphology can equally reflect Eilu and others (2003) invoked an orogenic gold model (for
post-lithification mineralization along favorable structures, example, Goldfarb and others, 2005) for the Kuusamo belt
such as faults and shear zones, or the replacement of reactive mineralization. Stratabound Co-rich deposits in China, such
beds, such as limestone. Ore deposition by these types of as Dahenglu (Co-Cu-Zn-Pb) and Kendekeke (Co-Bi-Au),
processes may occur prior to, during, or after regional have been interpreted as syngenetic in origin (Yang and
metamorphism. Bookstrom and others (2007), for example, others, 2001; Pan and Sun, 2003); the Tuolugou Co-Au
suggested that both the stratabound and discordant deposits deposit, which has a relatively low average Co grade of
in the Blackbird mine area formed initially as chemical sedi- 0.06 weight percent, is also viewed as syngenetic in origin
ments, but were subsequently recrystallized, remobilized, based on Re-Os isotope dating (Feng and others, 2009).
and possibly enriched in metals during Cretaceous regional Studies of several of the Co-Cu-Au deposits have led
metamorphism. A predominantly synmetamorphic Cretaceous workers to propose an epigenetic hydrothermal model and
origin for the deposits was proposed recently by Lund classification as iron oxide-copper-gold (IOCG) deposits. In
and others (2011), whereas a mainly pre-metamorphic addition to commonly abundant iron oxides, Cu, and Au, such
Mesoproterozoic origin has been suggested by Slack (2012). IOCG deposits may contain economic concentrations of U, Co,
The Co-Cu-Au deposits in metasedimentary rocks rare earth elements (REE), Y, Ni, and Ag (Williams and others,
elsewhere have also been attributed to diverse mineralizing 2005). With respect to the Co-Cu-Au deposits considered in
processes. In the Modum district of southeastern Norway, this report, the first study to suggest an IOCG-related origin
stratabound Co-Cu-Au ores were the major source of cobalt was Goad and others (2000) for the NICO Co-Bi-Au-Cu-Ni
blue pigment used in Europe during the late 18th and 19th deposit in Northwest Territories, Canada. This was based on
centuries. These ore deposits were interpreted by Rosenqvist evidence from geology (Proterozoic rift setting), mineralogy
(1948) as having formed epigenetically from fluids related to (abundant iron oxides, K-feldspar alteration), and geochem-
nearby mafic intrusive rocks. Bugge (1978) invoked synge- istry (local REE concentrations). During the next decade,
netic processes linked to submarine volcanism; Gammon additional metasedimentary rock-hosted Co-Cu-Au deposits
(1966) viewed the deposits as metamorphosed analogs of were assigned to the IOCG classification, including those in the
the polymetallic five-element veins of Cobalt, Ontario (for Kuusomuo belt of northeastern Finland (Vanhanen, 2001) and
example, Kissin, 1992). A genetic model by Jsing (1966) the Gladhammar deposit in central Sweden (Eilu and others,
proposed a connection between the cobalt mineralization and 2007). Independently, Slack (2006, 2007) used mineralogical
and geochemical data for ores of the Blackbird district, includ- Earhart, R.L., 1986, Descriptive model of Blackbird Co-Cu
ing high concentrations of Bi, REE, Y, and Ge and the local sulfide, in Cox, D.P., and Singer, D.A., eds., Mineral deposit
presence of magnetite-rich rocks, to suggest a genetic connec- models: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1693, p. 142.
tion to IOCG deposits (see also Slack, 2012). This inferred link
Eilu, Pasi, Sorjonen-Ward, Peter, Nurmi, Pekka, and Niiranen,
has been extended by Slack and others (2011), in proposing Tero, 2003, A review of gold mineralization styles in Fin-
that other Co-Cu-Au deposits listed in table 11 may represent land: Economic Geology, v. 98, p. 13291353.
Co-rich variants of IOCG ores, similar to the Cloncurry-type
classification of Corriveau (2007). Eilu, Pasi, Hallberg, A., Bergman, T., Feoktistov, V., Korsa-
kova, M., Krasotkin, S., Lampio, E., Litvinenko, V., Nurmi,
P.A., Often, M., Philippov, N., Sandstad, J.S., Stromov, V.,
and Tontti, M., 2007, Fennoscandian ore deposit database
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Grorud, Hans-Fredrik, 1997, Textural and compositional suggested genesis of cobalt-tungsten mineralization at Mt.
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Hy, Trygve, 1995, Blackbird sediment-hosted Cu-Co, in StatesA metamorphosed Proterozoic exhalative ore dis-
Lefebure, D.V., and Ray, G.E., eds., Selected British trict: Mineralium Deposita, v. 25, p. 163168.
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Blackbird district, east-central IdahoEpigenetic origins: omkring Modum koboltgruver (Nedl.). I. Fahlbndene
Economic Geology, v. 106, p. 585618. [Some observations and reflections about the Modum cobalt
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district, Lemhi County, Idaho: U.S. Geological Survey
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Marschik, Robert, 2005, Iron oxide copper-gold deposits
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Dahenglu-type of cobalt deposits in the Laoling area, Jilin
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By Karen Lund
4 of 18


U.S. Government.
Suggested citation:
Lund, Karen, 2013, Regional environment, chap. G4, of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and geoenvironmental model
for cobalt-copper-gold deposits in metasedimentary rocks: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report
20105070G, p. 2947, http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20105070g.

31
Contents
Geotectonic Environment............................................................................................................................33
Temporal (Secular) Relations......................................................................................................................39
Duration of Mineralizing Processes..........................................................................................................39
Relations to Structures................................................................................................................................40
Relations to Igneous Rocks.........................................................................................................................40
Relations to Sedimentary Rocks................................................................................................................43
Relations to Metamorphic Rocks...............................................................................................................44
Figures
41. Geologic map of the area near the Blackbird district showing mineralized
zones..............................................................................................................................................37
42. Cross sections showing structures near Blackbird mining district ...................................41
43. Simplified geologic map of the Kuusamo schist belt in northeastern Finland
showing mineral deposits and occurrences...........................................................................42
Table
41. Regionalized environment.....................................................................................................34

By Karen Lund
Regional environments of the Cu-Co-Au deposits Mesoproterozoic 1.5- to 1.4-Ga platform sediments overlying
(table 11) are diverse in relation to local sedimentary, a Paleoproterozoic collage of continental arc and calc-alkaline
metamorphic, and igneous rocks and in relation to structural island arc rocks. This belt became a continental collision
settings. As shown on table 41, the regional geologic zone at 1.1-Ga (Sveconorwegian orogeny; Bingen and others,
environments are products of three geotectonic settings: 2005; Andersen and others, 2007) and underwent rifting in the
intracontinental basin, oceanic rift and back-arc basin, and Permian during formation of the Oslo rift (Bingen and others,
Andean-type volcano-plutonic complexes. Most of the 2005). During sedimentation, intracontinental basins at
regional environments involve multi-phase tectonic histories Blackbird and Modum were mostly amagmatic, containing
that complicate interpretations about which characteristics little or no synsedimentary intrusive or interlayered volcanic
or processes were fundamental to mineralization and which rocks, thus probably indicating only moderate extension of
were incidental. The Blackbird district, containing the largest thick continental crust. In contrast, Paleoproterozoic intracon-
Co resource in metasedimentary rocks of the United States, is tinental basin rocks at the Mt. Cobalt deposit were deposited
in a complex setting about which there are many unanswered during two basin-filling extensional events (Matthai and oth-
questions, particularly regarding the geologic history between ers, 2004; Giles and others, 2006). These and Paleoproterozoic
the Mesoproterozoic deposition of the host rocks and superim- passive-margin sedimentary rocks at the Cobalt Hill deposit
posed Cretaceous metamorphism and deformation. Because of (Schandl, 2004; Schandl and Gorton, 2007; Marshall and Wat-
this gap in knowledge, interpretation of the regional geologic kinson, 2000) are characterized by mafic magmatism that was
environment for the Blackbird district has changed dramati- synchronous with sedimentation. The geologic framework of
cally during the course of 70 years of exploration and new the Mt. Cobalt deposit further developed through large-scale
detailed studies tied to structural context are required to clarify basin inversion (Giles and others, 2006).
relations. At Blackbird and in many of the other districts Another group of Cu-Co-Au deposits formed in rocks
described in this report, it remains unclear whether original that were deposited in oceanic rift and back-arc basin settings.
tectonic environment, host rock character, or subsequent The Kuusamo belt and the Sirkka deposit developed in sedi-
orogenic events were most significant to ore formation. mentary basins that lie in the southeastern and central parts
of the Central Lapland greenstone belt, respectively (Eilu and
others, 2003; Sundblad, 2003). In the Kuusamo belt, Paleo-
Geotectonic Environment proterozoic sedimentary and mafic igneous rocks formed in
an intraplate rift that was possibly a back-arc basin; the rift
Many of the Co-Cu-Au deposits and districts in metasedi- system was terminated and the sedimentary-volcanic basin
mentary rocks (table 11) are hosted in deformed Proterozoic was deformed during a collisional event (Pankka and
intracontinental basin rocks (table 41), including the Vanhanen, 1992; Rsnen and Vaasjoki, 2001; Eilu and others,
Blackbird and Modum districts and the Mt. Cobalt and Cobalt 2003, 2007; Sundblad, 2003). At Sirkka, Paleoproterozoic
Hill deposits. The basins underwent rapid subsidence and mafic metavolcanic and metavolcaniclastic rocks formed in
were filled with thick (multiple-kilometer), supracrustal an oceanic rift basin that was deformed during collisional
successions, most of which contain both deep-water and compression and secondary transcurrent shearing (Eilu and
shallow-water sedimentary deposits. All of these intraconti- others, 2003). The country rocks at the Gladhammar deposit
nental basins were transformed by compressional orogenic include sedimentary successions that formed in an amagmatic,
events that inverted the basins and resulted in regional Paleoproterozoic passive-margin and a secondary back-arc
metamorphism, igneous activity, and deformation. setting; these successions were incorporated into an Andean-
The Mesoproterozoic (about 1.4-giga-annum [Ga]) type arc-continent collisional zone (Beunk and Page, 2001).
intracontinental Lemhi basin hosting the Blackbird district The collision zone evolved into a transpressional crustal
developed across the trend of an underlying 1.8-Ga basement boundary before being mineralized (Beunk and Page, 2001).
suture system composed of juvenile mafic crust and island The Paleozoic host rocks for the Kendekeke deposit and
arcs (Sims and others, 2005). More than 9 km of sediment the Archean host rocks at the Werner Lake deposit are inter-
accumulated during basin development (Evans and Green, preted to have formed in back-arc rift settings (He and others,
2003). After deposition, the sedimentary rocks underwent 2010; Pan and Therens, 2000). Paleoproterozoic country rocks
several magmatic episodes, two periods of crustal extension, at the Dahenglu deposit formed in an intraplate rift setting
and an extended superterrane-continent collisional event (Zhao and others, 2005; Lu and others, 2006). The different-
(fig. 41; Lund and others, 2011). The Modum district lies in aged rift basins that host the Kendekeke and Dahenglu
Table 41. Regional environment.
Temporal
Deposit/ Geotectonic Relations to Relations to Relations to Relations to
(secular)
district name environment structures igneous rocks sedimentary rocks metamorphic rocks
relations
Deformed intracontinental basin setting
Blackbird district (Lund Mesoproterozoic (1.4 Mesoproterozoic Mineral deposits in ramp Multiple post-depositional Hosted by arkosic silt- Polyphase mineralization
and Tysdal, 2007; Lund Ga) intracontinental (1.38-1.1 Ga) or syn- system related to magmatic events: gran- stone and fine-grained syn- and-late metamorphic.
and others, 2010b, 2011; amagmatic extensional orogenic Late Creta- regional thrusts. Ore ites of unknown genesis sandstone rocks in Regional metamorphism of
Aleinikoff and others, basin formed across ceous polystage ore. hosted by minor thrust, at 1.37 Ga; extension- 9-km thick intraconti- middle greenschist to lower
2012) a 1.8 Ga suture zone. strain boundary, related bi-modal nental basin succes- amphibolite facies driving
Superimposed conti- dilational zones magmatism at 0.67, sion. regional dehydration and
nental breakup with 0.49 Ga, and 50-45 Evaporite-bearing rocks melting. Ore in metamor-
magmatism at 686-650, Ma; syn-compressional thrust faulted above phic fabrics and related
490 Ma. Arc-continent I- and S-type granites at host rocks structures
collisional orogeny at 95-80 Ma
100-80 Ma
Mt. Cobalt (Croxford, Paleoproterozoic 1.8- Synorogenic 1.6- Ore in 1.6-1.5 Ga high- Mafic metavolcanic Multiple ore host rocks 1.6-1.5 Ga amphibolite-facies
1974; Nisbet and 1.6 Ga sedimentary and 1.5 Ga poly-stage strain compressional (amphibolite) rocks including sedimentary- metamorphism formed
others, 1983; Matthai volcanic rocks depos- mineralization zones within broad were source of metals origin rocks. Strati- fluids. Veins hosted by
and others, 2004; Giles ited in two cycles of fault zone between rock derived by metamor- form and stratabound metamorphic rocks
and others, 2006) intracontinental exten- packages. Late 1.5 Ga phic fluids. Co-Cu-bearing pyrite
sion. Metamorphosed discordant Cu veins in Late veins related to 1.5 source of some metals.
during Mesoproterozoic extensional structures Ga bimodal intrusive Evaporites as source
1.6-1.5 Ga basin inver- rocks of Cl for hydrothermal
sion and syntectonic fluids.
ore.
1.5 Ga extension and
magmatism
Modum (Gammon, 1966; Mesoproterozoic 1.5-1.4 Ore 1.4-1.1 Ga, Intrafolial ores in fold 1.5-1.4 Ga pre-ore calc- Ore hosted in fine-grained 1.1-0.9 Ga granulite metamor-
Grorud, 1997; Andersen Ga platform sedi- possibly 1.4 Ga ore hinges and shear zones. alkaline mafic dikes. arkosic siliciclastic phism, foliation, penetra-
and Grorud, 1998; ments on a collage of remobilized by 1.1 Ma isoclinal folding 1.22 Ga possibly rocks containing minor tive deformation locally
Sundblad, 2003; Bingen continental arc and of 1.1 Ga metamor- of host rocks post-ore gabbro and anoxic-environment remobilize ore
and others, 2005; Ander- calc-alkaline/meta- phism. amphibolite metamor- carbonate rocks. Ore
sen and others, 2007) graywacke island arc. phosed and folded with Pb derived from sedi-
Continental collision sedimentary rocks.1.05 mentary rocks
zone at 1.1 Ga Ga post-ore granites
and pegmatites
Cobalt Hill (Schandl and 2.5-2.2 Ga continental rift- Ore possibly coeval Ore possibly 1.7 Ga late 2.22 Ga mafic intrusions Ore hosted in quartzite Lower greenschist
Gorton, 2007; Schandl related passive-margin with 2.2 Ga rift- syntectonic during (pre- or syn ore) pos- near unconformity
2004; Marshall and sedimentary rocks. 1.9- related mafic intru- collisional orogeny. Ore sible source of metals, with underlying Arche-
Watkinson, 2000) 1.8 Ga arc-continent sions and (or) with in shear and dilational 1.7 Ga syntectonic an rocks. Sedimentary
convergent margin, 1.7 1.7 Ga syn-meta- zones granite magmatism pos- rocks possible source
Ga collision-related morphic regional sibly syn ore. Ore cut of brines
granite magmatism fluids by 1.24 Ga mafic dikes
Table 41. Regional environment.Continued
Temporal
(secular)
relations
Deformed oceanic rift and back-arc setting
Gladhammar (Sderhielm and Paleoproterozoic 1.9 Ga pas- Paleoproterozoic 1.8-1.7 Ore in 1.8 to 1.7 Ga 1.8 Ga calc-alkaline Ore along shear zone 1.8 Ga amphibolite- facies
Sundblad, 1996; Sundblad, sive-margin metasedimentary Ga steep shear zones I-type tonalite cutting fluvial metamorphism of country
2003; Beunk and Page, rocks. Metamorphosed in related to Lofta- batholith sheared quartzite near contact rocks occurred during
2001; Billstrm and others, 1.8 Ga back-arc and Andean hammar-Linkping and mineralized with 1.8 Ga tonalite back-arc and Andean-mar-
2004) subduction settings. Intruded transpressional during 1.8-1.7 Ga batholith gin events prior to shearing
by 1.8 Ga I-type batholith. crustal boundary transpressional event that created ore host
1.8-1.7 Ga transpressional collision sites
collision shear zones host ore
Kuusamo district (Juomasuo, Paleoproterozoic (2.5-2.0 Ga) Paleoproterozoic 1.86- Ore in penetrative 2.2 Ga mafic dikes Some ore zones in mafic Ore post- or retrograde
Kouvervaara, Meurastuk- intracratonic failed rift basin. 1.82 Ga deformation zones caused altera- volcaniclastic and metamorphic in upper
senaho, Hangaslampi, Ore syntectonic with 1.9- in axial planar and tion and contact siliciclastic sedimen- greenschist to amphibolite
Lemmonlampi, Kuumaso) 1.8 Ga continent collision, shear zones metamorphism that tary rocks, and in facies rocks, especially in
(Pankka and Vanhanen, basin inversion, transcurrent mobilized brines mafic volcanic rocks older contact metamorphic
1992; Vanhanen, 2001; Eilu shearing, and synorogenic from sedimentary mostly near contacts zones
and others, 2003, 2007; plutonism package. Ore zones with mafic dikes. Mi-
Rsnen and Vaasjoki, in or at contact nor evaporite layers
2001) with meta-mafic contributed to brine
dikes and komatiitic formation in some
volcanic rocks deposits
Sirkka (Eilu and others, 2003, Paleoproterozoic 2.4-2.1 Ga rift Paleoproterozoic 1.89- Structurally controlled Ore hosted in mafic Some ore hosted by Mineralization syn or late
2007) system forming greenstone 1.86 Ga ore within or near metavolcanic (flow fine-grained volca- peak greenschist metamor-
belt. Ore syntectonic with transcrustal 1.89- and tuff) rocks, niclastic and black phism
1.89-1.86 Ga collisional 1.86 Ga Sirkka shear minor intrafolial shale interlayered
event during continental zone meta-komatiite with mafic volcanic
amalgamation rocks
Dahenglu (Yang and others, Paleoproterozoic 2.2-1.9 Ga Multiphase: Paleopro- Ore enriched during Mafic volcanic rocks Stratiform and divergent Greenschist to amphibolite
2001; Zhao and others, intracontinental rift basin. terozoic ore enriched tectonism and are local host rocks. ore zones in fine- facies
2005; Lu and others, 2006) 1.85 Ga basin inversion with during basin inversion controlled by 1.9 Ga Pre-metamorphic grained siliciclastic
deformation and magmatism thrust faults Paleoproterozoic and carbonate rocks
(1.9 Ga) bimodal
4.Regional Environment35
intrusions. Post-
metamorphic (1.85
Ga) syenite and
granite
Kendekeke (Pan and Sun, Ordovician backarc setting Multi-phase: Ordovician Mineralization as Host rocks in- Inferred syngenetic- Silurian-Devonian lower
2003; Pan and others, 2005; built on Cambrian island arc exhalative met- disseminations in clude Cambrian exhalative met- greenschist facies meta-
Feng and others, 2009; He basement. Late Paleozoic als enriched during penetrative foliation spilite-keratophyre als in 1-km-thick morphism
and others, 2010) intracontinental subduction late Paleozoic and and as intrafolial (basaltic) rocks. Cambrian-Silurian
and Mesozoic continental Mesozoic compressive veins Triassic-Jurassic interlayered volcani-
collision tectonism granites and Creta- clastic and volcanic
ceous felsic dikes host rocks
Table 41. Regional environment.Continued
Temporal
(secular)
relations
Deformed oceanic rift and back-arc settingContinued
Werner Lake (Pan and Archean greenstone belt. Inferred exhalative metal Ore hosted by metasedi- Inferred exhalative mineral- Inferred SEDEX miner- 2.69 Ga granulite and
Therens, 2000) ~2.7 Ga fore-arc, accumulation coeval mentary, mafic, and ization coeval with 2.7 Ga alization and minor 2.66-2.67 Ga retro-
accretionary prism, or with sedimenta- ultramafic rocks near mafic and ultramafic mag- exhalite(?) may have grade metamorphic
back-arc setting mafic, tion and mafic and fault zone. Co ore matism. Post-ore granite provided metals and contribution to Co
intermediate, and ul- ultramafic magma- bodies foliated, boudi- and pegmatite dikes brines enrichment. Cu ores
tramafic metavolcanic tism. Enriched during naged, and folded w/ retrograde phase
rocks and siliciclastic metamorphic events
metasedimentary
rocks. 2.69-2.67 Ga
deformation
Andean volcano-plutonic setting
Contact Lake belt (Mumin Paleoproterozoic 1.88- Episodic 1.87-1.85 Ga Mineralization in Ore related to 1.88 Ga calc- 1.88-1.87 Ga supracrustal Contact metamorphism
and others, 2007) 1.84 Ga Andean-type syn-magmatic min- caldera-related frac- alkaline igneous rocks. subvolcanic and volca- related to subvolcanic
arc magmatism eralization in caldera tures. Late ore hosted 1.84 Ga late-tectonic al- nogenic sandstone, silt- intrusions
formed andesitic complex in 1.84-1.81 Ga strike- kaline granite batholiths. stone, minor carbonate
stratovolcano complex slip faults S-isotope values indicate rocks, interlayered with
and subvolcanic intru- magmatic-origin sulfide volcanic rocks. Locally
sions minerals mineralized
NICO (Goad and others, Paleoproterozoic 1.87- 1.87-1.85 Ga syn-mag- Mineralization in frac- Ore coeval with calc-alkalic 1.88-1.87 Ga supracrustal Contact metamorphism
2000a, b; Mumin and 1.85 Ga calc-alkalic matic mineralization tures related to subvol- rhyolitic ignimbrite subvolcanic, volcano- related to subvolcanic
others, 2007) volcano-plutonic during volcano-plu- canic intrusions, dikes, and intermediate pluton genic graywacke coun- intrusions
complex formed in tonic episode maar-related breccias coeval with diatreme try rock mineralized as
Andean-type margin and maar facies host part of volcano-plutonic
mineralization in shallow complex
subvolcanic setting (Sue-
Dianne)
1142230
20
47 ic
37 ic 45
Ymg
73 H
52 ic
Yh
84 G
75
er Qu
De
Big 46 60 46
32
Qu 50
70
37
45
Yy ic
57 ULT 40
IR ON L A K E F A
83
zone
fault
bb 68
36 40
30
I ndi an
30 22
Creek
s he a r
45
B 45 Creek
VATED
domai n
65
Sli
Ir o n L a k e p la te 61 55 60
Yg
ian
(R E A C T I
40
pp
Ind
C 45
ery
56 D
L 74
37
58
60
Me 60 60 Haynes
A K
ad
E
F AU L T
Sunshine fa
ow
J F I
450730
O St el l i t e
B I G D EE R CR E E K
75 M
C re
55 74
85 domai n
ek
40 N 55
u lt
36 65 35
75
80 39
40 38
40
25 34 P
Ledge
42
60 45
Bla ckbi rd domai n
Cree
35 55
30
k
Yy
W h it e
45
fault
40 Tir 27 50
50 45
26 Q
30 36 S R 60
bb 45
Yac
Base from U.S. Geological Survey, Bighorn Crags, 1982. 0 1 2 3 KILOMETERS

Projection: Universal Transverse Mercator, zone 11.
0 1 MILE
CONTOUR INTERVAL 50 METERS
NORTH AMERICAN DATUM OF 1927
Figure 41. Geologic map of the area near the Blackbird district showing mineralized zones (from Lund and others,
2011). Purple, mineralized zones. Red dot pattern, rocks above garnet isograd (Indian Creek domain). Location of
prospects and mines shown by colored letters and dots: red, occurrences in Indian Creek domain; blue, Blackbird
domain; green, Haynes-Stellite domain. A, Sunshine lode, East Sunshine prospect; B, Ram deposit; C, Chelan, East Chelan
prospects; D, Horseshoe zone; E, Toronto prospect; F, Ridgetop prospect; G, Tinkers Pride prospect; H, Bonanza Copper
prospect; I, Merle zone; J, Chicago zone; K, Brown Bear zone; L, Blacktail open pit; M, Idaho zone; N, Uncle Sam mine; O,
Catherine and Ella prospects; P, Haynes-Stellite mine; Q, Conicu prospect; R, Patty B prospect; S, Ludwig prospect.
EXPLANATION
Qu Alluvial, colluvial, landslide, and glacial deposits, undivided (Quaternary)
Toc Older colluvium of Panther Creek (Eocene)
Tc Challis Volcanic Group, undivided (Eocene) Tir Intrusive rhyolite (Eocene) Tg Granite (Eocene)
Tcc Tuffs of Castle Rock
Tcb Tuffs of Camas Creek-Black Mountain

Tce Tuff of Ellis Creek
Kgd Biotite granodiorite (Late Cretaceous)
O i Mafic to predominantly felsic alkalic intrusions (Ordovician to Cambrian)
Ymg Megacrystic granite and augen gneiss (Mesoproterozoic)
Age undetermined, Mesoproterozoic(?) Mesoproterozoic
Relative age unknown

Ys Swauger Formation
Argillaceous quartzite,
Yaq
upper Lemhi Group

Yg Gunsight Formation unnamed
Indian Creek Blackbird domain, Yh Hoodoo Quartzite
Banded siltite unit,
Apple Creek
ic bb Yab
Formation
domain, middle green- lower greenschist facies Yy Yellowjacket Formation
amphibolite facies schist facies Yac Coarse siltite unit
ContactDashed where approximately located; queried where uncertain
Normal faultDashed where approximately located; dotted where concealed;

queried where uncertain. Bar and ball on downthrown side
Thrust faultDashed where approximately located; dotted where concealed;

queried where uncertain. Sawteeth on upper plate
Thrust fault with later normal movementDashed where approximately located;

dotted where concealed. Sawteeth on upper plate; bar and ball on downthrown
side
Syncline
Anticline, Arrow showing dip plunge
Overturned anticline
Overturned syncline
Strike and dip of bedding
40
Strike and dip of foliation
33
Inclined
41
Overturned
Figure 41. Geologic map of the area near the Blackbird district showing mineralized zones (from Lund and others,
2011). Purple, mineralized zones. Red dot pattern, rocks above garnet isograd (Indian Creek domain). Location of
prospects and mines shown by colored letters and dots: red, occurrences in Indian Creek domain; blue, Blackbird
domain; green, Haynes-Stellite domain. A, Sunshine lode, East Sunshine prospect; B, Ram deposit; C, Chelan, East
Chelan prospects; D, Horseshoe zone; E, Toronto prospect; F, Ridgetop prospect; G, Tinkers Pride prospect; H,
Bonanza Copper prospect; I, Merle zone; J, Chicago zone; K, Brown Bear zone; L, Blacktail open pit; M, Idaho zone;
N, Uncle Sam mine; O, Catherine and Ella prospects; P, Haynes-Stellite mine; Q, Conicu prospect; R, Patty B prospect;
S, Ludwig prospect.Continued.
deposits filled with sedimentary and mafic volcanic rocks Thus, most of the Cu-Co-Au deposits are hosted in Paleo-
(Yang and others, 2001; Pan and Sun, 2003; Pan and others, proterozoic rocks although the Blackbird and Modum districts
2005; Feng and others, 2009). At Werner Lake, an Archean are in Mesoproterozoic rocks, Werner Lake is in Archean
back-arc rift filled with sedimentary rocks and mafic and ultra- rocks, and Kendekeke is in Paleozoic rocks. Most of the
mafic rocks (Pan and Therens, 2000; see z 56). These basins deposits formed during subsequent metamorphism and
all underwent subsequent compressional deformation and deformation, generally about 100-200 m.y. after host-rock
metamorphism (Pan and Therens, 2000; Yang and others, deposition, but the age span of mineralization ranges from
2001; Pan and Sun, 2003; Feng and others, 2009). about 50 m.y. to possibly more than 1.3 b.y. after sedimenta-
The Contact Lake belt and NICO deposits formed as tion. Deposits at NICO and in the Contact Lake belt formed
parts of Paleoproterozoic Andean arc-continent collision predominantly within siliciclastic sedimentary rocks, contem-
zones in caldera systems built atop older Paleoproterozoic poraneously with caldera development.
interlayered volcanogenic sedimentary and volcanic supra-
crustal rocks (Badham, 1975; Goad and others, 2000a; Eilu
and others, 2003; Mumin and others, 2007). Duration of Mineralizing Processes
The mineralizing events for most of these deposits
Temporal (Secular) Relations are complex and multi stage (table 41), so the durations
of mineralizing processes are difficult to determine. In the
Deposits in the Modum district are Mesoproterozoic in
age, possibly having formed during early post-depositional Blackbird district, 1.37-Ga Mesoproterozoic REE minerals
tectonism, but were transposed and remobilized during (xenotime cores) in one prospect (Aleinikoff and others, 2012)
younger Mesoproterozoic continental collision (Andersen are interpreted to date the Cu-Co-Au mineralization and to
and Grorud, 1998; Andersen and others, 2007). Dating of provide a genetic link to the emplacement of nearby 1.37-Ga
uraninite in the Modum ores suggests a time span of about plutons (Slack, 2012), suggesting a relatively short duration
300 m.y. between early and final stages of ore formation of hydrothermal activity. More broadly across the Blackbird
(Andersen and Grorud, 1998). In the Blackbird district, district, xenotime rims, monazite, and muscovite intergrown
Mesoproterozoic strata host Mesoproterozoic (about 30 m.y. with Cu-Co-Au ore minerals are dated at 110 to 83 Ma (Lund
post-sedimentation) REE concentrations (Aleinikoff and and others, 2011; Aleinikoff and others, 2012), ages that are
others, 2012), and either contemporaneous, syn-magmatic synchronous with formation of the ore-hosting structures; this
Cu-Co-Au mineralization (Slack, 2012) or Cretaceous interpretation suggests that multi-phase mineralizing events
(about 1.3 b.y. post-sedimentation) syn-orogenic, polyphase spanned about 27 m.y. (Lund and others, 2011). The Mt. Cobalt
Cu-Co-Au mineralization (Lund and others, 2011). At the deposit and Modum district display evidence of multiple
Mt. Cobalt deposit, polyphase ore formed in Paleoproterozoic periods of mineralization that may have occurred during more
rocks during Mesoproterozoic deformation. At the Cobalt Hill than one orogenic event (Nisbet and others, 1983; Krcmarov
deposit, Paleoproterozoic rocks host ore that formed during and Stewart, 1998; Grorud, 1997, respectively). Deposits in the
younger Paleoproterozoic orogenic events (about 200 m.y. Kuusamo belt are the product of two phases of Paleoprotero-
post-sedimentation). In the Kuusamo belt, middle zoic tectonic activity (Pankka and Vanhanen, 1992). Ore
Paleoproterozoic host rocks were mineralized during late zones at the Gladhammar and Sirkka deposits formed during
Paleoproterozoic collisional events (Pankka and Vanhanen, discrete orogenic events, but the durations are poorly resolved
1992). (Sderhielm and Sundblad, 1996). Deposits at Werner Lake,
The Gladhammar (Sderhielm and Sundblad, 1996;
Kendekeke, and Dahenglu are interpreted as the products of
Sundblad, 2003) and Sirkka (Pankka and Vanhanen, 1992;
two-stages of metals deposition and subsequent enrichment
Vanhanen, 2001) deposits formed about 200-300 m.y. after
(Pan and Therens, 2000; Yang and others, 2001; Pan and Sun,
sedimentation, during deformation along Paleoproterozoic
2003; Feng and others, 2009). The deposit at NICO formed
transcurrent structures. At the Werner Lake, Dahenglu, and
Kendekeke deposits, available studies conclude that Archean, during a caldera-building event (Mumin and others, 2007) and
Paleoproterozoic, and Paleozoic strata, respectively (Pan and probably was of relatively short duration. Deposits in the
Therens, 2000; Yang and others, 2001; Pan and Sun, 2003; Contact Lake belt formed in a similar magmatic setting to
Feng and others, 2009), originally contained exhalative NICO, but a component of late mineralization during younger
mineralization that was remobilized and enriched during meta- transcurrent faulting was critical (Mumin and others, 2007).
morphic events about 0.5-2.0 b.y. after sedimentation. Among Although durations of mineralization for most of the
deposits that formed as part of Paleoproterozoic Andean Co-Cu-Au deposits are not constrained by geochronology, the
volcano-plutonic systems, mineralization at the NICO and striking aspect (except for NICO, Mumin and others, 2007; and
Contact Lake deposits was coeval with magmatism (fig. 54) Blackbird, if ore is Mesoproterozoic and syn-magmatic, Slack,
and about 200 m.y. younger than Paleoproterozoic country 2012) is that multiple events were responsible for forming
rocks (Mumin and others, 2007). these deposits.
Relations to Structures In the Dahenglu, Kendekeke, and Werner Lake deposits,

ore zones are structurally controlled and manifest as foliated
In the Blackbird district, recent structural and mineralogi- disseminations and as intrafolial veins (Pan and Therens,
cal studies conclude that the Co-Cu-Au deposits formed as 2000; Yang and others, 2001; Pan and Sun, 2003; Feng and
successive vein types, co-located along Cretaceous fold hinges, others, 2009). The Gladhammar deposit is located along a
cleavages, and shear zones within a thrust ramp in a regional shear zone that formed as part of a 1.8- to 1.7-Ga transpres-
thrust fault system (figs. 41, 42) and, thus, are structurally sional crustal boundary (Sderhielm and Sundblad, 1996;
controlled. The deposits are interpreted as syn- to late- Beunk and Page, 2001; Billstrom and others, 2004; Eilu and
deformational because early-stage veins exhibit well-developed others, 2007).
foliation, whereas progressively younger veins are less foliated At the NICO deposit and in the Contact Lake belt,
or unfoliated (Lund and others, 2011). Other studies, which mineral deposits are hosted locally by brittle structures related
conclude that these are Mesoproterozoic deposits related to to formation and collapse of calderas (Goad and others, 2000a,
1.37-Ga intrusive activity, do not infer a solely Cretaceous b; Mumin and others, 2007). In the Contact Lake belt, late-
structural control of mineralization (Slack, 2012), although stage ore is also localized along strike-slip faults (Mumin and
Mesoproterozoic structures have not been recognized or others, 2007).
mapped in the region (Lund and others, 2011).
In the Modum district, ore zones lie in penetrative
structures within foliation, in intrafolial cleavage, and along Relations to Igneous Rocks
broad shear zones (fig. 53; Grorud, 1997). Although urani-
The region surrounding the Blackbird district was
nite associated with the ore zones has an age of about 1.4-Ga
affected by three within-plate igneous events about 30, 700,
(Andersen and Grorud, 1998), structural and mineralogic
evidence indicates that the ore minerals grew or recrystallized and 900 m.y. after sedimentation (Evans and Green, 2003;
during the Sveconorwegian collision event at about 1.1 Ga and Lund and Tysdal, 2007). Mesoproterozoic (about 1.4 Ga)
were coeval with thrust faulting and isoclinal folding (Grorud, strata of the Lemhi basin were intruded at 1.37 Ga by granite-
1997; Bingen and others, 2005; Andersen and others, 2007). granodiorite plutons (Evans and Zartman, 1990). Several
The Mt. Cobalt deposit is a product of a 1.6- to 1.5-Ga, generations of xenotime dated between 1.37 and 1.1 Ga
collision-driven orogeny that inverted the intracontinental basin (Aleinikoff and others, 2012) indicate that local hydrothermal
rocks causing the host turbiditic succession to be thrust faulted fluid flow occurred during the Mesoproterozoic, including an
over a shallow-water, evaporitic succession. Mineralization is event coeval with 1.37-Ga igneous rocks that is regarded by
localized within a broad thrust zone between the rock pack- Slack (2012) as the time of Co-Cu-Au mineralization. In the
ages (Matthai and others, 2004; Giles and others, 2006). The Neoproterozoic-early Paleozoic, the Blackbird region was on
main orebodies are in high-strain compressional zones includ- the margin of a continental rift that produced several cycles
ing minor folds and faults located in a thrust ramp that created of co-magmatic syenite-diorite intrusions (685-650 Ma and
local dilational structures. Late-tectonic Cu veins are discordant 500-485 Ma; Lund and others, 2010a). Country rocks in the
to fabrics (Krcmarov and Stewart, 1998). central part of the district were intruded by undated mafic
At Cobalt Hill, 2.2-Ga rift-related rocks were overprinted dikes that, based on proximity to several Cambrian plutons,
by deformation and magmatism related to 1.7-Ga, arc- are most likely part of the early Paleozoic extensional intru-
continent convergence (Marshall and Watkinson, 2000; sive event and interpreted as pre-ore (Lund and others, 2011).
Schandl and Gorton, 2007). The Co-Cu-Au deposits are Additionally, I- and S-type granites of the Cretaceous Idaho
located along shear and dilational structures related to the batholith lie less than 15 km west and north of the district and
convergent deformation and magmatism, but metals may have Eocene granites cut rocks within the district, but hydrothermal
been introduced during older rift-related mafic magmatism activities related to these are not thought to be related to the
(Marshall and Watkinson, 2000; Schandl and Gorton, 2007). deposits (Lund and others, 2011).
The 2.5- to 2.0-Ga volcanic-sedimentary rift-basin rocks In the region surrounding the Modum district, minor
of the Kuusamo schist belt were intercalated and tightly folded pre-ore calc-alkaline dikes were coeval with sedimentation
during 1.9- to 1.8-Ga continental collision (fig. 43; Pankka (about 1.51.4 Ga). A younger set of gabbro and mafic dikes
and Vanhanen, 1992; Rsnen and Vaasjoki, 2001; Sundblad, also intruded the sedimentary rocks at about 1.2 Ga. Early-
2003). At Sirkka, the 2.4- to 2.1-Ga rift-basin rocks were stage mineralization is dated at about 1.4 Ga, between the two
involved in 1.89- to 1.86-Ga continental amalgamation and intrusive events (Grorud, 1997; Andersen and Grorud, 1998),
secondary transcurrent faulting that produced intercalation of but the structurally controlled ore zones formed, or were
mafic metavolcanic and metavolcaniclastic rocks by both fault- remobilized into these structures, at about 1.1 Ga (Grorud,
ing and isoclinal folding (Eilu and others, 2003). In both areas, 1997; Sundblad, 2003; Bingen and others, 2005; Andersen and
Co-Cu-Au deposits are hosted along fold hinges and shear others, 2007).
zones in older contact metamorphic zones adjacent to, as well In the Paleoproterozoic sedimentary basin that hosts the
as within, metamorphosed mafic dikes (Eilu and others, Mt. Cobalt deposit, volcanic rocks were deposited in both
2003, 2007). cycles of intracontinental extension and basin filling (Matthai
BLACKTAIL
Blackbird Mtn
West CHICAGO
SUNSHINE East
Yy BROWN
A TORONTO
Big Deer Cr
METERS BEAR A'
SC
3,000 Yy MERLE
ic ic
ic
HAYNES-STELLITE
2,000 Yh Yy bb
IL Yg
1,000 ic
Tg IC Ymg
Yab
reek
BDC
Poison C
WL
bb
Yg
S
North South
BROWN
B CHICAGO B'
Meadow Cr
METERS BEAR
Blackbird Cr
HORSESHOE
Big Deer Cr
IL Yy
3,000 RAM
IC
2,000
ic SC
bb
AMP
1,000
Ymg BLACKBIRD MOUNTAIN R
Yab
Figure 42. Cross sections showing structures near Blackbird mining district (from Lund and others, 2011). See fig. 4.1 for unit and symbol definitions.
Prospects and deposits are projected into planes of cross section and keyed to domain by color: red = occurrences in Indian Creek domain, blue =
Blackbird domain, green = Haynes-Stellite domain. BDC, Big Deer Creek fault; BM, Blackbird Mountain oblique ramp; IC, Indian Creek imbricate fault;
IL, Iron Lake fault; SC, Slippery Creek fault; WL, White Ledge shear zone.
2900
0 3 KILOMETERS
0 1 MILE
HAARAKUMPU F040
6620 JUOMASUO
HANGASLAMPI
POHJASVAARA
F040.1
ISO-REHVI
MEURASTUKSENAHO
SIVAKKAHARJU
SYNJVAARA
LEMMONLAMPI
APAJALAHTI
KOUVERVAARA
KOUVERVAARA U
Kuusamo
6600
EXPLANATION
Leuco granitoid Pegmatite Arkose quartzite Co-Cu-Au deposit
Gabbro Ultramafic hypabyssal rock Sericite quartzite U deposit
Felsic volcanic rock Dolomitic carbonate rock Biotite paraschist
Basaltic andesite Mafic volcaniclastic conglomerate Sericite paraschist
Mafic volcanic rock Quartzite Graphic sulphide paraschist
Mafic tuff Orthoquartzite Tonalitic migmatite
Figure 43. Generalized geologic map of the Kuusamo schist belt in northeastern Finland showing mineral deposits
and occurrences. All rock units are Precambrian in age. White areas are of lakes. Modified from Eilu and others (2012).
and others, 2004; Giles and others, 2006). The Paleoprotero- within the sedimentary rocks (Tysdal, 2000a, b; Evans and
zoic mafic volcanic rocks are interpreted to be the source of Green, 2003; Lund and others, 2011). Mineralized zones are
metals for later Paleoproterozoic structurally controlled veins, transgressive to bedding, not bound to particular stratigraphic
whereas late veins formed during regional intrusion of Meso- horizons, and occur in three stratigraphic units (Apple Creek
proterozoic bimodal intrusive rocks (Croxford, 1974; Nisbet and Gunsight Formations, fig. 41) through
and others, 1983; Krcmarov and Stewart, 1998). 4 km of stratigraphic thickness (Lund and others, 2011). Due to
In the region near the Cobalt Hill deposit, two ages of Cretaceous basin inversion, host rocks of the Blackbird district
igneous rocks may have been important in ore deposit forma- are structurally overlain by another Mesoproterozoic unit
tion. The 2.22-Ga mafic intrusions may have been emplaced (Yellowjacket Formation; Lund and Tysdal, 2007) that origi-
before or during mineralization and are possible sources of nally contained evaporite beds (Tysdal and Desborough, 1997),
metals. Likewise, syn-tectonic, 1.7-Ga granite magmatism but that lacks Cu-Co-Au deposits.
also was possibly coeval with ore formation (Schandl 2004; The Mt. Cobalt and Cobalt Hill deposits and the Modum
Schandl and Gorton, 2007). In the Kuusamo belt, contact district are also hosted in deformed intracontinental basins
metamorphic zones adjacent to 2.2-Ga mafic dikes focused that underwent rapid subsidence and were filled with thick
younger deformation and mineralization in and near the con- (multiple-km) supracrustal successions. These intracontinental
tacts between the sedimentary-mafic volcanic succession and basins included shallow depositional settings that produced
the mafic dikes (Pankka and Vanhanen, 1992; Eilu and others, evaporitic sediments. Although the tectonic settings were exten-
2003, 2007; Rsnen and Vaasjoki, 2001). The 1.8- to 1.7-Ga, sional, these basins were mostly amagmatic, containing little or
structurally controlled Gladhammar deposit is adjacent to a no synsedimentary intrusive or interlayered volcanic rocks. At
1.8-Ga calc-alkaline tonalite batholith that hosts the nearby Modum, country rocks originated as fluvial and shallow marine
Solstad Co-Cu-Au deposit (Sderhielm and Sundblad, 1996; rocks, including possible evaporites (Grorud, 1997; Bingen and
Sundblad, 2003). others, 2005).
At Werner Lake, 2.7-Ga mafic and ultramafic igneous The Co-Cu-Au deposits of the Kuusamo belt are hosted
rocks are interpreted to be related to the formation of dissemi- in the Kuusamo schist belt, a package of mafic volcaniclastic-
nated SEDEX mineralization that, after 2.69- to 2.67-Ga siliciclastic metasedimentary rocks with subequal proportions
metamorphic remobilization, was localized and concentrated of mafic volcanic and intrusive (dike) rocks that are infolded
within the igneous rocks (Pan and Therens, 2000). Similarly, in the southeastern part of the Central Lapland greenstone belt
2.2- to 1.9-Ga mafic rocks at Dahenglu and Ordovician mafic (Pankka and Vanhanen, 1992; Rsnen and Vaasjoki, 2001; Eilu
rocks at Kendekeke were coeval with sedimentation and and others, 2003; Sundblad, 2003). The deposits occur along
with inferred original SEDEX metal accumulation that was the contact-metamorphosed and sheared contacts between the
enriched during subsequent metamorphism and deformation. sedimentary rocks and the volcanic and dike rocks (fig. 58;
Mineralization at NICO and in the Contact Lake belt Eilu and others, 2003, 2007). The Gladhammar deposit is set
(Goad and others, 2000a, b; Mumin and others, 2007) was in passive-margin, quartzitic country rocks, whereas the Sirkka
coeval with 1.88- to 1.84-Ga calc-alkaline arc magmatism. In deposit is set in mixed sedimentary and volcanic rocks. How-
addition to subvolcanic volcaniclastic and siliciclastic sedi- ever, both are hosted by faults that are mineralized across the
mentary rocks, a minor proportion of the ore is hosted by both region; relations of the ore deposits to the sedimentary rocks are
intrusive and volcanic rocks (fig. 54; Badham, 1975; Goad unclear (Eilu and others, 2003, 2007).
and others, 2000a, b; Mumin and others, 2007). At the Kendekeke, Dahlenglu, and Werner Lake deposits,
disseminated metal accumulations are interpreted to have
Relations to Sedimentary Rocks formed originally by syngenetic processes in volcaniclastic and
volcanic rocks and to have been enriched during metamorphism
Host rocks to the Blackbird district were deposited in and deformation (Yang and others, 2001; Pan and Sun, 2003;
the Mesoproterozoic Lemhi basin and are preserved as a Feng and others, 2009). Calc-silicate rocks and garnetiferous
9-km-thick succession of unfossiliferous, fine-grained, quartzite juxtaposed against host rocks at the Werner Lake
upward-shallowing, siliciclastic rocks (Tysdal 2000a, b). deposit are interpreted as metamorphosed exhalites (Pan and
Where the environment of deposition is preserved without Therens, 2000).
metamorphic and structural transformation, the host rocks At the Contact Lake (Mumin and others, 2007; Badham,
retain evidence of being turbidite flow deposits and overlying 1975) and NICO (Goad and others, 2000a) deposits, supra-
marine and fluvial deposits (Tysdal, 2000a). Although synge- crustal sedimentary rocks are a component of the country rocks
netic mineralization was invoked in several previous district and occur as subvolcanic units within caldera complexes.
studies and mineral deposit models (Earhart, 1986; Nash and Subvolcanic sedimentary rocks, and their altered equivalents,
Hahn, 1989; Hy, 1995; Evans and others, 1995; Bookstrom host many of the mineralized zones at the NICO deposit (Goad
and others, 2007; Lydon, 2007), the most comprehensive and and others, 2000a, b; Mumin and others, 2007) and in the
detailed studies indicate that no syngenetic deposits occur Contact Lake belt (Mumin and others, 2007).
Relations to Metamorphic Rocks In another set of deposits, premetamorphic and possibly

original SEDEX-type mineral occurrences were upgraded dur-
Most of the deposits included in this model are in regional ing later metamorphism. Medium-grade metamorphism and
metamorphic rocks, but mineralization may have occurred deformation resulted in the development of intrafolial veins
before, during, or after the regional metamorphic events. A few within penetratively deformed rocks at Kendekeke (Pan and
deposits are located in contact metamorphic rocks. Because others, 2005; Feng and others, 2009) and in syn-metamorphic,
of these differences, there is significant variation in relations thrust-fault-controlled ore accumulations at Dahenglu (Yang
between mineralization and metamorphic rocks (table 41). and others, 2001). At Werner Lake, granulite-facies metamor-
Among the deposits in deformed intracontinental basins phism of fault-juxtaposed intrusive and sedimentary is inferred
and in rift basins, the sulfide minerals are typically intergrown to have upgraded the Co content of SEDEX accumulations in
with metamorphic minerals and lie within metamorphic fabrics sedimentary rocks and to have remobilized metals to form
that formed during medium-grade regional metamorphism. In ore deposits in mafic and ultramafic rocks (fig. 55; Pan and
the Blackbird district, polyphase mineralized zones are located Therens, 2000). Copper was enriched in the ore deposits dur-
within structural and metamorphic fabrics (Lund and others, ing late-tectonic, retrograde greenschist-facies metamorphism
2011). Across the different structural domains, host structures (Pan and Therens, 2000).
range from (1) fold cleavage in middle greenschist facies rocks; The mineralized zones at the NICO deposit and in
(2) transposed layers, axial planar foliation, and shear zones in the Contact Lake belt are in greenschist-facies, graywacke
upper greenschist facies rocks; and (3) metamorphic compo- hornfels at the contact with stocks and dikes, as well as in the
sitional layers, intrafolial foliation, and shear zones in lower unmetamorphosed igneous rocks (fig. 54; Badham, 1975;
amphibolite facies rocks. Within the Late Mumin and others, 2007).
Cretaceous penetrative structures, Co- and Cu-bearing veins
and breccia zones are discordant to bedding in the
low-grade metamorphic rocks, but are progressively more
parallel to compositional layering in the higher grade, References Cited
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late-stage Cu veins are late metamorphic in age based on Aleinikoff, J.N., Slack, J.F., Lund, K.I., Evans, K.V., Mazdab,
unoriented gangue minerals that cut foliated gangue minerals F.K., Pillars, R.M., and Fanning, C.M., 2012, Constraints
of earlier mineralizing stages (Lund and others, 2011). on the timing of Co-CuAu mineralization in the Black-
In the Modum district, orebodies are located along bird district, Idaho, using SHRIMP U-Pb ages of monazite
synmetamorphic, penetrative shear zones within granulite- and xenotime plus zircon ages of related Mesoproterozoic
facies rocks of diverse origin that were structurally interleaved. orthogneisses and metasedimentary rocks: Economic Geol-
Sets of crosscutting, fabric-discordant veins are related to dis- ogy, v. 107, p. 11431175.
tinctly younger, greenschist-facies retrograde events (Grorud,
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formed synchronously with amphibolite-facies metamorphism, lead isotope systematics of uranium-enriched cobalt miner-
where high-strain zones, including polyphase folds, pressure- alization in the Modum complex, south Norway: Implica-
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(Croxford, 1974; Nisbet and others, 1983). In Baltic Shield: Precambrian Research, v. 91, p. 419432.
the Kuusamo belt, the Cu-Co-Au mineralization occurred Andersen, Tom, Graham, Stuart, and Sylvester, A.G., 2007,
during syn- to late-peak, greenschist- to amphibolite-facies Timing and tectonic significance of Sveconorwegian A-type
metamorphism and formed in fold and shear-zone fabrics granitic magmatism in Telemark, southern Norway: New
where these fabrics overprinted earlier contact metamorphic results from laser-ablation ICPMS U-Pb dating of zircon:
zones. Late-stage quartz veins cut the peak-metamorphic Norges Geologiske Underskelse Bulletin 447, p. 1731.
fabrics and are related to second-order compressional structures
(Pankka and Vanhanen, 1992; Vanhanen, 2001; Eilu and others, Badham, J.P.N., 1975, Mineralogy, paragenesis and origin
2003, 2007). of the Ag-Ni, Co arsenide mineralisation, Camsell River,
Several of the deposits are more closely related to discrete N.W.T. Canada: Mineralium Deposita, v. 10, p. 153175.
shear zones than to regional metamorphic zones. At the Sirkka
deposit, ore mineral formation occurred along a transcrustal Beunk, F.F., and Page, L.M., 2001, Structural evolution of
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(Eilu and others, 2003, 2007). In contrast, at the Gladhammar Svecofennian orogen in southern Sweden: Tectonophysics,
deposit, the sedimentary country rocks were metamorphosed to v. 339, p. 6792.
greenschist facies prior to the transcurrent faulting that controlled Billstrm, K., Broman, C., and Sderhielm, J., 2004, The
mineralization (Sderhielm and Sundblad, 1996; Sundblad, Solstad Cu oreAn Fe oxide-Cu-Au type deposit in SE
2003). For deposits in the Cobalt Hill area, it is unclear if min- Sweden [abs.]: GFF [Geologiska Freningens i Stockholm
eralization formed prior to or during metamorphism (Marshall Frhandlingar], v. 126, p. 147148.
and Watkinson, 2000; Schandl and Gorton, 2007).
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Sims, P.K., Lund, K., and Anderson, E., 2005, Precambrian
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district, Lemhi County, Idaho, in Boyle, R.W., Brown, A.C., its of the Idaho cobalt belt, USA: Multistage hydrothermal
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47
Sundblad, K., 2003, Metallogeny of gold in the Precambrian

of northern Europe: Economic Geology, v. 98, p. 1271
1290.
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Middle Proterozoic rocks in northern part of Lemhi Range,
Lemhi County, Idaho: U.S. Geological Survey Professional
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jacket Formation, central Idaho: U.S. Geological Survey
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Formation, Moyer Creek, Salmon River Mountains, central
Idaho: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 97268,
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By John F. Slack
5 of 18


U.S. Government.
Suggested citation:
Slack, J.F., 2013, Physical description of deposits, chap. G5, of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and geoenvironmental
model for cobalt-copper-gold deposits in metasedimentary rocks: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations
Report 20105070G, p. 4962, http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20105070g.

51
Contents
Geology and Dimensions in Plan View......................................................................................................53
Blackbird District, USA.......................................................................................................................53
Modum District, Norway....................................................................................................................53
NICO Deposit, Canada........................................................................................................................55
Werner Lake Deposit, Canada...........................................................................................................55
Kuusamo Schist Belt, Finland............................................................................................................58
Size of Hydrothermal System Relative to Extent of Economically Mineralized Rock........................58
Vertical Extent...............................................................................................................................................58
Form and (or) Shape.....................................................................................................................................60
Host Rocks.....................................................................................................................................................60
Structural Setting(s) and Controls.............................................................................................................60
Remote Sensing............................................................................................................................................60
Figures
51. Generalized geologic map of the Blackbird district showing the settings
of stratabound and discordant mineral deposits...................................................................54
52. Geological map of the Modum district, southeastern Norway............................................55
53. Geology of the NICO Co-Au-Bi-Cu-Ni deposit, Northwest Territories,
Canada...........................................................................................................................................56
54. Geologic cross section of the Bowl zone of the NICO deposit, Northwest
Territories, Canada......................................................................................................................57
55. Geologic map and block diagram of the Werner Lake Co-Cu-Au deposit,
Ontario...........................................................................................................................................59
By John F. Slack
Geology and Dimensions in Plan View The Co-Cu-Au deposits consist of stratabound and
discordant lenses, veins, and breccias. Stratabound deposits
Mineralized zones of the Co-Cu-Au deposits considered are generally <1 to 4 m thick and 300 to 500 m long, and show
in this report (table 11) vary greatly in form and geometry. diverse features such as shearing and folding of mineralized
Most are less than 10 m thick and several hundred meters in bodies, boudins, cusps, and remobilized veins, all of which are
length, but some zones are as much as 70 m thick and nearly hallmarks of the deformation and recrystallization of sulfide-
2 km long. Representative examples from several districts and rich rocks (for example, Marshall and Gilligan, 1989). Some
deposits, including information on local geology, are described deposits are as much as 9 m thick and 800 m long (Vhay,
below. 1948). Pipelike deposits such as Haynes-Stellite (fig. 51)
display a different geometry, typically consisting of dissemi-
nated Co Cu Au Y REE mineralization within discor-
Blackbird District, USA dant tourmalinized breccia bodies as much as 50 m in diameter
(Modreski, 1985; Bookstrom and others, 2007; Slack, 2012).
The Co-Cu-Au deposits of the Blackbird district in east-
central Idaho (fig. 51) contain the largest known reserves of
cobalt in the United States (Nash and Hahn, 1989; Bookstrom Modum District, Norway
and others, 2007). Host rocks are clastic metasedimentary
The Co-Cu-Au deposits of the Modum district in south-
strata of Mesoproterozoic age that are deformed by folds,
eastern Norway are famous for being the main source of cobalt
thrust faults, and high-angle faults (Lund and Tysdal, 2007;
blue pigment used in Europe during the late 17th and 18th
Lund, 2013). The metasedimentary rocks are mostly siltite and
Centuries. Skuterud, at the southern end of the district, is the
argillite, accompanied by minor quartzite, quartzose granofels,
largest deposit, having been mined from three linear open pits
biotite-rich schist, and pelitic schist. These strata are intruded
and underground workings. The deposits occur within a Meso-
by coeval granitic and gabbroic plutons, the former exposed
proterozoic metasedimentary sequence that includes metagabbro
in the northern part of the district at surface distances ranging
and felsic (granitic and granodioritic) gneiss (fig. 52). Pelitic
from approximately 1 to 5 km. Sensitive High Resolution Ion
schist and quartzite are the principal hosts, together with lesser
Microprobe (SHRIMP) U-Pb geochronology by Aleinikoff
metagabbro and amphibolite, and sparse diopside-actinolite
and others (2012) yield a maximum sedimentation age of 1409 rock (Rosenqvist, 1948; Gammon, 1966; Jsing, 1966).
10 Ma for the ore hosting Apple Creek Formation based on Albite-rich rocks (albitite) are spatially associated with most
data for detrital zircons, and a crystallization age of 1377 4 of the deposits (Munz and others, 1994); scapolite-rich rocks,
Ma for megacrystic granite based on data for igneous zircons. mainly scapolitized metagabbro, also occur more widely in the
Doughty and Chamberlain (1996) reported a U-Pb zircon age district (Engvik and others, 2011), but their relationship to the
of 1378.7 1.2 Ma for small intrusions of coarse metadiabase Co-Cu-Au deposits is unclear. Impure marble and calc-silicate
about 40 km to the northeast of the district, thus indicating rock containing abundant diopside and actinolite occur locally
regional contemporaneity of this Mesoproterozoic felsic and (Munz and others, 1994). The deposits and their country rocks,
mafic magmatism. Igneous plutons of mainly felsic composi- including the metaigneous intrusions, were regionally meta-
tion were also emplaced during Neoproterozoic, Cambrian, morphosed to the upper amphibolite or granulite facies based
Cretaceous, and Eocene times (Lund and Tysdal, 2007; Lund on the widespread presence of sillimanite in the host pelitic
and others, 2010a). Metamorphic grade in the region varies schist and on metamorphic petrology studies (Munz, 1990).
from middle greenschist in the Blackbird district to upper The maximum sedimentation age of the sequence is
amphibolite at the Salmon Canyon copper deposit approxi- 1475 20 Ma based on U-Pb dating of detrital zircons in a
mately 25 km to the northwest of the district (Nold, 1990; quartzite unit from inferred correlative strata in the Kongsberg
Bookstrom and others, 2007), which likely is a Cu-rich varient area to the south (Bingen and others, 2001).
of the Co-Cu-Au deposits of the Blackbird district. During the The Co-Cu-Au deposits in the district are stratabound
Cretaceous, major thrust faults, shear zones, and folds devel- and extend discontinuously for 9 km along strike. Dips of the
oped contemporaneously with regional metamorphism that ore zones and host rocks are uniformly steep. The Skuterud
overprinted rocks and ore deposits throughout the district deposit is approximately 2 km in length and varies in width
(Lund and Tysdal, 2007; Lund, 2013; Aleinikoff and others, from less than one meter to as much as 16 m, with exploit-
2012). able ore lenses typically 4 to 8 m thick (Horneman, 1936);
11420'
Yag
RM
Yag
Yag
Blackbird
structural block
Grt
BT DE
X
Yag
X
AN
SS BB
Lookout
structural block
NF
Yag
A'
Grt
CH A
4507'30
Grt HF
X X X
BC HS MR
ID
DY Yg
Yag
Yag US Haynes-Stellite
Creek structural block
i rd
ckb HS
B la
0 250 500 METERS
0 750 1,500 FEET
EXPLANATION
Yg Gunsight Formation Co + Cu Au Bi Y REE deposits Magnetite Co Cu Au Bi prospects (X)
Yag Apple Creek Formation BB Brown Bear AN Anaconda

(may include Gunsight Fm)
BT Blacktail (open pit) BC Bryan-Columbus
Biotite-rich rock ("biotitite")
CH Chicago DE Dewey
Mafic dike or sill
DY Dandy HF High Five
Discordant sulfide lens
(sulfide breccia or shear zone) HS Haynes-Stellite HS Howe Sound
Stratabound and discordant ID Idaho Normal faultDashed where approximately located;

sulfide lens dotted where concealed; queried where uncertain.
MR Merle Bar and ball on downthrown side
Stratabound sulfide lens
NF Northfield Syncline
RM Ram
Anticline, Arrow showing dip plunge
SS Sunshine
Inclined
US Uncle Sam (Blackbird)
Haynes-Stellite deposit
Figure 51. Generalized geologic map of the Blackbird district showing the settings of stratabound and discordant
mineral deposits. Stippled pattern represents rocks at and above the garnet isograd (Grt); blue line is Blacktail open pit.
Mesoproterozoic megacrystic granite and granitic augen gneiss (not shown) crop out 2 km north of the map boundary
(see Lund, 2013). Modified from Bookstrom and others (2007).
5. Physical Description of Deposits 55
Figure 52. Geological map of

the Modum district, southeastern EXPLANATION
Norway, showing the major Granite/granodioritic gneisses
SVARTFJELL
Co-Cu-Au deposits and generalized
distribution of associated albite-rich Micaschist
rock (albitite). Fahlbands are sulfide- Quartzite

rich layers and lenses (see Gammon,
1966). Modified from Andersen Metagabbro DVIKKOLLEN
and Grorud (1998). Inset shows Albitite
location of Modum district within the
Kongsberg terrane of southeastern Fahlbands
Norway.
HOVDEKOLLEN
PRECAMBRIAN OF SOUTH NORWAY

EXPLANATION
B Bamble
WGR
K Kongsberg
T Telemark
SKUTERUD
K Ostfold-Akershus
T VR Vest-Agder--Rogaland
VR WGR Western Gneiss Region

B Oslo Rift
Caledonian nappes 0 1 2 KILOMETERS
Western Gneiss Region 0 1 MILE
high-grade Co ore zones range in thickness from 15 to 60 cm The Co-Au-Bi-Cu-Ni mineralized rock in the NICO area
(T. Bjerkgrd and J.S. Sandstad, oral commun., 2010). Two extends over a strike length of 7 km and includes the Bowl
mineralogically different zones were mined at Skuterud, each Zone deposit scheduled for mining in the near future. The
consisting predominantly of cobaltite or skutterudite. Bowl Zone is localized within highly altered clastic wacke
and felsic dikes (fig. 54). Sulfide-bearing lenses, broadly
stratabound, are continuous for 1.9 km along strike and range
NICO Deposit, Canada in width from a few meters to as much as 70 m. The lenses are
The NICO Co-Au-Bi-Cu-Ni deposit, in the Northwest preferentially localized within ironstone bodies that contain
Territories of Canada, is the largest known metasedimentary abundant magnetite and (or) hematite. Breccias spatially
rock-hosted Co-Cu-Au deposit (table 11). This deposit is related to the Co-Cu-Au mineralization are overlain by a zone
included in the dataset despite having a very low average Cu of massive K-feldspar-altered rock, developed within rhyolite
grade, because in places the mineralized zone has as much along the siltstone-rhyolite unconformity. Clasts in the breccia
as 1 weight percent Cu. In addition, Cu-rich deposits and are mainly wacke and siltstone that have been variably altered
occurrences are present in the district, including the Summit to K-feldspar; the matrix consists of iron oxides (magnetite
Peak prospect about 500 m to the northwest. NICO occurs in and hematite), biotite, amphibole, chlorite, and K-feldspar, but
the Great Bear magmatic zone within a late Paleoproterozoic only sparse sulfides (Goad and others, 2000a, b).
continental arc sequence of metavolcanic and unconformably
underlying metasedimentary rocks (fig. 53). The metavol-
Werner Lake Deposit, Canada
canic rocks, predominantly felsic, were deposited subaerially
and intruded by quartz-feldspar and feldspar amphibole The Werner Lake Co-Cu-Au deposit occurs in the English
quartz dikes of Mesoproterozoic age (Gandhi and others, River subprovince of the Superior Province in western Ontario,
1996). Following this plutonism, deformation in the region Canada. The Co-Cu-Au mineralization at Werner Lake is
between 1840 and 1810 Ma produced conjugate transcurrent hosted, on a regional scale, mainly by clastic metasedimentary
faults and subordinate normal and reverse faults (Hoffman and and felsic metaigneous rocks of Archean age. Detrital zircon
Bowring, 1984). U-Pb geochronology from distal, but apparently correlative,
Chaico Chaico
Lake Lake
Showing
Lou
Lake
Summit Peak
Showing
Copper
Showing
Bowl
Zone
Nico
Lake
East
Zone
Peanut
Lake
0 1 2 KILOMETERS
0 1 MILE
EXPLANATION
Marian River Intrusions Snare Group
Granite Blotite-amphibole-magnetite altered
schist
Porphyry dike
Subarkosic wacke
Faber Group
Siltstone
Maar & diatreme breccia
Giant quartz vein
Heterolithic breccia
Bowl Zone limits
Felsic to intermediate volcanics
Figure 53. Geology of the NICO Co-Au-Bi-Cu-Ni deposit, Northwest Territories, Canada, including the Bowl ore
zone. Note that the protolith of the biotite-amphibole-magnetite-altered schist is interpreted to be sedimentary wacke.
Modified from Goad and others (2000b).
400m N
200m N
000m N
NO. 2 ZONE NO. 25 ZONE
NO.1 ZONE
NO. 3 ZONE
98-155
97-068
97-050
97-051
97-035
97-036 97-049
98-184
98-184 0 50 100 METERS

97-037
98-165
0 100 200 FEET
EXPLANATION
Feldspar-amphibole-quartz Blotite-amphibole-magnetite
porphyry black rock schist
Potassium feldspar-altered Blotite-altered laminated

felsic dike siltstone
Potassium-altered rhyolite
Diatreme breccia
Blotite-altered subarkosic wacke Mineralized interval
Figure 54. Geologic cross section of the Bowl zone of the NICO deposit, Northwest Territories, Canada. Drill holes and numbers
are shown. Note that the protolith of the black rock schist is interpreted as sedimentary wacke. Modified from Goad and others
(2000b).
strata provides a maximum sedimentation age of about 2703 (Ti,Fe)2O6] in pyrrhotite from the Hangaslampi deposit is
Ma (Davis, 1998). Granitoid plutons in the area were intruded within the age range of 1840 to 1800 Ma for emplacement
at 2698 2 Ma (Corfu and others, 1995), prior to polyphase of late orogenic granites in the central Lapland granite com-
deformation and high-T/low-P granulite-facies metamorphism plex (Nironen, 2005). It is unclear whether this U-Pb age on
that occurred at 2690 Ma; younger peraluminous (S-type) gran- brannerite records the timing of Co-Cu-Au mineralization or a
ites were emplaced at 2670 to 2658 Ma (Pan and others, 1999).
younger event.
The sulfide deposits (fig. 55) are within a lithologically
diverse sequence of clastic metasedimentary rocks, amphibolite,
garnetiferous biotite schist, and minor ultramafic rock, calc- Size of Hydrothermal System Relative to Extent
silicate rock, and garnet-rich quartzite (Pan and Therens, 2000).
Ore zones, hosted chiefly in garnetiferous biotite schist, occur of Economically Mineralized Rock
discontinuously for approximately 1.2 km along strike, are as
The diverse nature of the Co-Cu-Au deposits produces
much as 3 m thick, and are conformable to layering of wall
rocks within a tight to isoclinal synform. Sulfide minerals form large size differences between the total hydrothermal systems
disseminations in garnetiferous biotite schist and calc-silicate and individual orebodies. Minimal differences are shown by
rock, and semi-massive concordant lenses as much as 3 m in deposits in the Blackbird district of Idaho where alteration
maximum dimension that thicken in F2 fold hinges. Sulfide zones only 0.3 m thick composed of biotite-rich rock sur-
lenses include both Co- and Cu-rich varieties, the latter occur- round orebodies as much as 9 m thick (Nash and Hahn, 1989;
ring both proximal and distal to the former (Pan and Therens, Bookstrom and others, 2007). These relatively thin alteration
2000). Deposit-scale zoning is reflected by occurrence of zones suggest that mineralization occurred by highly focused
semi-massive Co-rich lenses to the south and disseminated Co fluid flow and (or) that wall rocks, such as sandstone and siltite,
minerals in garnetiferous biotite schist to the north. were chemically unreactive with the ore-forming fluids. In con-
trast, there are examples of wide alteration zones that extend
Kuusamo Schist Belt, Finland for hundreds of meters beyond much thinner orebodies. In the
Kuusamo belt of Finland, thicknesses of the Hangaslampi and
The Kuusamo schist belt in northeastern Finland con- Juomasuo deposits (<50 m) are much less than those of the
tains 15 metasedimentary rock-hosted Co-Cu-Au deposits enclosing altered rocks that are several hundred meters or more
(Vanhanen, 2001; Eilu and others, 2003). This belt, which
thick (Vanhanen, 2001). In the NICO deposit, Canada, min-
extends across the border into Russia, is an early Paleoprotero-
zoic terrane that consists mainly of pelitic schist and sericitic eralized zones range in thickness from 10 to 70 m, whereas
quartzite, with generally minor metabasalt and amphibolite, altered host rocks there are as much as 300 m thick (Goad and
local dolerite and syenite intrusions, and syenite dikes (Pankka others, 2000b).
and Vanhanen, 1992). Metamorphic grade ranges from middle
greenschist to lower amphibolite. Ages of the metasedimentary
and mafic metaigenous rocks are poorly known, but the rocks
Vertical Extent
are clearly Proterozoic; most workers assign an age range of
The vertical extent of most of the deposits is less than
2.5 to 2.0 Ga for the sequence (for example, Corfu and Evins,
2002; Eilu and others, 2007). Sizes of the deposits vary greatly, 300 m. Where drilling and (or) mining have fully delineated
ranging from less than 0.1 Mt for Lemmonlampi to as much as the deposits, maximum vertical dimensions are as great as
1.8 Mt for Juomasuo (table 11). Most deposits are localized 300 m, such as in the NICO deposit (Goad and others, 2000b).
within two parallel, northeast-trending antiforms or near the In the Kuusamo belt, the Co-Cu-Au and Au-Co deposits dis-
intersections of these antiforms with younger faults (Vanhanen, play a range of vertical extents from 70 m for the Hangaslampi
1991; Pankka, 1997). Characteristic are stratabound deposits deposit, 160 m for the Kouvervaara deposit, 210 m for the
that are mainly concordant with the geometry and layering Meurastuksenaho deposit, and at least 300 m for the Juomasuo
of wall rocks and the predominant metamorphic fabric. The deposit (Vanhanen, 2001). The Skuterud deposit was mined
mineralized zones have widths and lengths that generally to a depth of 140 m (Horneman, 1936; Rosenqvist, 1948), but
range from 5 to 30 m and from 100 to 650 m, respectively; it is unclear if this is the limit of economic mineralization. In
the Kouvervaara deposit has a maximum width of 100 m
the Blackbird district, the majority of deposits have maximum
(Vanhanen, 2001). Host rocks are highly altered units within
depths of about 100 m, but drilling has identified Co-Cu-Au
sericitic quartzite and siltstone, including biotite schist, chlorite
schist, talc-rich schist, albite-rich schist, albitite, and dolomite zones in the Sunshine and Ram deposits that extend to 100 to
schist. Other spatially related wall rocks may contain abundant 250 m, below which the zones are truncated by shear structures
dolomite, tourmaline, and quartz. (Lund and others, 2011, and references therein). Maximum
A U-Pb age of approximately 1829 5 Ma determined vertical extent of the Werner Lake deposit, at the eastern end, is
by Mnttri (1995) on inclusions of brannerite [(U,Ca,Ce) approximately 40 m (fig. 55B).
0 250 METERS
A
N
0 250 FEET
Limit of mapping
75
73 85
86
80 Old mine
83
West Zone East Zone
79
84
62
83
84
67
Limit of mapping
EXPLANATION
67
Metasedimentary rocks Migmatites Foliation (unknown generation)
Granitoid intrusions Ultramafic rocks Road/trail
Tonalite-trondhjemite- Amphibolites Fault
granodiorite and alteration Co-Cu-Au mineralization
B
N
15
10
15
5 10
5
15 10 5
METERS
EXPLANATION
Metasedimentary rocks
Granitic leucosomes
Granitoid intrusions
Amphibolites and alteration
Co-Cu-Au orebody
Overburden
Figure 55. Geologic map (A) and block diagram (B) of the Werner Lake Co-Cu-Au deposit, Ontario.
Note that the regional setting of the deposit is dominated by metasedimentary rocks with local
granitoid intrusions. Modified from Pan and Therens (2000).
Form and (or) Shape along lithologic contacts; breccias are common hosts locally.
Studies by Lund and others (2011) indicate a strong structural
The most common form of the Co-Cu-Au deposits is a control for mineralized veins, preferentially along axial planar
deformed lens in which the length is much greater than the cleavage, intrafolial foliation, and shears. In the Kuusamo
width. Well-documented examples are in the Blackbird district schist belt of Finland, Co-Cu-Au deposits are distributed along
(Vhay, 1948; Bookstrom and others, 2007; Lund and others, a regional anticline, and are mainly localized by ductile shear
2011), the Skuterud deposit (Jsing, 1966; Gammon, 1966), zones as exemplified by the Juomasuo deposit (Vanhanen,
the Kuusamo belt (Vanhanen, 2001); and the Dahenglu deposit 2001). The distribution of the NICO and related deposits in
(Yang and others, 2001). Orebodies are variably folded and Canada is attributed by Goad and others (2000b) to occurrence
sheared, and in places offset by irregular to planar faults (for of a pre-ore regional unconformity between lower siliciclastic
example, Lund and others, 2011). The ore lenses typically metasedimentary rocks that host the deposits and an overlying,
pinch and swell along strike and down dip; many display mostly unmineralized unit of metarhyolite.
boudins and cusps, and durchbewegung structure character-
ized by semimassive to massive sulfide infolded with schistose
Remote Sensing
wall rock, and fragments of folded wall rock forming isolated
rafts within this sulfide (Marshall and Gilligan, 1989). In some No remote sensing data from high-altitude surveys or
deposits, both concordant and discordant mineralized breccias satellites are known to be available for the Co-Cu-Au deposits.
are present, such as in the Blackbird district (Nash and Hahn, Vanhanen (2001) described the use of Landsat satellite
1989; Bookstrom and others, 2007; Slack, 2012) and the NICO imagery in the Kuusamo belt of Finland, but only for gold
deposit (Goad and others, 2000a, b). Veins of multiple genera- exploration. Some of the Co-Cu-Au deposits including
tion are widespread in the Blackbird district, some of which Blackbird (USA), Mt. Cobalt (Australia), and Kendekeke
cut all metamorphic fabrics and hence are paragenetically late (China) occur in sparsely vegetated terrain, and thus these
(Lund and others, 2011). Pipelike deposits are less common, deposits may be amenable to remote sensing studies (for
being limited to tourmalinized fragmental bodies and brec- example, airborne multispectral imaging; Kruse, 2012). Such
cias that locally contain Co-Cu-Au-Y-REE mineralization studies could provide valuable information on the distribution
(Modreski, 1985; Bookstrom and others, 2007; Slack, 2012). of alteration minerals spatially related to a deposit and the pos-
sible occurrence of similar alteration assemblages elsewhere in
the region that may have exploration potential.
Host Rocks
The Co-Cu-Au deposits are hosted mainly by siliciclastic
metasedimentary rocks having diverse textures and fabrics. References Cited
Predominant lithologies include pelitic schist, quartzite, silt-
stone, argillite, and metagraywacke. Less common host rocks,
Aleinikoff, J.N., Slack, J.F., Lund, K.I., Evans, K.V., Mazdab,
on a local scale, are metagabbro or amphibolite, metarhyolite,
F.K., Pillars, R.M., and Fanning, C.M., 2012, Constraints
and granite; no deposits are wholly within plutons or other
on the timing of Co-CuAu mineralization in the Black-
types of igneous intrusions. Calc-silicate rocks are rare,
bird district, Idaho, using SHRIMP U-Pb ages of monazite
generally occurring only in small areas at or near a few
and xenotime plus zircon ages of related Mesoproterozoic
deposits. Depending on the nature and extent of deformation
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age, one or more foliations, or a shear fabric; cataclastic and
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composition, precursor mineralogy, and local metamorphic lead isotope systematics of uranium-enriched cobalt miner-
grade (greenschist, amphibolite, granulite). alization in the Modum complex, south NorwayImplica-
tions for Precambrian crustal evolution in the SW part of the
Baltic Shield: Precambrian Research, v. 91,
Structural Setting(s) and Controls p. 419432.
In the Blackbird district, the work of Vhay (1948) and Bingen, Bernard, Birkeland, Anne, Nordgulen, ystein,
Bookstrom and others (2007) has shown that the ore zones are and Sigmond, E.M.O, 2001, Correlation of supracrustal
typically elongate parallel to local structures such as faults, sequences and origin of terranes in the Sveconorwegian
shear zones, and fold axes, and to intersections of axial planar orogen of SW ScandinaviaSIMS data on zircon in clastic
cleavage with bedding. Some of the deposits are localized metasediments: Precambrian Research, v. 108, p. 293318.
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J.M., ed., Metallogeny of Mesoproterozoic sedimentary oxide-hosted, NICO cobalt-gold-bismuth, and Sue-Dianne
rocks in Idaho and MontanaStudies by the Mineral copper-silver deposits, southern Great Bear magmatic
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Archean low P-high T metasedimentary belt in the Superior Proterozoic, iron oxide-hosted, polymetallic deposits,
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By Klaus J. Schulz
6 of 18


U.S. Government.
Suggested citation:
Schulz, K.J., 2013, Geophysical characteristics, chap. G6, of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and geoenvironmental model

65
Contents
Magnetic Signature......................................................................................................................................67
Gravity Signature..........................................................................................................................................70
Electrical Signature......................................................................................................................................71
Electromagnetic Signature.........................................................................................................................71
Gamma-Ray Spectrometric Signature......................................................................................................72
Figures
61. Airborne magnetic total component field and ground vertical component magnetic
anomaly in the Kuusamo area, Finland....................................................................................68
62. Magnetic field, in-phase electromagnetic field, and quadrature electromagnetic field
for the Juomasuo deposit and surrounding area, Kuusamo belt, Finland.........................69
63. Potassium, eTh/K, eU/Th, total magnetic field, and geology images with geology
explanation for the area near Lou Lake, Northwest Territories, Canada...........................70
64. Geological cross section and corresponding total magnetic field and potassium
profiles crossing the mineralized zone at the NICO deposit................................................72

By Klaus J. Schulz
Disseminated to massive Co-Cu-Au sulfide deposits Co-Cu-Au deposits, the basins generally have magnetically
occur predominantly in deformed siliciclastic metasedimen- active signatures (for example, NICO district in Canada and
tary rocks originally deposited in intracratonic extensional Kuusamo area in Finland), although individual deposits are
basins, or in oceanic rifts and back-arc basins. Deposits and not necessarily coincident with a discrete magnetic anomaly
districts are typically structurally controlled and are clustered (Smith, 2002). In addition, because iron oxides are generally
along folds, shear zones, and breccia zones related to major, more widely distributed than Co-Cu-Au mineralization, many
through-going, deep-crustal faults. Extension-related mafic to magnetic anomalies may lack economic significance.
felsic igneous rocks may be temporally related with mineral- In the Kuusamo area of northeastern Finland, most of
ization, although they are not generally spatially coincident. In the Co-Cu-Au deposits are hosted by the Sericite Quartzite
addition to ore-bearing Co As Ni sulfides, accompanying Formation that in regional aeromagnetic maps appears as a
minerals in the deposits can include pyrite, chalcopyrite, magnetic low surrounded by high and continuous magnetic
pyrrhotite, gold, magnetite, and (or) hematite in ores and anomalies related to mafic sills and volcanic rocks (fig. 61).
surrounding country rocks. Highly potassic (biotite or K-feld- However, at the scale of the airborne maps (1:3,000), anoma-
spar) and (or) sodic (albite) alteration zones commonly form lies within the Sericite Quartzite Formation appear to be fuzzy
haloes in country rocks surrounding deposits. The distinct and exact locations of anomaly sources cannot be determined
tectonic and geologic features of the Co-Cu-Au deposits precisely. In addition, sulfide-bearing occurrences can be
make them amenable to various regional- and property-scale between the 200-m-spaced flight lines without any anomaly
geophysical exploration surveys, including magnetic, gravity, recorded on the maps (fig. 62). These problems are mitigated
electromagnetic, and radiometric methods (Goad and others, with more detailed ground magnetic surveys, which resolve
2000; Smith, 2002; Ford and others, 2007). the diffuse airborne map anomaly of the Juomasuo deposit in
the northeastern end of the Kuusamo area into several small
positive magnetic anomalies (fig. 62). Drilling of these
Magnetic Signature anomalies has identified several separate sulfide-bearing lodes
(Turunen and others, 2005). To the south of the Juomasuo
The magnetic method is the oldest and most widely used deposit (Circle 2 in fig. 62) is an area marked by a diffuse
geophysical tool. It can effectively delineate regional bedrock rise in the airborne magnetic map with an anomaly intensity
structural trends, and directly detect magnetic anomalies of less than 100 nT. A systematic ground magnetic survey
associated with metallic mineral deposits where magnetite over this area identified a 2,000-nT anomaly with a diameter
or other magnetic minerals such as pyrrhotite are present. of 100 m associated with the Hangaslampi deposit. Moreover,
However, because the magnetic susceptibilities of different the Pohjasvaara sulfide-magnetite deposit south of Juomasuo
rock types may overlap, assignment of rock type on the basis (Circle 3 in fig. 62) shows as a 400-nT anomaly in the air-
of magnetic signature is often ambiguous. Most magnetic borne survey but as a 4,000-nT anomaly in the ground survey
anomalies reflect variations in the quantity and physical nature (Turunen and others, 2005). In addition to positive magnetic
of ferromagnetic iron oxide minerals, particularly magnetite, anomalies, the Co-Cu-Au deposits in the Kuusamo area are
and these anomalies typically have amplitudes ranging from also characterized by positive electromagnetic anomalies (see
a few nanoTeslas (nT) to several thousand nT. In comparison, below and Turunen and others, 2005).
for much of the United States, Earths background geomag- Magnetic surveys have proven useful for deposit identi-
netic field is approximately 55,000 nT. fication in the Lou Lake area of the southern Great Bear mag-
Regionally, the magnetic characteristics of the metasedi- matic zone, Northwest Territories, Canada (Gandhi and others,
mentary basins hosting Co-Cu-Au deposits can be complex 1996; Goad and others, 2000). In this area, both fixed-wing
depending on a number of factors, including the volume and airborne geophysical surveys and more detailed helicopter sur-
nature of sediment, amount of extension-related mafic to veys show positive total-field and vertical magnetic-gradient
felsic magmatism, and the degree of subsequent deformation anomalies coinciding with a regional positive Bouguer-gravity
and metamorphism. Granitic plutons, which in some districts anomaly (Goad and others, 2000). The regional-scale surveys
appear contemporaneous with mineralization, can display also show that geophysical features are transected by a series
distinctive positive or negative magnetic responses, depend- of northeast-trending linear magnetic (and VLF) anomalies
ing in part on the characteristics of the surrounding rocks. related to a prominent set of transverse splays from the major
Because of the common occurrence of plutons, volcanic rocks, north-trending Wopmay Fault. In addition, areas having the
and particularly iron-rich alteration zones in basins hosting greatest magnetic response (about 1,000 nT above apparent
7350000
7340000
4450000 4460000
Juomasuo
7350000
7340000
4450000 4460000
Figure 61. Airborne magnetic total component field (upper) and ground vertical
component magnetic (lower) anomaly from the Sericite Quarzite Formation of the
Kuusamo area, Finland (from Turunen and others, 2005).
6.Geophysical Characteristics69
Magnetics In-phase component & Slingram

7356000 7356000
7355500 7355500
7355000 7355000
7354500 7354500
7354000 7354000
4464000 4464500 4465000 4465500 4466000 4464000 4464500 4465000 4465500 446000
Magnetics In-phase Quadrature

Quadrature component & Slingram [nT) [ppm] [ppm]
7356000 53000 650 650
52900 600 600
52800 550
550
52700 500
500
7355500 52600 450
400 450
52500
350 400
52400
300 350
52300
250 300
52200
7355000 200
52100 250
150
52000 100 200
51900 50 150
51800 0 100
7354500 -50
51700 50
-100 0
51600
-150
51500 -50
-200
51400 -250 -100
7354000
4464000 4464500 4465000 4465500 4466000
Figure 62. Magnetic field (upper left), in-phase electromagnetic field (upper right), and quadrature electromagnetic field (lower
left) for the Juomasuo deposit and surrounding area, Kuusamo belt, Finland. Airborne data in red-blue shading (scale shown lower
right), contours are for ground data, green lines denote flight paths. Sulfide deposits are circled: 1, Juomasuo, 2, Hangaslampi,
3, Pohjasvaara. (From Turunen and others, 2005).
background) are coincident with discrete radiometric anoma- in turn are related to variations in mineral composition and
lies marking the presence of hydrothermal centers (fig. 63). porosity. Typical densities of Earth materials range from about
Abundant magnetite produces characteristically strong posi- 2.00 gm/cc for unconsolidated sediment to about 2.95 gm/cc
tive magnetic anomalies (thousands of nanoTeslas); however, for mafic igneous rocks. However, sulfide minerals and mag-
a predominance of hematite tends to produce only low- netite have densities between about 4 and 5 gm/cc and even
intensity anomalies (Goad and others, 2000). relatively small mineral deposits are capable of producing
positive Bouguer anomalies of as much as several milligals
Gravity Signature (Ford and others, 2007).
Gravity has been used effectively in the exploration
The gravity method is applied to investigate subsurface program in the Lou Lake area of Canada. The area is charac-
geology by measuring small variations in Earths gravity terized by a regional positive Bouguer-gravity anomaly that
field that is sensitive to variations in rock density. Local mass ranges from 3 to 6.5 mGal above background and coincides
excesses or deficiencies are most commonly expressed as with positive magnetic anomalies (Goad and others, 2000).
Bouguer anomalies, which typically range from less than one
The area of positive gravity anomaly is bounded by granite
milligal (mGal) to several tens of milligals. In comparison,
batholiths and plutons that have negative Bouguer-gravity
Earths total gravity field is approximately 980,000 mGal (for
anomalies ranging from 2 to 10 mGal below background.
example, Telford and others, 1990). Because the gravity field
is not solely a function of density, several corrections must be Within the regional gravity anomaly are several small, but
applied to observed gravity data in order to resolve variations distinct positive Bouguer-gravity anomalies, at least some of
related to crustal causes. These corrections include variations which correspond with known Co-Cu-Au sulfide zones. For
in time, latitude, elevation, tides, and topography. example, a detailed gravity survey over the Bowl Zone of the
Local mass excesses or deficiencies expressed as Bouguer NICO deposit shows that it is characterized by a 3.1 mGal
anomalies reflect subsurface variations in density, which Bouguer-gravity anomaly (Goad and others, 2000).
7 8 0.5
A B C
0 2 0
62000 A
D E EXPLANATION
NICO
60000 A
Figure 63. Potassium (A), eTh/K (B), eU/Th (C), total magnetic field (D), and geology (E) images with geology explanation (F) for the
area near Lou Lake, Northwest Territories, Canada (from Ford and others, 2007). Cross section along line A-B in the geologic map (E) is
shown in figure 64.
6.Geophysical Characteristics71
Electrical Signature likely to produce a pronounced IP effect than massive sulfide.

However, disseminated sulfide haloes commonly surround
Electrical methods respond to the electrical conductivity massive sulfides and can produce a significant IP response.
of rocks and minerals that may vary by 20 orders of mag- Induced polarization/ER surveys have been applied with some
nitude, the largest variation for any physical property (Ford success in the Lou Lake area of Canada (Goad and others,
and others, 2007). Sulfide minerals, such as chalcopyrite and 2000). Detailed IP surveys over the Bowl Zone of the NICO
pyrrhotite, are conductive (1 to 6.7 milliSiemens per meter deposit reveal complex chargeability and resistivity anomalies
[mS/m]), whereas minerals such as quartz are essentially non- that are coincident with sulfide mineralization.
conductive. Granite is essentially nonconductive, whereas the
electrical conductivity of shale ranges from 0.5 to 100 mS/m
and the conductivity of iron formations ranges from 0.5 to Electromagnetic Signature
3300 mS/m (Ford and others, 2007). Water content increases
conductivity and can have a significant influence on its mag- Electromagnetic (EM) methods are used extensively in
nitude. Because the conductivity of sulfides may be similar the exploration for sulfide deposits because these methods
to that of other, nonmineralized materials such as graphite or are particularly sensitive to the high conductivities of sulfide
clays, unequivocal identification of mineral deposits can be minerals and can be deployed in airborne surveys (Ford and
difficult using electrical methods alone. others, 2007). Most EM surveys utilize artificially induced
Three principal electrical methods are employed in currents that are produced by fluctuating magnetic fields from
geophysical surveys: (1) electrical resistivity, (2) induced a transmitter coil or antenna. Two approaches are typically
polarization, and (3) spontaneous potential. The first two used: frequency domain, where the EM response is observed
methods use an artificial current that is introduced via a sepa- at varying frequencies, or time domain, where the decay of
rate pair of electrodes. In contrast, spontaneous potential relies induced currents is observed following the introduction of a
on small, passive currents already present within the shallow pulsed EM signal. The EM receiver measures both the
subsurface. Because spontaneous potential only penetrates to in-phase and out-of-phase (quadrature) components of the
shallow depths, it is not generally employed in mineral explo- primary field, and the ratio of the secondary field to the
ration programs. Variations of electrical properties at depth primary field in parts per million (ppm). Although EM
are determined in all three methods by deploying standard methods span a wide range of frequencies, most methods used
electrode arrays and systematically varying the position and in sulfide exploration operate with frequencies between 1
spacing of the electrodes. Because these electrical methods and 1,000 hertz. The maximum depth at which a deposit can
require ground-based deployment, they are typically used be detected depends on its size and conductivity, and on the
only on specific targets identified through earlier geologic, conductivity of host rocks and overburden. Typically, airborne
geophysical, and geochemical studies. time-domain EM can detect deposits/conductors at depths to
Electrical resistivity (ER) surveys measure the degree about 300 m, whereas ground time-domain surveys using large
to which materials resist electrical current (the inverse of
loops can detect conductive units at depths in excess of 1 km
conductivity), with results expressed in ohm-meters (ohm-
(Ford and others, 2007). However, conductive overburden,
m). Resistivity for most Earth materials is a function of the
lakes, and swamps can effectively mask bedrock conductors.
quantity and quality of interstitial water, and ranges from a
Airborne EM surveys have been conducted with some
few tens of ohm-meters for clays and shales to 1000 ohm-m
success in both Finland and Canada. In Finland, EM conduc-
for fresh crystalline rocks (Sharma, 1997). Sulfide minerals
have extremely low resistivities (much less than 1 ohm-m), tive anomalies were detected at the Juomasuo deposit and
but sulfide minerals can be difficult to effectively image where several other deposits in the Kuusamo area (fig. 62; Turunen
they occur within discrete, three-dimensional volumes rather and others, 2005). At Juomasuo, both in-phase and quadrature
than in broad, layer-like features. electromagnetic anomalies are 600 ppm, which is one of the
Induced polarization (IP) surveys measure how well strongest anomalies related to a Co-Cu-Au sulfide deposit in
materials tend to retain electrical charges or their chargeability. the Kuusamo area. In the Lou Lake area in Canada, helicopter-
The IP effect is based on the decay of residual potential once a airborne surveys detected a 2.2-km by 0.7-km discrete,
current has been turned off (time domain IP measured in mil- resistivity-low anomaly on the 7200 hertz frequency, accom-
liseconds [msec]), or as apparent resistivity observed at two panied by several small, single-line conductors (<1 siemen)
discrete current frequencies (frequency domain IP measured within a broader, less-intense, resistivity-low anomaly (Goad
as percent frequency effect [PFE]). The IP technique is mostly and others, 2000). The more intense resistivity lows occur in
concerned with measuring the electrical surface polarization of the center of large radiometric and magnetic anomalies, and
metallic minerals. Because the IP effect is proportional to the these lows are coincident with the Bowl Zone mineralization
interactive area, disseminated sulfide mineralization is more at the NICO deposit.
Gamma-Ray Spectrometric Signature gamma rays by rock or soil. In addition, because of the typically
inhomogeneous nature of the land surface, the absolute values
The three most abundant, naturally occurring radioactive of K, eU, and eTh may be much less significant than the radioel-
elements are potassium (K), uranium (U), and thorium (Th). ement patterns.
Potassium is a major constituent of most rocks and, where Because highly potassic (biotite or K-feldspar) altera-
abundant, is diagnostic of alteration associated with a number tion with accompanying uranium enrichment commonly
of mineral deposit types including Co-Cu-Au deposits. Uranium forms haloes in country rocks surrounding Co-Cu-Au depos-
and Th, although generally present in only trace amounts, have its, regional radiometric surveys can be useful in recognizing
varying concentrations in rocks and can also be effective in the alteration in areas where unweathered rocks are exposed at the
direct detection of some types of alteration and mineralization. surface (Wellman, 1999; Goad and others, 2000). For example,
Disequilibrium, when one or more of the daughter products in in the Lou Lake area of Canada, the NICO deposit is associ-
the 238U decay series is added or removed, can be a significant ated with discrete positive eK and negative eTh/K anomalies
source of error, especially in areas of extreme surficial weather- that are coincident with positive magnetic anomalies (fig. 64;
ing. To highlight the assumption of equilibrium in the measure- Goad and others, 2000). Areas having enriched uranium also are
ment of U and Th concentrations by gamma-ray spectrometry, characterized by increased eU/Th anomalies. Low eTh/K ratios
values are often reported as equivalent U (eU) and equivalent suggest strong secondary potassium enrichment because normal
Th (eTh). However, the assumption of equilibrium is almost igneous processes tend to enrich both Th and K, do not lead to
always valid for the Th decay series (Ford and others, 2007). such low eTh/K ratios, and are taken to mark the presence of
Gamma-ray surveys only measure near-surface chemical com- hydrothermal centers (Gandi and others, 1996; Goad and others,
position (<60 cm depths) because of the strong attenuation of 2000; Ford and others, 2007).
A'
A 62,000
7
Total magnetic field, in nanoteslas

Magnetic profile
6 Potassium,
K% in percent 61,500
K20, in weight percent
5
61,000
4
Potassium profile
3 60,500
2
60,000
1
SSW Base Line NNE
Giant
SSW quartz NNW
vein Rhyolite volcanic
A K + Fe assemblage (3) A'
enrichment
Bi-Co-Cu-Au-As halo
mineralization
Present surface
Argillite
beds
(7) Unconformity (5) (4) (7)
(5)
Metasedimentary
rocks (1)
Figure 64. Total magnetic field and potassium profiles (top) and geological cross section (below) crossing the mineralized zone at
the NICO deposit (line A-A' fig. 63E). For unit identification see explanation in figure 63. (Modified after Gandhi and others,1996).
References Cited73
References Cited
Ford, K., Keating, P., and Thomas, M.D., 2007, Overview of
geophysical signatures associated with Canadian ore depos-
its, in Goodfellow, W.D., ed., Mineral deposits of Canada
A synthesis of major deposit-types, district metallogeny, the
evolution of geological provinces, and exploration methods:
Geological Association of Canada, Mineral Deposits Divi-
sion, Special Publication 5, p. 939970.
Gandhi, S.S., Prasad, Nirankar, and Charbonneau, B.W., 1996,

Geological and geophysical signatures of a large polyme-
tallic exploration target at Lou Lake, southern Great Bear
magmatic zone, Northwest Territories: Geological Survey of
Canada, Current Research 1996-E, p. 147158.
Goad, R.E., Mumin, A.H., Duke, N.A., Neale, K.L., Mulligan,

D.L., and Camier, W.J., 2000, The NICO and Sue-Dianne
Northwest TerritoriesApplication of the Olympic Dam
v. 9, p. 123140.
Sharma, P., 1997, Environmental and engineering geophysics:

England, Cambridge University Press, 475 p.
Smith, R.J., 2002, Geophysics of iron oxide copper-gold

deposits, in Porter, T.M., ed., Hydrothermal iron oxide
copper-gold & related depositsA global perspective:
Adelaide, Australia, Australian Mineral Foundation, Inc.,
v. 2, p. 357367.
Telford, W.M., Geldart, L.P., and Sheriff, R.E., 1990, Applied

geophysics (2d ed.): England, Cambridge University Press,
770 p.
Turunen, Pertti, Vanhanen, Erkki, and Pankka, Heikki, 2005,

Application of low altitude airborne geophysics to mineral
exploration in the Kuusamo schist belt, Finland, in Airo,
M.L., ed., Aerogeophysics in Finland 19742004Meth-
ods, system characteristics, and applications: Geological
Wellman, Peter, 1999, Gamma-ray spectrometric data

Modeling to map primary lithology: Exploration Geophys-
ics, v. 30, p. 167172.
7. Hypogene Ore and Gangue
Characteristics
By John F. Slack
7 of 18


U.S. Government.
Suggested citation:
Slack, J.F., 2013, Hypogene ore and gangue characteristics, chap. G7, of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and geoenviron-
mental model for cobalt-copper-gold deposits in metasedimentary rocks: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investiga-
tions Report 20105070G, p. 7582, http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20105070g.

77
Contents
Mineralogy.....................................................................................................................................................79
Mineral Paragenesis....................................................................................................................................80
Zoning Patterns.............................................................................................................................................80
Textures and Structures..............................................................................................................................80
Grain Size.......................................................................................................................................................80
7. Hypogene Ore and Gangue
Characteristics
By John F. Slack
Mineralogy Gladhammar. Scheelite is relatively abundant in the Mt.

Cobalt and NICO deposits; ferberite also occurs at NICO
The ore mineralogy of the Co-Cu-Au deposits (table 11) (Nisbet and others, 1983; Goad and others, 2000b). The Black-
is dominated by Co Ni sulfarsenides and sulfides includ- bird deposits have locally abundant Y and rare earth elements
ing cobaltite (CoAsS), glaucodot [(Co,Fe)AsS], skutterudite (REE), including as much as 3.7 weight percent REE+Yoxides
[(Co,Fe,Ni)As2-3], safflorite [(Co,Fe)As2], smaltite (CoAs2), (sum of REE and Y oxides), which are hosted in allanite,
siegenite [(Ni,Co)3S4], carrollite (Cu(Co,Ni)2S4), linnaeite xenotime, and monazite; one deposit contains appreciable
(Co3S4), and gersdorffite (NiAsS). Some deposits contain only amounts of gadolinite-Y, a Fe-Be-Y-Ce silicate mineral (Slack,
one Co-rich mineral such as cobaltite; the Blackbird district of 2006, 2007, 2012). The Mt. Cobalt deposit in Australia has
east-central Idaho has the entire suite (Slack, 2012, and refer- abundant allanite and xenotime (Nisbet and others, 1983).
ences therein). Alloclasite, a rare dimorph of glaucodot, occurs Concentrations of allanite are also present in the Meurastukse-
at the Mt. Cobalt deposit (Croxford, 1974). Cobalt also may be naho Co-Cu-Au deposit in Finland (Vanhanen, 2001). Minor
concentrated in other sulfides such as cobaltian pyrite, which uraninite occurs in the Modum, Werner Lake, Juomasuo, and
occurs in deposits of the Iron Creek area southeast of the Blackbird deposits (Grorud, 1997; Andersen and Grorud,
Blackbird district (Nash, 1989) and in the Dahenglu deposit 1998; Pan and Therens, 2000; Vanhanen, 2001; Slack, 2012).
in China (Yang and others, 2001). Cobaltian arsenopyrite Sparse to trace amounts of bornite, tellurobismuthite, Co-
and cobaltian loellingite are common in the NICO deposit in selenides, or stannite also may be present. Relatively high Ni
Northwest Territories, Canada (Goad and others, 2000a, b). concentrations (~0.1-0.8 weight percent) occur in deposits in
Accompanying ore minerals in most deposits are the Modum and Blackbird districts, the Ni residing mainly in
chalcopyrite and gold, with generally minor arsenopyrite, nickeliferous cobaltite and nickeliferous pyrite, respectively
pyrite, pyrrhotite, marcasite, tetrahedrite, bismuthinite, (Grorud, 1997; Slack, 2012).
bismuth, apatite, and (or) molybdenite. Gold is commonly in Gangue minerals are chiefly quartz and muscovite,
native form, but in the NICO deposit it occurs in alloys with with locally abundant albite, biotite, chlorite, tourmaline,
Bi, Te, and (or) Sb (Goad and others, 2000b); some of the K-feldspar, scapolite, and magnetite or hematite. Carbonates
deposits in the Kuusamo belt also contain appreciable gold can be prominent in some deposits, such as several in the
tellurides (Vanhanen, 2001). A gold-rich zone in the core of Blackbird district that contain minor to major amounts of
the NICO deposit has grades ranging from 1 to 60 g/t, with an siderite (Slack, 2012) and the Kouvervaara deposit in Finland
average of 3 to 5 g/t Au. Recent exploration of the Juomasuo that has ferroan dolomite. In the Modum district, cobaltite-rich
and Hangaslampi deposits in the Kuusamo belt of Finland has ores in places contain coarse albite grains; albite is a common
discovered extremely high bonanza gold grades of as much gangue mineral also in this district and in deposits of the
as several hundred g/t Au over intervals in drill core of nearly Kuusamo schist belt, northeastern Finland, such as Juomasuo
20 m (Dragon Mining Ltd., 2012). In the Blackbird district, (Grorud, 1997; Vanhanen, 2001). Biotite is especially promi-
gold is preferentially associated with cobaltite, forming nent in the Blackbird district and in the NICO deposit, being
inclusions, vein fillings, or adjacent grains (Nash and others, characterized by very iron- and chlorine-rich compositions
1987; Eiseman, 1988). In the Skuterud deposit, gold forms including as much as 1.9 weight percent Cl at Blackbird and
inclusions with or without intergrown Bi-Te phases, enclosed 1.2 weight percent Cl at NICO (Nash and Connor, 1993; Goad
within cobaltite and magnetite (J.F. Slack, unpublished data). and others, 2000b). Some of the Blackbird deposits have
At Werner Lake, gold is most common in Cu-rich lenses and abundant chloritoid; sparse albite occurs in early pre-ore and
late Cu-rich veins (Pan and Therens, 2000). late post-ore veinlets (Lund and others, 2011). Tourmaline is
Bismuth minerals are particularly common in the NICO particularly prominent in the Dahenglu deposit and in parts
deposit and in the Blackbird district where selected samples of the Blackbird district (Yang and others, 2001; Trumbull
have as much as 9.2 weight percent Bi (Goad and others, and others, 2011; Slack, 2012), and is abundant locally in
2000b; Slack, 2012). Bismuth tellurides occur in some of the Skuterud deposit (Grorud, 1997). Most deposits have
the deposits of the Kuusamo belt (Vanhanen, 2001). Sphal- appreciable magnetite within the mineralized zones or in
erite and galena are generally absent, or occur only in trace surrounding country rocks; however, in the Blackbird
amounts, except in a few deposits such as Dahenglu and district, magnetite is volumetrically rare, although several
small Co-Cu-Au-Bi prospects contain abundant magnetite Some of the deposits in the Kuusamo schist belt display
gangue (Slack, 2012). Also, stratabound magnetite-rich rocks metal zoning (Vanhanen, 2001). At the Meurastuksenaho
35 km to the southeast of the district contain cobaltiferous deposit, detailed analyses of three mineralized intervals in one
pyrite and minor chalcopyrite (Nash, 1989). The NICO deposit drill core show patterns of Fe, Cu, light REE, Au, and
in Canada has appreciable magnetite and (or) hematite within Mo concentrations that differ from those of Co, As, Bi, Te,
amphibole-K-feldspar-biotite altered rocks (Goad and others, and Se. The Hangaslampi deposit displays similar metal
2000a, b); magnetite is common in the Meurastuksenaho and differences for two mineralized intervals in one drill core,
Hangaslampi deposits in the Kuusamo belt of Finland as veins, accompanied by relatively high concentrations of Pb (as
semi-massive bodies, and disseminations with sulfides or much as ~800 ppm) and U (as much as ~2,000 ppm) that only
silicates in ore zones and altered wall rocks (Vanhanen, 2001). partially coincide with the Co- and As-rich intervals. At the
Minor gangue constituents include apatite, barite, garnet, Juomasuo deposit, metal zoning is less pronounced based on
pyroxene, cordierite, amphibole, and graphite. data for one drill core, in which high concentrations of Fe,
Co, As, Cu, Bi, Se light REE, Pb, and U occur mostly at the
same two intervals (Vanhanen, 2001). Recent exploration
Mineral Paragenesis drilling of the Hangaslampi and Juomasuo deposits by Dragon
Mining Ltd. (2012) has discovered very high bonanza gold
Discerning mineral paragenesis in the Co-Cu-Au deposits grades over significant widths. For example, one intercept at
is difficult owing to effects of varying recrystallization and Juomasuo of 31.9 m has an average of 45.7 g/t Au. Most of the
remobilization during post-ore deformation and metamor- Au-rich zones in this deposit coincide with Co-rich zones, but
phism. Examples of such recrystallization and remobilization some do not; light REE concentrations occur in the Au-rich
are described in the Modum district, the NICO and Werner zones and in separate zones (Dragon Mining Ltd., 2012). It is
Lake deposits, and the Blackbird district (Grorud, 1997; Goad uncertain whether these metal zoning patterns in the deposits
and others, 2000a, b; Pan and Therens, 2000; Slack, 2012). A of the Kuusamo schist belt resulted from one mineralizing
common feature is paragenetically early cobalt minerals that event or from two or more unrelated events.
are overprinted by later chalcopyrite. Magnetite, where
present, is typically cut or replaced by sulfides, gold, and
other minerals, as at the NICO deposit in Canada (Goad Textures and Structures
and others, 2000b) and the Skuterud deposit in Norway
The different Co-Cu-Au deposits have variable textures
(J.F. Slack, unpublished data). In the Juomasuo deposit,
and structures that include massive ore, breccia ore, veins, and
Finland, coarse-grained magnetite within chlorite-rich altered
disseminations. In some districts, such as Blackbird, Modum,
rock was replaced during potassic alteration by biotite and
and Werner Lake, mineralization chiefly consists of semi-
pyrite (Vanhanen, 2001). Tourmaline is also generally early in
massive to massive cobaltite, locally with other ore minerals,
the paragenesis, although in some deposits, such as those in that are broadly stratabound within enclosing siliciclastic
the Blackbird district, it appears to be contemporaneous with metasedimentary host rocks. Breccia ore is less common
cobalt mineralization (Trumbull and others, 2011). Albite in overall, although present in the Blackbird district (Bookstrom
this district occurs as a minor gangue mineral in early pre-ore and others, 2007; Slack, 2012) and the NICO deposit (Goad
and late post-ore veins (Lund and others, 2011). High Bi and others, 2000a, b). Sulfide-rich veins occur in most, if not
concentrations (~1-10 weight percent), commonly in native Bi all, of the deposits, but their relationship with respect to local
and bismuthinite, tend to be spatially associated with gold, but structures such as metamorphic fabric is not well established.
in some cases gold seems to be texturally separate from, and
paragenetically unrelated to, Bi minerals (Slack, 2012).
Grain Size
Zoning Patterns Grain sizes of ore and gangue minerals range widely for
the Co-Cu-Au deposits. The principal control appears to be the
Systematic mineralogical and metal zoning is only nature and extent of post-ore deformation and metamorphism,
documented in a few of the Co-Cu-Au deposits. At Skuterud, including synmetamorphic fluid flow, which can vary greatly
Norway, two broadly parallel orebodies contain different among deposits and, in some cases, within individual orebod-
proportions of cobalt mineralsone having predominantly ies. Cobaltite, pyrite, and arsenopyrite tend to form relatively
cobaltite and the other mainly skutterudite (Grorud, 1997). coarse porphyroblastic grains several millimeters to several
In the Blackbird district, a broad gangue mineral zoning is centimeters in diameter (Pan and Therens, 2000; Slack, 2012).
expressed by chiefly siliceous (quartz) gangue occurring in In contrast, more plastic sulfides, such as chalcopyrite and
deposits within the northern and western parts (for example, pyrrhotite, generally display finer grain sizes of less than one
Sunshine and Ram), in contrast to deposits in the east and millimeter. Both sulfides may be remobilized into late veins
southeast (for example, Merle) that have a more biotite-rich or fractures, accompanied in places by native Bi (Slack, 2012).
gangue (Bookstrom and others, 2007). Gold typically is very fine-grained (~1050 m), commonly
References Cited81
occurring as inclusions in pyrite (Blackbird district; Slack, Goad, R.E., Mumin, A.H., Duke, N.A., Neale, K.L., Mulligan,
2012) or magnetite (Skuterud deposit; J.F. Slack, unpublished D.L., and Camier, W.J., 2000b, The NICO and Sue-Dianne
data). In the NICO deposit, gold shows a large range in Proterozoic, iron oxide-hosted, polymetallic deposits,
grain size, from less than 1 to greater than 100 m, mainly Northwest Territories: Application of the Olympic Dam
occurring as inclusions in cobaltian arsenopyrite (Goad and model in exploration: Exploration and Mining Geology, v.
others, 2000b). 9, p. 123140.
Gangue minerals show a larger range in grain sizes.
Grorud, Hans-Fredrik, 1997, Textural and compositional
Quartz typically is granoblastic and fine grained (<0.5 cm),
characteristics of cobalt ores from the Skuterud mines
whereas other silicates can be coarse grained, such as albite at
of Modum, Norway: Norsk Geologisk Tidsskrift, v. 7, p.
the Skuterud deposit (as much as ~ 3 cm). Tourmaline also can
3138.
form coarse prismatic grains, as much as 5 cm long, particu-
larly in wall rocks and in paragenetically late quartz veins Lund, K., Tysdal, R.G., Evans, K.V., Kunk, M.J., and Pillers,
(Trumbull and others, 2011). R.M., 2011, Structural controls and evolution of gold-, sil-
district, east-central IdahoEpigenetic origins: Economic
Geology, v. 106, p. 585618.
References Cited
Nash, J.T., 1989, Geology and geochemistry of synsedi-
Andersen, Tom, and Grorud, Hans-Fredrik, 1998, Age and mentary cobaltiferous-pyrite deposits, Iron Creek, Lemhi
lead isotope systematics of uranium-enriched cobalt miner- County, Idaho: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1882, 33 p.
alization in the Modum complex, south NorwayImplica-
Nash, J.T., and Connor, J.J., 1993, Iron and chlorine as guides
to stratiform Cu-Co-Au deposits, Idaho cobalt belt, USA:
Baltic Shield: Precambrian Research, v. 91, p. 419432.
Nash, J.T., Hahn, G.A., and Saunders, J.A., 1987, The occur-
2007, Blackbird Fe-Cu-Co-Au-REE deposits, in ONeill,
rence of gold in siliceous Co-Cu exhalite deposits of the
J.M., ed., Metallogeny of Mesoproterozoic sedimentary
Blackbird mining district, Lemhi County, Idaho: U.S. Geo-
rocks in Idaho and MontanaStudies by the Mineral
logical Survey Open-File Report 87410, 14 p.
Resources Program, U.S. Geological Survey, 20042007:
U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 20071280 Nisbet, B.W., Devlin, S.P., and Joyce, P.J., 1983, Geology and
B, p. 1320. (Also available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/ suggested genesis of cobalt-tungsten mineralization at Mt.
of/2007/1280/.) Cobalt, north west Queensland: Proceedings of the Austral-
Queensland, Australia, with references to Mount Cobalt: Pan, Yuanming, and Therens, Craig, 2000, The Werner Lake
Mineralium Deposita, v. 9, p. 105115. Co-Cu-Au deposit of the English River subprovince,
Dragon Mining Ltd., 2012, Kuusamo gold project: Subiaco,
Western Australia, Dragon Mining Ltd., available at http://
ogy, v. 95, p. 16351656.
www.dragon-mining.com.au/exploration/finland-kuusamo.
Slack, J.F., 2006, High REE and Y concentrations in Co-Cu-
Eiseman, H.H., 1988, Ore geology of the Sunshine cobalt
Au ores of the Blackbird district, Idaho: Economic Geology,
deposit, Blackbird mining district, Idaho: Golden, Colorado
v. 101, p. 275280.
School of Mines, M.S. thesis, 191 p.
Slack, J.F., 2007, Geochemical and mineralogical studies of
Goad, R.E., Mumin, A.H., Duke, N.A., Neale, K.L., and
sulfide and iron oxide deposits in the Idaho cobalt belt: U.S.
Mulligan, D.L., 2000a, Geology of the Proterozoic iron
Geological Survey Open-File Report 20071280, p. 2128.
oxide-hosted, NICO cobalt-gold-bismuth, and Sue-Dianne
(Available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1280.)
zone, Northwest Territories, Canada, in Porter, T.M., ed., Slack, J.F., 2012, Stratabound Fe-Co-Cu-Au-Bi-Y-REE depos-
Hydrothermal iron oxide copper-gold & related depositsA its of the Idaho cobalt belt, USAMultistage hydrothermal
global perspective: Adelaide, Australian Mineral Founda- mineralization in a magmatic-related iron oxide-copper-gold
tion, Inc., v. 1, p. 249267. system: Economic Geology, v. 107, p. 10891113.
Trumbull, R.B., Slack, J.F., Krienitz, M.-S., Belkin, H.E.,

and Wiedenbeck, M., 2011, Fluid sources and metallogen-
esis in the Blackbird Co-Cu-Bi-Au-Y-REE district, Idaho,
USAInsights from major-element and boron isotopic
compositions of tourmaline: Canadian Mineralogist, v. 49,
p. 225244.
Wellman, Peter, 1999, Gamma-ray spectrometric dataMod-
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30, p. 167172.
[Dahenglu-type of cobalt deposits in the Laoling area, Jilin
ProvinceA sedex deposit with late reformation, China]:
By John F. Slack
8 of 18


U.S. Government.
Suggested citation:
Slack, J.F., 2013, Hydrothermal alteration, chap. G8, of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and geoenvironmental model

85
Contents
Relations Among Alteration, Gangues, and Ore......................................................................................87
Mineralogy and Textures.............................................................................................................................87
Albite......................................................................................................................................................87
Biotite....................................................................................................................................................88
Scapolite...............................................................................................................................................89
Tourmaline.............................................................................................................................................90
Quartz.....................................................................................................................................................90
Mineral Assemblages..................................................................................................................................90
Lateral and Vertical Dimensions................................................................................................................90
Alteration Intensity.......................................................................................................................................91
Zoning Patterns.............................................................................................................................................91
Figures
81. Geological cross section of the Kouvervaara Co-Cu-Au deposit in the Kuusamo
schist belt of Finland...................................................................................................................88
82. Geological cross section of the Merle deposit in the Blackbird district, Idaho................89
By John F. Slack
Relations Among Alteration, Gangue, and Ore (no albite) at the center and biotite-chlorite ( amphibole
albite) rocks occupying an intermediate zone (fig. 81). At the
Many of the Co-Cu-Au deposits have spatially related Juomasuo Au-Co deposit, pervasively albitized rocks surround
alteration zones that are mineralogically and texturally distinct. the mineralized zone for several hundred meters (Vanhanen,
In general, the alteration zones surround the orebodies for map 2001). These Na-rich rocks, which in places show relict
distances of tens to hundreds of meters. However, in some of bedding and crossbedding, contain a variety of subordinate
the Finnish deposits, the ores and sulfide zones are coextensive phases including carbonate, chlorite, amphibole, and sericite.
with altered rocks containing abundant garnet, amphibole, and Wall rocks of the Juomasuo deposit also contain unmineral-
(or) chlorite + biotite + sericite. The close spatial association of ized lenses of chlorite-talc-amphibole rock that are considered
the diverse types of altered rocks to the orebodies is consistent to be altered ultramafic flows or sills, unrelated to the Au-Co
with a temporal and genetic link, but caution must be observed mineralization. The albite alteration, which preceded Fe-Mg
in this context owing to the possibility of multistage hydrother- metasomatism that produced the abundant biotite, chlorite, and
mal processes within the metamorphic terranes that contain the talc in and near many of the Co-Cu-Au deposits, may have
Co-Cu-Au deposits considered here. made the metasedimentary rocks more rigid and competent,
increasing susceptibility to fracturing and faulting as a means
Mineralogy and Textures for preferentially localizing hydrothermal fluid flow and
mineralization (see Eilu and others, 2003, and references
Five principal types of altered rocks have been recog- therein). This widespread albitic alteration was considered by
nized in and near the Co-Cu-Au deposits, consisting mostly Pankka and Vanhanen (1992) and Vanhanen (2001) to record
or wholly of albite, biotite, scapolite, tourmaline, or quartz. pre- to syn-metamorphic, regional circulation of magmatic-
Each of these types is described below, using examples from hydrothermal fluids and (or) basinal brines.
selected deposits. The interested reader is referred to other In the Modum district of Norway, albite-rich rocks occur
publications on less common types of alteration such as near all of the major Co-Cu-Au deposits (fig. 53). Munz and
carbonate, sericite, and talc that occur in and near deposits others (1994) described two main types, the predominant one
of the Kuusamo schist belt in Finland (Vanhanen, 2001), and consisting of massive foliated albitite, and the less-common
K-feldspar that occurs widely in the NICO deposit (Goad type being coarse-grained and discordant. Most of the
and others, 2000a, b) and locally in the Blackbird district albite-rich rocks are within or along the contacts of metagabbro
(Slack, 2012). bodies, but other occurrences are within clastic metasedimen-
tary rocks. Associated minerals in both types are actinolite,
chlorite, quartz, and talc. Uranium-Pb geochronology on
Albite titanite occurring within foliated albitite and low initial Nd
The most common type of alteration in the Co-Cu-Au isotope compositions were used by Munz and others (1994)
deposits is albite. Both district- and deposit-scale albite altera- as evidence that the albitite-rich rocks formed during a
tion are documented. Albite-rich rocks occur extensively in Neoproterozoic retrograde fluid infiltration event at 1080
the Kuusamo schist belt of northeastern Finland that contains 3 Ma. If this age on titanite records the timing of albitization,
several metasedimentary rock-hosted Co-Cu-Au deposits then this type of alteration postdates the Co-Cu-Au mineraliza-
(Vanhanen, 2001). The albitic alteration is localized for tens tion by about 400 m.y., based on a Pb-Pb age of 1434 29 Ma
of kilometers within major shear zones and other structures determined for minor uraninite in the Skuterud deposit
and extends for as much as several kilometers laterally from (Andersen and Grorud, 1998). However, more recent
these structures (Pankka and Vanhanen, 1992; Eilu and others, studies have demonstrated that titanite U-Pb ages are
2003). Varieties that occur proximal to the deposits include commonly reset during metamorphism (for example, Bibikova
albite schist, albitite, quartz-albite rock, albitized quartzite, and others, 2001; Slack and others, 2008), thus the true age
albite-chlorite schist, albite-biotite rock, albite-muscovite rock, of this metasedimentary rockhosted albitization in the
albite-carbonate rock, and albite-talc rock. Albite-rich rocks at Modum district remains uncertain, and could be much older
the Kouvervaara Co-Cu-Au deposit envelop the mineralized and possibly coeval with the Co-Cu-Au mineralization. In-situ
zone for as much as 400 m, particularly quartz-albite rock that SHRIMP U-Pb dating of titanite within the foliated albitite of
is interpreted as the outer alteration zone, with garnet-rich rock the district may resolve this paragenetic uncertainty.
0 50 METERS
0 50 100 FEET
EXPLANATION
Overburden (till) Quartz-albite rock
Sericite quartzite Biotite-chlorite rock
Biotite-sericite schist Garnet rock
Albite-chlorite schist Sulfidized rocks
Diamond drill hole
Figure 81. Geological cross section of the Kouvervaara Co-Cu-Au deposit in the Kuusamo schist belt of
northeastern Finland, showing the distribution of albite-rich rocks relative to sulfide mineralized zones. Modified
from Vanhanen (2001).
Albite-rich rock is the principal host for the Mt. Cobalt consist mainly (>50 vol percent) of biotite, termed biotitite
Co-Cu-Au deposit in Queensland, Australia. Nisbet and others by previous workers (for example, Nash and Hahn, 1989;
(1983) showed that stratabound layered albitite, containing Bookstrom and others, 2007), are laterally continuous along
more than 95 volume percent albite, occurs preferentially strike for as much as 4 km (fig. 5.1), but extend no more than a
along the contact between mineralized amphibolite and few meters from the ore zones. The biotitite is a dark greenish
micaceous quartzite. Layering, which is conformable to the black to black rock that consists of fine-grained biotite, with or
predominant fabric in the enclosing units, is defined by minor without minor porphyroblastic garnet and chloritoid, accompa-
biotite- and tourmaline-rich layers alternating with major nied in places by disseminated fine-grained cobaltite and (or)
albite-quartz layers. chalcopyrite. Nash and Hahn (1989) showed that biotitite is
spatially associated with many of the stratabound Co-Cu-Au
lodes in the Blackbird district (fig. 82). Lithogeochemical
Biotite
and electron microprobe studies indicate that the biotite is very
Biotite-rich rocks are prominent and distinctive units Fe- and Cl-rich, including bulk and mineral compositions
in and near the Co-Cu-Au deposits of the Blackbird district. having as much as 1.1 weight percent Cl and 1.87 weight
Stratabound and locally stratiform rocks in this district that percent Cl, respectively (Nash and Connor, 1993).
8.Hydrothermal Alteration89
A A'
surface
EXPLANATION
Apple Creek Formation
Biotite-chloritoid
granofels (biotitite)
7000 ft Biotitic quartzite
Biotite siltite
Drill hole
Drill hole
M11A
Co
Co-Cu
intersection
M11B
M11B
0 50 METERS
0 50 100 FEET
M12A
Figure 82. Geological cross section of the Merle deposit in the Blackbird district, Idaho, showing
the distribution of biotite-rich lenses (biotitite) relative to intersections of Co-Cu mineralized zones in
drill cores. Modified from Nash and Hahn (1989).
The NICO deposit in Northwest Territories of Canada scapolite occurs in the contact zone between metagabbro and
contains biotite-rich units within both mineralized zones and siliciclastic metasedimentary rocks, as replacements of plagio-
wall rocks including arkosic wacke and rhyolite. A widespread clase in metagabbro, and in veins with coarse-grained albite
metasomatic black rock (originally sedimentary wacke) and calcite (Munz, 1990; Engvik and others, 2011). The veins
comprises massive, banded, and in places, schistose assem- are younger than the fine-grained albitites that are widespread
blages dominated by biotite, amphibole, magnetite, hematite, in the district. Geochemical, isotopic, and geochronological
and K-feldspar, with lesser silicates, carbonates, and ore studies by Engvik and others (2011) indicate that the replace-
minerals; the biotite is Fe-rich and Cl-rich, containing approxi- ment scapolite has a large component of the Cl-rich meionite
mately 1.2 weight percent Cl (Goad and others, 2000b). At endmember (3CaAl2Si2O8CaCO3) and that scapolitization of
the Werner Lake Co-Cu-Au deposit in Canada, garnetiferous the metagabbro took place during Sveconorwegian amphib-
biotite schist is a major wall rock (Pan and Therens, 2000). olite-facies metamorphism at 1070 to 1040 Ma, by an evap-
The Mt. Cobalt deposit is localized within a biotite-scapolite- orite-derived fluid based on the low initial Sr isotope ratios
tourmaline unit that marks the boundary between amphibolite (0.704-0.709) and Cl-rich nature of the scapolite. If
and micaceous quartzite (Nisbet and others, 1983). In the this age range is indeed the time period during which scap-
Kuusamo schist belt of Finland, biotite alteration is prominent olitization in the Modum district took place, then the scapolite
in a few deposits (for example, Kouvervaara, Lemmonlampi), alteration postdates ore formation by about 400 m.y.
where it is interpreted to have preceded mineralization Scapolite is abundant in parts of the Idaho cobalt belt,
(Vanhanen, 2001). but scapolite rarely is in proximity to the Blackbird Co-Cu-
Au deposits (Nash and Connor, 1993). Biotite-scapolite schist
occurs for several meters into the structural footwall of the
Scapolite
small Sweet Repose deposit, at the northeastern end of the dis-
Rocks containing abundant scapolite occur in the Modum trict (see Slack, 2012), but it is unclear whether this scapolite
district, the Blackbird district, and at the Mt. Cobalt deposit. In formation was coeval with mineralization. Characteristic are
the latter two areas, scapolite preferentially occurs in biotite- layers 0.5- to 2-m-thick, composed of biotite and porphyrob-
rich rocks (Nisbet and others, 1983; Slack, 2012). However, lastic scapolite, which occur in siliciclastic metasedimentary
despite broad spatial associations, no direct evidence exists strata of the Apple Creek Formation that hosts the Co-Cu-Au
that the scapolite alteration in these areas was genetically deposits. This scapolite has high Cl contentsone sample
related to Co-Cu-Au mineralization. In the Modum district, contains 2.2 weight percent Cl and 6.3 weight percent Na2O
(Nash and Connor, 1993), thus indicating a large component and (or) Fe-Co-Cu-As-Bi-W minerals (Goad and others,
of the marialite (3NaAlSi3O8NaCl) endmember. It is unclear 2000a, b). Tourmaline also occurs in the Co-Cu-Au deposits of
whether this deposit-distal Cl-rich scapolite is related to the the Kuusamo schist belt in Finland, including at the Juomasuo
deposit-proximal Cl-rich biotite in the district, which has an Au-Co deposit within albitized wall rocks and at the Lem-
average of 1.29 weight percent Cl (Nash and Connor, 1993). monlampi deposit as fine-grained concentrations (Pankka and
The Yellowjacket Formation, broadly contemporaneous with Vanhanen, 1992; Vanhanen, 2001). However, the proximity of
the Apple Creek Formation, locally contains scapolite-rich this tourmaline to the Co-Cu-Au orebodies is unknown.
rocks and carbonate strata that suggest shallow-water, inter-
tidal to supratidal settings including evaporite deposition
(Tysdal and Desborough, 1997; Tysdal, 2003). This sedimen- Quartz
tary facies may have been the basinal source of the Cl present Silicification is a locally prominent type of alteration
within the abundant Cl-rich biotite that characterizes many of in the Blackbird district (Nash and Hahn, 1989; Bookstrom
the ore zones in the Blackbird district (fig. 82). and others, 1997). Stratabound and local stratiform lenses
At the Mt. Cobalt deposit, scapolite is widespread and of fine- to coarse-grained, granoblastic quartz constitute the
abundant in the border zone between amphibolite and mica- predominant wall rock to Co-Cu-Au mineralization in several
ceous quartzite that hosts the ores (Nisbet and others, 1983). of the deposits, both in greenschist- and amphibolite-facies
Scapolite-rich rocks occur within a stratabound unit that is settings (Eiseman, 1988; Bookstrom and others, 2007). These
as much as 10 m wide and several hundred meters in length. quartzose lenses lack the characteristics of quartz veins, either
The most common assemblage is scapolite-biotite, with lesser in geometry or grain size, and as a result have generally been
scapolite-biotite-plagioclase and scapolite-hornblende, all of interpreted as products of ore-related silicification (Bookstrom
which are characterized by the presence of foliated scapolite. and others, 2007). Cobaltite and other sulfide minerals com-
Veins composed of scapolite and biotite also cut scapolitized monly are disseminated in the quartzose lenses.
amphibolite (Nisbet and others, 1983). Electron microprobe Late silicification has been described in the Co-Cu-Au
analyses of the different types of scapolite show approxi- deposits of the Kuusamo schist belt of Finland (Vanhanen,
mately 55 percent of the meionite endmember (Devlin, 1980). 2001). This alteration, either syn- or post-ore in timing,
is expressed by small lenses and seams of quartz that are
Tourmaline elongate parallel to local metasedimentary rock fabrics; such
lenses and seams are not vein quartz.
Among the Co-Cu-Au deposits considered to comprise
this model, tourmaline alteration is less common than albite
alteration. The Blackbird district and surrounding metasedi- Mineral Assemblages
mentary strata of the Idaho cobalt belt are well known for
Both simple and complex mineral assemblages occur
containing diverse types of tourmaline-rich rocks (Modreski,
within the alteration zones of the Co-Cu-Au deposits. Simple
1985; Nash and Hahn, 1989; Bookstrom and others, 2007).
assemblages are mainly restricted to predominantly one
Abundant tourmaline occurs in discordant pipes and breccias as
mineral, such as biotite or quartz in the Blackbird district
very fine-grained (~10-50 m) crystals either with or without
(Bookstrom and others, 2007; Slack, 2012), and albite or
coexisting cobaltite, chalcopyrite, or xenotime, and in biotite-
garnet in several deposits of the Kuusamo belt (Vanhanen,
rich wall rocks containing variable amounts of chloritoid,
2001). More mineralogically diverse assemblages, such as
garnet, and (or) cobaltite. Detailed studies of the tourmaline by
amphibole-biotite-magnetite-hematite-K-feldspar, occur in the
Trumbull and others (2011) indicate predominantly schorl or
NICO deposit, Canada (Goad and others, 2000a, b) and albite-
Fe-rich dravite compositions, and d11B values of -6.9 to +3.2
amphibole-quartz-carbonate in the Juomasuo Au-Co deposit of
per mil that suggest boron derivation chiefly from sedimentary
the Kuusamo belt (Vanhanen, 2001).
marine sources such as evaporites and carbonates.
Tourmaline alteration at the Dahenglu Co-Cu-Au deposit
(Yang and others, 2001) forms stratabound zones of abundant Lateral and Vertical Dimensions
tourmaline (tourmalinite) over thicknesses of 5 to 20 m
between multiple folded ore lenses within the siliciclastic Hydrothermally altered rocks that are spatially associated
metasedimentary host rocks. In the area of the Mt. Cobalt Cu- with the Co-Cu-Au deposits generally extend tens to hundreds
Co-Au deposit, tourmaline occurs distal to the orebody (>100 of meters from the mineralized zones. Such dimensions are
m) as layers in albitite and in veins that cut biotite-rich altered well documented in the NICO deposit in Canada (Goad and
rocks (Nisbet and others, 1983); electron microprobe analy- others, 2000a, b) and in deposits of the Kuusamo belt of
ses indicate dravite (Mg-rich) compositions (Devlin, 1980). Finland (Vanhanen, 2001). In contrast, the most prominent
Altered siliciclastic metasedimentary rocks at the NICO deposit biotite-rich alteration zones associated with the Blackbird
include minor tourmaline within assemblages containing more deposits in Idaho extend only a few meters at most from the
abundant biotite, amphibole, magnetite, hematite, K-feldspar, orebodies (Nash and Hahn, 1989; Bookstrom and others,
References Cited91
2007). Where orebodies extend to significant depths, such as

in the Juomasuo deposit, spatially associated alteration zones
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Sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposits: Geological 26 p.
Nisbet, B.W., Devlin, S.P., and Joyce, P.J., 1983, Geology and istry of the Fe-Co-Au(-U) deposits in the Paleoproterozoic
suggested genesis of cobalt-tungsten mineralization at Mt. Kuusamo schist belt, northeastern Finland: Geological
Cobalt, north west Queensland: Proceedings of the Austral- Survey of Finland Bulletin 399, 229 p.
Pan, Yuanming, and Therens, Craig, 2000, The Werner Lake [Dahenglu-type of cobalt deposits in the Laoling area, Jilin
Co-Cu-Au deposit of the English River subprovince, ProvinceA sedex deposit with late reformation, China]:
Ontario, CanadaEvidence for an exhalative origin Changchun Keji Daxue Xuebao [Journal of Changchun
and effects of granulite facies metamorphism: Economic University of Science and Technology], v. 31, p. 4045 [in
Geology, v. 95, p. 16351656. Chinese with English abstract].
9. Supergene Ore and Gangue
Characteristics
By John F. Slack
9 of 18


U.S. Government.
Suggested citation:
Slack, J.F., 2013, Supergene ore and gangue characteristics, chap. G9, of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and geoenviron-

95
Contents
9. Supergene Ore and Gangue
Characteristics
By John F. Slack
A variety of supergene minerals occurs in the metasedi-

mentary rock-hosted Co-Cu-Au deposits. Most common are
secondary iron-rich phases including limonite, goethite, hema-
tite, jarosite, and melanterite. Secondary copper minerals
such as covellite, chrysocolla, azurite, and malachiteare
present locally (for example, Evans and others, 1995). Native
copper and silver were reported in the Blackbird district by
Eiseman (1988). The visually most prominent supergene
mineral in the deposits is erythrite [Co3(AsO4)28H2O], which
is also known as cobalt bloom because of its distinctive pink
to lilac color. More detailed descriptions of the supergene min-
erals occurring in the deposits considered herein, and related
chemical processes that form them in the weathering environ-
ment, are given in this volume (Johnson and Gray, 2013).
References Cited
Eiseman, H.H., 1988, Ore geology of the Sunshine cobalt
deposit, Blackbird mining district, Idaho: Golden, Colorado
Evans, K.V., Nash, J.T., Miller, W.R., Kleinkopf, M.D., and
Survey Open-File Report 95831, p. 145151.
Johnson, C.A., and Gray, J.E., 2013, Weathering/supergene
processes, chap. G10, of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive
and geoenvironmental model for Co-Cu-Au deposits in
metasedimentary rocks: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific
Investigations Report 20105070G, p. 99104, http://pubs.
usgs.gov/sir/2010/5070/g/.
By Craig A. Johnson and John E. Gray
10 of 18


U.S. Government.
Suggested citation:
Johnson, C.A., and Gray, J.E., 2013, Weathering/supergene processes, chap. G10, of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and
geoenvironmental model for cobalt-copper-gold deposits in metasedimentary rocks: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific
Investigations Report 20105070G, p. 99104, http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20105070g.

101
Contents
By Craig A. Johnson and John E. Gray
Among the minerals found in the Co-Cu-Au deposits, (Nisbet and others, 1983; Gandhi and Lentz, 1990; Evans and
sulfides, sulfarsenides, and arsenides are the most suscep- others, 1995).
tible to weathering. At most of the localities listed in table Copper and iron ions released by weathering may form
11, these are dominantly cobaltite (CoAsS), chalcopyrite sulfates or oxyhydroxides. Chalcanthite (CuSO45H2O) has
(CuFeS2), covellite (CuS), pyrite (FeS2), and pyrrhotite been identified in the Blackbird district, as have jarosite
(Fe1-xS). Weathering of these minerals proceeds by oxidation (KFe3(OH)6(SO4)2), limonite (FeO(OH)nH2O), and iron
via pathways that can be categorized as biotic (mediated by sulfates of uncertain mineralogy (Evans and others, 1995;
microbes) or abiotic, and direct (oxidation driven by O2) or G.N. Breit, U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., 2007;
indirect (oxidation driven by O2 and Fe3+). Details of pyrite Giles and others, 2009). In some Co-Cu-Au deposits, sec-
and chalcopyrite weathering pathways have received much ondary copper carbonates are also known, including azurite
study; discussions of these can be found in recent reviews (Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2) and malachite (Cu2CO3(OH)2) (Evans and
(Nordstrom and Alpers, 1999; Plumlee, 1999; Lottermoser, others, 1995; Mumin and others, 2007).
2010). The pathways by which cobaltite weathers have not Arsenic ions released during weathering may precipitate
been studied, but13summary3 reactions can2+be hypothesized
2 2together
+ with cobalt as erythrite. Arsenic also can be seques-
CoAsS + O 2of+ theHchemical
based on the behavior
O = Coanalog+ HAsO 4 + SO 4
arsenopyrite
+ 2H
4 2 2 tered in limonite inasmuch as hydrous ferric oxides strongly
(FeAsS; Walker and others, 2006; Lengke and others, 2009). sorb this element over a broad range of pH conditions (Lotter-
Possible summary reactions include: moser, 2010). Secondary scorodite (FeAsO42H2O) is abun-
dant in weathered zones in the Blackbird district (G.A. Hahn,
Direct: written commun., 2011), and occurs on surface exposures at
the NICO deposit (Gandhi and Lentz, 1990).
13 3
CoAsS + O2 + H2O = Co2 + + HAsO24 + SO24 + 2H+ (1)

Other secondary minerals present in and surrounding
4 2
the Co-Cu-Au deposits include native sulfur, gypsum
7 (2) (CaSO42H2O), chrysocolla, and pickeringite
+
CoAsS + O2 + H2O = Co3 + HAsO24 + SO24 + H+
2 (MgAl2(SO4)422H2O); Evans and others, 1995; G.N. Breit,
U.S. Geological Survey, written commun., 2007; Giles and oth-
39
CoAsS + O2 +
25 1
H2O = Co 3 ( AsO4 )2 ers, 2009). The native sulfur is an intermediate product in the
12 6 3
overall sulfide oxidation process.
1
(3) Oxidation of cobaltite, chalcopyrite, and pyrite produces

8H2O(erythrite) + HAsO24
3
8 acidity, which tends to lower the pH of infiltrating waters
+ SO24 + H+
3 (Plumlee, 1999). In the Blackbird district, the weathering of
mined and unmined mineral deposits has the potential to
Indirect: generate highly acidic runoff. Surface waters in the district
have pH values as low as 24 (Beltman and others, 1993;
CoAsS + 13Fe 3 + + 8H2O = 13Fe2 + (4) Giles and others, 2009). With decreasing pH, the iron released
from pyrite and chalcopyrite is increasingly soluble and

+ Co2 + + HAsO24 + SO24 + 15 H+
becomes available to drive additional sulfide oxidation by
Cobalt ions released by weathering can be sequestered indirect pathways. For pyrite, indirect oxidation is faster than
in secondary minerals. Cobalt is known to coprecipitate with direct oxidation, so weathering can accelerate as pH declines.
manganese oxides (for example, Dillard and Crowther, Indirect oxidation also produces more hydrogen ions and, thus,
1982) by a mechanism that involves the oxidation of Co2+ more acidity (compare reaction 4 with reactions 13). The
by precipitated Mn3+ (Hem and others, 1985). In the kinetics of oxidation are probably also enhanced by microbial
Blackbird deposits, a possible substrate mineral for this catalysis, given the ubiquity of iron- and sulfur-oxidizing
process is akhtenskite (MnO2), which has been identified in bacteria and the possible presence of arsenite-oxidizing strains
underground workings (G.N. Breit, U.S. Geological Survey, in waters that interact with mine wastes (Nordstrom and
written commun., 2007). Another secondary host for cobalt Alpers, 1999).
is erythrite (Co3(AsO4)28H2O), a red-purple or pink mineral Some of the acidity produced by sulfide oxidation can
known informally as cobalt bloom that is common as coatings be sequestered temporarily in secondary sulfate minerals that
and crusts in workings in the Blackbird and Modum districts form where mine runoff undergoes evaporation. This phe-
and has been reported in the Mt. Cobalt and NICO deposits nomenon has been documented at a variety of metal mines
(Nordstrom and Alpers, 1999); the presence of iron and copper Giles, S.A., Granitto, M., and Eppinger, R.G., 2009, Selected
sulfates in underground workings of the Blackbird district geochemical data for modeling near-surface processes
suggests that the same phenomenon can occur at mines in mineral systems: U.S. Geological Survey Data Series
exploiting Co-Cu-Au deposits of the type under consideration 433, CD-ROM. (Also available at http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/
in this report. The storage of acidity is temporary because most usgspubs/ds/ds433.)
iron and copper sulfates are soluble enough that they readily
dissolve during precipitation events that lead to renewed run- Hem, J.D., Roberson, C.E., and Lind, C.J., 1985, Thermo-
off. Thus, thunderstorms can mobilize the accumulated acidity dynamic stability of CoOOH and its coprecipitation with
and cycle it rapidly through watersheds (Evans and others, manganese: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 49, p.
1995; Nordstrom and Alpers, 1999; Jambor and others, 2000). 801810.
Many of the deposits listed in table 11 are contained in
Jambor, J.L., Nordstrom, D.K., and Alpers, C.N., 2000, Metal-
sedimentary sequences that are dominated by mature silici-
sulfate salts from sulfide mineral oxidation, in Alpers, C.N.,
clastic rocks. The abundance of quartz and alkali feldspar
Jambor, J.L., and Nordstrom, D.K., eds., Sulfate miner-
within these lithologies and paucity of calcite and readily
alsCrystallography, geochemistry, and environmental
weathered aluminosilicates provide little buffering capacity
significance: Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, v.
for the acidity produced by sulfide weathering. Where the host
lithologies are locally mafic or ultramafic, as is the case for 40, p. 303350.
several of the deposits in northern Finland, some acid buffer- Lengke, M.F., Sanpawanitchakit, C., and Tempel, R.N., 2009,
ing would be expected due to the presence of calcic feldspar, The oxidation and dissolution of arsenic-bearing sulfides:
olivine, and other silicates that are more susceptible to hydro- Canadian Mineralogist, v. 47, p. 593613.
lysis reactions.
Within Co-Cu-Au ores or in associated hydrothermally Lottermoser, B.G., 2010, Mine wastesCharacterization,
altered rocks, calcite is either absent or present in only minor treatment and environmental impacts (3d ed.): Berlin,
amounts (Nisbet and others, 1983; Schandl, 2004; Mumin and Springer, 400 p.
others, 2007). In deposits of the Blackbird district, weathering
of siderite (FeCO3), a minor gangue mineral, can consume acid- Mumin, A.H., Corriveau, L., Somarin, A.K., and Ootes, L.,
ity under certain circumstances. However, where weathering is 2007, Iron oxide copper-gold-type polymetallic mineraliza-
driven by oxygenated waters, the acid consumption is offset by tion in the Contact Lake belt, Great Bear magmatic zone,
acid production resulting from the oxidation, hydrolysis, and Northwest Territories, Canada: Exploration and Mining
precipitation of iron in the siderite (Lottermoser, 2010). Geology, v. 16, p. 187208.
References Cited Cobalt, north west Queensland: Proceedings of the Austral-
Beltman, D., Holmes, J., Lipton, J., Maest, A., and Schardt, J., Nordstrom, D.K., and Alpers, C.N., 1999, Geochemistry of
1993, Blackbird mine site source investigationField sam- acid mine waters, in Plumlee, G.S., and Logsdon, M.J., eds.,
pling report: Prepared by CG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc., Boulder,
The environmental geochemistry of mineral deposits, Part
Colo., for the State of Idaho, Idaho Department of Environ-
A, Processes, techniques, and health issues: Reviews in
mental Quality, 1410 N. Hilton, Boise, ID 83706.
Economic Geology, v. 6A, p. 133160.
Dillard, J.D., and Crowther, D.L., 1982, The oxidation states
Plumlee, G.S., 1999, The environmental geology of mineral
of cobalt and selected metals in Pacific ferromanganese
nodules: Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 46, p. deposits, in Plumlee, G.S., and Logsdon, M.J., eds., The
755759. environmental geochemistry of mineral deposits, Part A,
Processes, techniques, and health issues: Reviews in Eco-
Evans, K.V., Nash, J.T., Miller, W.R., Kleinkopf, M.D., and nomic Geology, v. 6A, p. 71116.
in du Bray, E., ed., Preliminary compilation of descriptive Schandl, E.S., 2004, The role of saline fluids base-metal and
geoenvironmental mineral deposit models: U.S. Geological gold mineralization at the Cobalt Hill prospect northeast of
Survey Open-File Report 95831, p. 145151. the Sudbury igneous complex, OntarioA fluid-inclusion
and mineralogical study: Canadian Mineralogist, v. 42, p.
Gandhi, S.S., and Lentz, D.R., 1990, Bi-Co-Cu-Au-As and U 15411562.
occurrences in metasediments of the Snare Group and felsic
volcanics of the southern Great Bear magmatic zone, Lou Walker, F.P., Schreiber, M.E., and Rimstidt, J.D., 2006, Kinet-
Lake, Northwest Territories: Geological Survey of Canada ics of arsenopyrite oxidative dissolution by oxygen: Geochi-
Paper 901C , p. 239253. mica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 70, p. 16681676.
By Craig A. Johnson
11 of 18


U.S. Government.
Suggested citation:
Johnson, C.A., 2013, Geochemical characteristics, chap. G11, of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and geoenvironmental
model for cobalt-copper-gold deposits in metasedimentary rocks: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations
Report 20105070G, p. 105112, http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20105070g.

107
Contents
Trace Elements and Element Associations............................................................................................109
Fluid Inclusion Thermometry and Geochemistry...................................................................................109
Stable Isotope Geochemistry...................................................................................................................110
Radiogenic Isotope Geochemistry...........................................................................................................111
Figures
111. Sulfur isotopic compositions of sulfide minerals from Co-Cu-Au deposits in

metasedimentary rocks............................................................................................................110
Table
111. Fluid inclusion types recognized in Co-Cu-Au deposits in metasedimentary rocks......109

By Craig A. Johnson
Trace Elements and Element Associations that are more commonly associated with felsic igneous activ-
ity, including F, U, and W (NICO, Contact Lake).
As a group, Co-Cu-Au deposits in metasedimenatry rocks Some of the Co-Cu-Au deposits listed in table 11 occur
(table 11) are characterized by a diverse suite of anomalous in terranes that contain a wide variety of rock types, perhaps
element concentrations that includes siderophile elements most notably the deposits of the Blackbird district. These ores
(Mo, Ni), chalcophile elements (Ag, As, Bi, Hg, Pb, Se, Te, can display a diverse suite of associated elements, probably
Zn), and lithophile elements (B, Be, Cl, F, REE, Th, U, W, Y). reflecting hydrothermal scavenging of elements from a com-
Most districts or deposits, however, contain only a subset of bination of pelitic rocks (for example, As, B), felsic igneous
this suite. rocks (Y, REE, U, Be), and mafic igneous rocks (Ni) (Nash
The associated elements vary in a general way with and Hahn, 1989; Slack, 2012). Thus, the trace elements and
the lithology of the deposit host rocks, suggesting that the associated elements in Co-Cu-Au deposits within metasedi-
minor and trace element chemistry of the ores depends on the mentary rocks depend at least partly on lithologies that are
chemical constituents that were available locally to circulat- present locally, which can vary from one district to another or
ing hydrothermal fluids. For example, where the host rocks from one deposit to another.
contain abundant metapelite, or metamorphosed argillaceous
sedimentary rock, there is a tendency for the ore deposits to be
Fluid Inclusion Thermometry and Geochemistry
richer in elements that are characteristically high in shales rel-
ative to other rock types, such as As and B. Examples include
the deposits of the Blackbird district and the Skuterud and Fluid inclusions have been examined in quartz from
Werner Lake deposits. Where metapelites are volumetrically deposits of the Blackbird district and the Cobalt Hill deposit.
minor relative to non-argillaceous metasedimentary rocks, Both localities contain populations of highly saline inclusions
arsenic concentrations in the ores are lower. This is observed and CO2-rich inclusions; additional types were recognized at
at the Gladhammer, Juomasuo, and Dehenglu deposits, which Cobalt Hill (table 111). For Cobalt Hill, Schandl (2004) used
are associated with metaquartzite rather than metapelite, and petrographic observations to link the sulfide-gold assemblages
in which Co occurs partly in As-poor minerals such as lin- to a fluid inclusion population having 2646 equivalent weight
naeite (Co3S4) and siegenite ((Co,Ni)3S4), rather than in the percent NaCl, an entrapment temperature of about 400 C,
sulfarsenide mineral cobaltite (CoAsS), the dominant Co host and an entrapment pressure of 1.3 kilobars. For Blackbird, the
in most other deposits listed in table 11. relationship between sulfides and fluid inclusions is difficult
Other element associations reflect whether local igneous to decipher due to the effects of syn- or post-mineral deforma-
rocks are predominantly ultramafic to mafic or predominantly tion and metamorphism. However, halite dissolution
intermediate to felsic. For example, the deposits in northern temperatures for the highly saline inclusions indicate that these
Finland are associated with siliciclastic metasedimentary rocks fluids were hot (250350 C), which is permissive evidence
that lie within greenstone belts. Although the immediate host
rocks to the deposits are more commonly metasedimentary Table 111. Fluid inclusion types recognized in Co-Cu-Au
than metaigneous, the host terranes contain large volumes of deposits in metasedimentary rocks.1
mafic and ultramafic lithologies, including tholeiite, metagab-
bro, and komatiite (Sundblad, 2003; Eilu and others, 2003). Deposit Fluid Inclusion Types2
Many of the northern Finland deposits are anomalously High-salinity CO2-rich Other types3
high in Ag and Nielements that are abundant in mafic and
Blackbird, Idaho ~35 Present
ultramafic rocks. The Werner Lake deposit shows the same
relationship; mafic and ultramafic igneous rocks are abundant Cobalt Hill, Ontario 3510 Present ~25
near ores that are high in Ag and Ni (Pan and Therens, 2000). 1
Sources of data: Blackbird, Nash and Hahn (1989), Landis and Hofstra
In contrast, where the associated igneous rocks are predomi- (2012); Cobalt Hill, Schandl (2004).
nantly intermediate to felsic in composition, the suite of asso- 2
Numerical values represent equivalent weight percent NaCl.
ciated elements is less likely to contain Ag and (or) Nias in 3
Schandl (2004) reported a third inclusion type that has lower salt contents
the NICO, Goldhammer, and Contact Lake deposits. Instead, than the high-salinity inclusions and extends to lower homogenization
the ores of these deposits contain trace and minor elements temperatures.
that the fluids played a role in metal transport, either during 20

initial emplacement of the metals or during a subsequent metal EXPLANATION
remobilization event (Nash and Hahn, 1989). Leachates from 15 Blackbird
quartz-hosted fluid inclusions from the Blackbird district show Other Idaho Co belt
Na-Cl-Br systematics that are consistent with the presence of 10

seawater that had evaporated to the point of salt precipitation
(Landis and Hofstra, 2012). Independent evidence for 5
seawater evaporation in the district has been found by

Tysdal and Desborough (1997), who documented the presence 0
5
of scapolite-rich strata, probable metamorphosed halite-
bearing evaporites, in exposures of the Yellowjacket 4 Modum
Formation southwest of Blackbird (see also Lund, 2013).
3
Because the complex textures of Blackbird ores do not clearly
indicate a genetic relationship of the saline fluid inclu- 2
sions to the sulfide-gold assemblages, uncertainty remains
as to whether the evaporated seawater finding pertains to 1
the original emplacement of the metals or to later metal 0

redistribution(s) during the Cretaceous that gave the ores their 10
present form.
8 Werner Lake
Stable Isotope Geochemistry Number of samples 6
4
Sulfide sulfur isotope data are available for five of the
localities listed in table 11. All five show positive d34S values, 2
with means ranging from 1 per mil at the Werner Lake deposit
0
to 21 per mil at the Skuterud deposit (fig. 111). For deposits 5
of the Blackbird district, the Skuterud deposit, and the
Dhenglu deposit, the d34S values are high enough to suggest 4 Mt Cobalt
that the ore sulfur was derived, at least partly, from sedimen- 3
tary rock sources. Sulfides at the Werner Lake and Mt. Cobalt
deposits have d34S values near 0 per mil, which is consistent 2
with sulfur derivation from an igneous source, either offgas-
1
sing from crystallizing magmas or scavenging of sulfur from
plutonic or volcanic rocks by hydrothermal fluids. However, 0
sedimentary sulfur can also have near-zero d34S values (for 5
example, Seal, 2006), thus sulfur sources for the Werner Lake
4 Dahenglu
and Mt. Cobalt deposits are not determined uniquely without
additional information. 3
With the possible exception of the Skuterud deposit, none
2
of the localities listed in table 11 shows the d34S variations
of 10 per mil or more that characterize ores formed by sedi- 1
mentary and early diagenetic processes, reflecting bacterial
reduction of local sulfate (for example, SEDEX and sedimen- 0
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
tary copper type deposits; Leach and others, 2005; Hitzman
34S, in per mil relative to VCDT
and others, 2005). For the Werner Lake deposit, which was
metamorphosed at granulite grade, the isotopic uniformity Figure 111. Sulfur isotopic compositions of sulfide
could reflect homogenization during high-grade metamorphic minerals from Co-Cu-Au deposits in metasedimentary
recrystallization (for example, Crowe, 1994). However, for rocks. Abbreviations: d34S, delta S-34; VCDT, Vienna
deposits of the Blackbird district and the Dhenglu deposit, Caon Diablo Troilite. Sources of data: Blackbird
which are contained in host rocks that were metamorphosed and Idaho cobalt belt, Howe and Hall (1985),
only at greenschist grade, metamorphic homogenization is Panneerselvam and others (2012), Johnson and
unlikely. Hence, the isotopic uniformity is probably a primary others (2012); Modum, C.A. Johnson, U.S. Geological
feature of the ores. The narrow ranges of d34S values suggest Survey, unpub. data, 2010; Werner Lake, Pan and
that the sulfur sources for these deposits were deeper-seated Therens (2000); Mt. Cobalt, Davidson and Dixon
than normal diagenetic environments, and that isotopic (1992); Dahenglu, Yang and others (2001).
References Cited111
homogeneity was promoted by thermochemical sulfate by analogy perhaps other ore metalswere derived from
reduction or hydrothermal transport of sulfur as H2S (Johnson the local quartzofeldspathic sedimentary host rocks. In the
and others, 2012). Blackbird district, ore lead is highly radiogenic, shown by Pb
Data obtained for Idaho cobalt belt deposits distal to the isotope values that extend well beyond crustal growth model
Blackbird district show that d34S values of ore sulfides can curves on lead isotope correlation plots. Panneerselvam and
vary systematically on the scale of kilometers or tens of others (2012) suggest that this isotopic signature reflects ore
kilometers. The Iron Creek and Black Pine deposits in the formation by the leaching of metals from local sedimentary
southeastern part of the belt (see Nash, 1989; Slack, 2012) rocks of the Apple Creek Formation, which is Mesoprotero-
have an average d34S value of 5 per mil, which is significantly zoic in age (see Aleinikoff and others, 2012). Uranium and
lower than the 8 per mil average displayed by deposits of the lead concentrations are available for only one sample from the
Blackbird district near the middle of the belt. This regional Blackbird district, however, which precludes modeling of the
variation could reflect sulfur acquisition from different sedi- data to definitively identify the source of the ore lead.
mentary strata, inasmuch as the southeastern deposits occur
in a lower stratigraphic unit (Nash and Hahn, 1989; Lund and
Tysdal, 2007), or a greater magmatic component within the
Black Pine and Iron Creek deposits. References Cited
Oxygen and hydrogen isotope data are available for the
Blackbird district (Johnson and others, 2012) and the Werner Aleinikoff, J.N., Slack, J.F., Lund, K.I., Evans, K.V., Mazdab,
Lake deposit (Pan and Therens, 2000). For the Blackbird F.K., Pillars, R.M., and Fanning, C.M., 2012, Constraints
district, analyses of biotite- and tourmaline-bearing wall rocks on the timing of Co-CuAu mineralization in the Black-
suggest that hydrothermally altered rocks are about 10 per mil bird district, Idaho, using SHRIMP U-Pb ages of monazite
lower in their dD values than nearby unaltered rocks (absolute and xenotime plus zircon ages of related Mesoproterozoic
values depend on location; see Johnson and others, 2012). orthogneisses and metasedimentary rocks: Economic Geol-
There is no corresponding difference in d18O values. Thus, ogy, v. 107, p. 11431175.
hydrogen isotopic analysis may be useful in identifying subtle
alteration in exploration for deposits of this type. Calculated Andersen, Tom, and Grorud, Hans-Fredrik, 1998, Age and
dD values for the hydrothermal fluid are above (less nega- lead isotope systematics of uranium-enriched cobalt miner-
tive than) 40 per mil for any reasonable range of assumed alization in the Modum complex, south NorwayImplica-
hydrothermal temperature (250500 C) and pressure (<2400 tions for Precambrian crustal evolution in the SW part of the
bars). Calculated d18O values for this same range of conditions Baltic Shield: Precambrian Research, v. 91, p. 419432.
are 6 3 per mil. These values do not allow discrimination Crowe, D.E., 1994, Preservation of original hydrothermal
between sedimentary formation waters, metamorphic waters, 34S values in greenschist to upper amphibolite volcano-
or mixtures of magmatic water and either seawater or isotopi- genic massive sulfide deposits: Geology, v. 22, p. 873876.
cally heavy meteoric water as the source of the hydrothermal
fluid. The values are a poor match for the modified seawaters Davidson, G.J., and Dixon, G.H., 1992, Two sulphur isotope
that form volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits (for example, provinces deduced from ores in the Mount Isa eastern suc-
Shanks, 2012). For the Werner Lake deposit, garnet-biotite cession, Australia: Mineralium Deposita, v. 27, p. 3041.
schists associated with the ore have d18O values of 46.5 per
mil, lower than nearby amphibolite (6.88.3 per mil), which is
thought to be the unaltered equivalent of the schist. The lower
d18O values are consistent with isotopic exchange with fluids
that were hot, low in d18O, or both. Pan and Therens (2000) Hitzman, M.W., Kirkham, Rodney, Broughton, David,
inferred that the ore-forming fluid was derived from seawater, Thorson, Jon, and Selley, David, 2005, The sediment-
although other fluid sources are possible. hosted stratiform copper ore system, in Hedenquist, J.W.,
Thompson, J.F.H., Goldfarb, R.J., and Richards, J.P., eds.,
Economic Geology One Hundredth Anniversary Volume,
Radiogenic Isotope Geochemistry
19052005: Littleton, Colo., Society of Economic Geolo-
Isotopic studies in the U-Th-Pb system have been carried gists, Inc., p. 609642.
out on suites of samples from the Modum and Blackbird Howe, S.S., and Hall, W.E., 1985, Light-stable-isotope char-
districts (Andersen and Grorud, 1998; Paneerselvam and acteristics of ore systems in central Idaho: U.S. Geological
others, 2012). In the Modum district, initial Pb isotopic ratios Survey Bulletin 1658, p. 183192.
for ore minerals resemble initial Pb isotopic ratios for sedi-
mentary rocks, but not other local lithologies, as constrained Johnson, C.A., Bookstrom, A.A., and Slack, J.F., 2012, Sulfur,
by the 1434 29 Ma mineralization age based on an isotopic carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen isotope geochemistry of the
correlation in the mineral separates. Thus, the ore leadand Idaho cobalt belt: Economic Geology, v. 107, p. 12071221.
Landis, G.P., and Hofstra, A.H., 2012, Ore genesis constraints Shanks, W.C., III, 2012, Theory of deposit formation, in
on the Idaho cobalt belt from fluid inclusion gas, noble gas Shanks, W.C., III, and Thurston, Roland, eds., Volcanogenic
isotope, and ion ratio analyses: Economic Geology, v. 107, massive sulfide occurrence model: U.S. Geological Survey
p. 11891205. Scientific Investigations Report 20115070C, p. 289303.
Leach, D.L., Sangster, D.F., Kelley, K.D., Large, R.R., Gar- Slack, J.F., 2012, Stratabound Fe-Co-Cu-Au-Bi-Y-REE depos-
ven, G., Allen, C.R., Gutzmer, J., and Walters, S., 2005, its of the Idaho cobalt belt, USAMultistage hydrothermal
Sediment-hosted lead-zinc depositsA global perspective, mineralization in a magmatic-related iron oxide-copper-gold
in Hedenquist, J.W., Thompson, J.F.H., Goldfarb, R.J., and system: Economic Geology, v. 107, p. 10891113.
Richards, J.P., eds., Economic Geology One Hundredth
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1290.
Lund, Karen, 2013, Regional environment, chap. G4, of
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gold deposits in metasedimentary rocks: U.S. Geological evaporite and carbonate rocks of Proterozoic Yellowjacket
Survey Scientific Investigations Report 20105070G, Formation, Moyer Creek, Salmon River Mountains, central
p. 2947, http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2010/5070/g/. Idaho: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 97268,
26 p.
Lund, K.I., and Tysdal, R.G., 2007, Stratigraphic and struc-
tural setting of sediment-hosted Blackbird gold-cobalt- Yang, Yan-chen, Feng, Ben-zhi, and Liu, Peng-e, 2001,
copper deposits, east-central Idaho, U.S.A., in Link, P.K., [Dahenglu-type of cobalt deposits in the Laoling area, Jilin
and Lewis, R.S., eds., Proterozoic geology of western North ProvinceA sedex deposit with late reformation, China]:
America and Siberia: Society of Economic Paleontologists Changchun Keji Daxue Xuebao [Journal of Changchun
and Mineralogists Special Publication 86, p. 129147. University of Science and Technology], v. 31, p. 4045 [in
mentary cobaltiferous-pyrite deposits, Iron Creek, Lemhi
County, Idaho: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1882, 33 p.
its and mafic volcaniclastic rocks in the Blackbird mining
district, Lemhi County, Idaho, in Boyle, R.W., Brown, A.C.,
Sediment-hosted stratiform copper deposits: Geological
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Panneerselvam, K., MacFarlane, A.W., and Salters, V.J.M.,
2012, Reconnaissance lead isotope characteristics of the
Blackbird depositImplications for the age and origin of
cobalt-copper mineralization in the Idaho cobalt belt, USA:
Economic Geology, v. 107, p. 11771188.
gold mineralization at the Cobalt Hill prospect northeast of
the Sudbury igneous complex, OntarioA fluid-inclusion
15411562.
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minerals, in Vaughan, D.J., ed., Sulfide mineralogy and
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12. Petrology of Associated Igneous Rocks
By Klaus J. Schulz
12 of 18


U.S. Government.
Suggested citation:
Schulz, K.J., 2013, Petrology of associated igneous rocks, chap. G12, of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and geoenviron-

115
Contents
Figures
121. Compositional characteristics of metagranitic augen gneiss from north of the
Blackbird district........................................................................................................................118
122. Chondrite-normalized REE and trace element patterns for metagranitic augen
gneiss from north of the Blackbird district............................................................................119
12. Petrology of Associated Igneous
Rocks
By Klaus J. Schulz
The importance of igneous rocks to metasedimentary Hahn, 1989). Hahn and Hughes (1984) described three suites
rock-hosted Co-Cu-Au deposits remains uncertain. A variety of mafic intrusions. Most common are thin (generally <2 m
of igneous rock types may be present in the sequences hosting thick), black-to-violet, foliated, carbonate-rich, biotite-bearing,
Co-Cu-Au deposits, ranging from mafic to felsic volcanic alkaline dikes and sills. A second suite is plagioclase por-
rocks to diabasic, gabbroic, and granitic intrusions. Some phyritic, massive, non-foliated (except along some margins),
workers have suggested that igneous intrusions were the gabbroic intrusions that are 3 to 30 m thick. The third suite is
source of metals and (or) fluids for a deposit (Anderson, 1947; carbonatite-ultramafic diatremes containing clasts of carbonate
Vhay, 1948; Bennett, 1977; Slack, 2012). Others, viewing the and intensely serpentinized ultramafic rocks. Although these
deposits as syngenetic in origin, have speculated that mineral- mafic dike-sill suites have not been dated, most dikes in the
izing processes are linked to submarine mafic volcanic and ore zones appear to be post-ore, although some are cut
intrusive activity (Hughes, 1983; Modreski, 1985; Eiseman, by cobaltite-bearing veins and mineralized fault zones
1988; Nash, 1989; Nash and Hahn, 1989; Nold, 1990). In (Bookstrom and others, 2007; A.A. Bookstrom, written
contrast, some workers have viewed these deposits as derived commun., 2011). Biotite-rich wall rocks in the district,
from metamorphic fluids with igneous activity providing at originally considered metamorphosed alkaline mafic tuffs by
most a heat source for metamorphism and fluid circulation Nash and Hahn (1989), are now interpreted as the product
(Nisbet and others, 1983; Krcmarov and Stewart, 1998). of Fe-metasomatism of clastic sedimentary rocks
Clearly, more detailed studies are needed on the Co-Cu-Au (A.A. Bookstrom, written commun., 2011).
deposits in metasedimentary rocks, including accurate dating North of the Blackbird district, a group of steeply
of mineralization, in order to better evaluate possible genetic dipping, sill-like bodies of gabbro-diabase, diorite, and
links between magmatism and mineralization. amphibolite are concordantly intercalated with paragneiss
Although uncertainties remain, recent studies in the
and granitic gneiss on a scale of 50100 m (Spence, 1984).
Blackbird district of Idaho suggest that Mesoproterozoic
These gabbroic intrusions are interpreted as partially differenti-
igneous intrusions may have played an important role in the
ated sills rotated to steep dips during rotation on thrust faults
formation of the districts Co-Cu-Au deposits (Aleinikoff and
(Doughty and Chamberlain, 1996). The mafic intrusions are
others, 2012; Landis and Hofstra, 2012). The Mesoproterozoic
reported to have subalkaline tholeiitic basalt compositions
intrusions of the Blackbird district are described below. It
with slightly enriched light REE (about 30 times chondrite)
should be noted, however, that compositionally similar
(L.S. Reed, R.F. Burmester, and T.P. Frost, written commun.,
intrusions have not been recognized in all of the districts and
areas that have Co-Cu-Au deposits. 2010). These intrusions appear to be compositionally distinct
The Co-Cu-Au deposits of the Blackbird district in east- from the biotite-rich alkaline dikes in the Blackbird district
central Idaho are hosted by deformed Mesoproterozoic clastic described by Nash and Hahn (1989), but they may be similar
metasedimentary rocks. These strata are intruded by granitic to the plagioclase-porphyritic gabbroic dikes there (Hahn and
and gabbroic plutons north and east of the district, which give Hughes, 1984).
similar Mesoproterozoic U-Pb zircon ages of 1377 4 Ma and Temporally associated with the mafic intrusions are
1378.7 1.2 Ma, respectively (Doughty and Chamberlain, granitic plutons, which are locally deformed into augen gneiss
1996; Aleinikoff and others, 2012). These ages overlap, within (Doughty and Chamberlain, 1996; L.S. Reed, R.F. Burmester,
analytical error, the oldest age determined for hydrothermal and T.P. Frost, oral commun., 2010). Augen are as much as
xenotime in biotite at the Merle deposit (1370 4 Ma; 5 cm in length and consist of alkali feldspar, alkali feldspar
Aleinikoff and others, 2012), suggesting that the coeval rimmed by plagioclase (rapakivi), and plagioclase (L.S. Reed,
granitic and gabbroic magmatism may have been responsible R.F. Burmester, and T.P. Frost, oral commun., 2010). Modal
for the hydrothermal system that resulted in Y-REE miner- quartz-alkali feldspar-plagioclase determinations plot in the
alization and possibly Co-Cu-Au mineralization, either as a granite field; the protolith was probably a muscovite-biotite
direct source of mineralizing solutions or as a heat source to rapakivi granite. Spence (1984) and Doughty and Chamber-
drive the hydrothermal fluids. lain (1996) described a number of features, including veined
Metamorphosed mafic dikes and sills are also common agmatites and pillows and rounded globular masses of diabase
in and around the Blackbird district and have been suggested within augen gneiss, which strongly suggest commingling and
to be an important source of metals for the deposits (Nash and mixing of mafic and felsic magmas.
Compositionally, the augen gneiss is fairly uniform with sample of 0.769 (Criss and Fleck, 1987). However, Evans
only a small range in SiO2 (7175 weight percent) and other and Zartman (1990) noted that the Rb-Sr system in the augen
major and trace elements (Lewis and Frost, 2005). Although gneiss has been significantly disturbed, making it impos-
partially overlapping in composition with A-type granites from sible to determine reliable Sri values. Values of Nd (epsilon
the Eureka Supersuite in Australia, the augen gneiss is ferroan neodymium) calculated at 1370 Ma for the augen gneiss range
to magnesian, calcic to calc-alkalic, and peraluminous from -1.5 to 3.8 (Fleck, 1990; Doughty and Chamberlain,
(fig. 121). Rare earth element and extended trace element
1996). In contrast, metasedimentary rocks in the region have
patterns of the augen gneiss are enriched in light REE and Th
more negative Nd values (calculated at 1370 Ma) ranging
and have pronounced negative Nb-Ta anomalies (fig. 122).
from -2.1 to -4.3 (Fleck, 1990; Doughty and Chamberlain,
The compositional characteristics of the augen gneiss are
similar to those of A-type granites (Bonin, 2007); samples 1996), whereas Archean basement would have values lower
mostly plot in the within-plate granite field on tectonic dis- than -10. These data indicate that neither Archean basement
crimination diagrams (for example, fig. 123D). nor the regional metasedimentary rocks were the dominant
Samples of augen gneiss from near Elk City, Idaho, source for the Proterozoic granite magmas. One sample of
have variable initial 87Sr/86Sr isotope ratios (Sri) calculated at diabase has an Nd value calculated at 1370 Ma of +1.10
1370 Ma of 0.707 to 0.723 with one exceptionally radiogenic (Doughty and Chamberlain, 1996).
A B
1.0 12
ferroan
0.9 A-Type granitoids
8
A-Type granitoids
0.8
FeOt/(FeOt + MgO)
Na2O + K2O-CaO
4 c
alic i calci
0.7 alk al
alk lka
lic
c-a
0 cal l cic
0.6 magnesian ca
0.5 -4
0.4 -8
50 60 70 80 50 60 70 80
SiO2, in weight percent SiO2, in weight percent
C D
3
Metaluminous Peraluminous 1,000
WPG
Nb, in parts per million
2
100
Al/(Na+K)
VAG +
syn-COLG
1
Peralkaline 10
ORG
0 1
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 1 10 100 1,000
Al/(Ca+Na+K) Y, in parts per million
Figure 121. Compositional characteristics of metagranitic augen gneiss from north of the Blackbird district
(data from Lewis and Frost, 2005). (A) FeOt/(FeOt + MgO) versus SiO2. Boundary line and field for A-type
granitoids from Frost and others, 2001. (B) Na2O + K2O - CaO versus SiO2. Boundary lines and field for A-type
granitoids from Frost and others, 2001. (C) molar Al/(Na + K) versus Al/(Ca + Na + K) (after Maniar and Piccoli,
1989). (D) Nb versus Y tectonic discrimination diagram (after Pearce and others, 1984). WPG = Within-plate
granite; ORG = Ocean ridge granite; VAG = Volcanic arc granite; syn-COLG = syn-collisional granite.
12. Petrology of Associated Igneous Rocks 119
A B
1,000
1,000
Rock/Primitive Mantle
100
100
Rock/Chondrites
10
10
1
1 .1
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Cs Rb BaTh U Nb Ta K La Ce Pb Pr Sr P NdZr Sm Eu Ti Dy Y Yb Lu
C
10
Rock/Upper Cont. Crust-UCC
.1
Cs Rb Ba Th U K Ta Nb La Ce Sr Nd Hf Zr Sm Ti Y Yb Lu
Figure 122.(A) Chondrite-normalized REE patterns for metagranitic augen gneiss from north of the Blackbird district
(chondrite values from Nakamura, 1974). (B) Primitive mantle-normalized trace element patterns (primitive mantle
values from Sun and McDonough, 1989). (C) Upper continental crust-normalized trace element patterns (average upper
continental crust values from Taylor and McLennan, 1985).
The overall compositional characteristics of the augen other rapakivi granite systems (Frost and Frost, 1997). Frost
gneiss are similar to those of other North American Mesopro- and Frost (1997) argued that reduced rapakivi granites are
terozoic anorogenic (rapakivi) granites including high FeOt/ derived from tholeiitic mafic sources either by extreme differ-
entiation of basaltic melts or by partial melting of underplated
(FeOt + MgO) and K2O/Na2O ratios, high incompatible ele-
basalts and their differentiated equivalents. The presence of
ment contents including REE, but low Co, Sc, Cr, Ni, Ba, Sr, coeval tholeiitic mafic magmas (gabbro intrusions) with the
and Eu contents (Anderson and Morrison, 2005). In addition, augen gneiss precursor and the mostly positive Nd values
the augen gneiss has variable, but mostly low Fe2O3/FeO ratios are compatible with a mafic source for the original rapakivi
(< 1), suggesting reduced ilmenite-series affinities similar to granite in the Blackbird region.
Fleck, R.J., 1990, Neodymium, strontium, and trace-element

References Cited evidence of crustal anatexis and magma mixing in the Idaho
batholith, in Anderson, J.L., ed., The nature and origin of
Aleinikoff, J.N., Slack, J.F., Lund, K.I., Evans, K.V., Mazdab, Cordilleran magmatism: Geological Society of America
F.K., Pillars, R.M., and Fanning, C.M., 2012, Constraints Memoir 174, p. 359373.
on the timing of Co-CuAu mineralization in the Black-
bird district, Idaho, using SHRIMP U-Pb ages of monazite Frost, B.R., Barnes, C.B., Collins, W.J., Arculus, R.J., Ellis,
and xenotime plus zircon ages of related Mesoproterozoic D.J., and Frost, C.D., 2001, A geochemical classification for
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ogy, v. 107, p. 11431175.
Frost, C.D., and Frost, B.R., 1997, Reduced rapakivi-type
Anderson, A.L., 1947, Cobalt mineralization in the Blackbird granitesThe tholeiitic connection: Geology, v. 25,
district, Lemhi County, Idaho: Economic Geology, v. 42, p. 647650.
p. 2246.
Hahn, G.A., and Hughes, G.J., Jr., 1984, Sedimentation,
Anderson, J.L., and Morrison, Jean, 2005, Ilmenite, magnetite, tectonism, and associated magmatism of the Yellowjacket
and peraluminous Mesoproterozoic anorgenic granites of Formation in the Idaho cobalt belt, Lemhi County, Idaho, in
Laurentia and Baltica: Lithos, v. 80, p. 4560. Hobbs, S.W., ed., The Belt: Montana Bureau of Mines and
Geology Special Publication 90, p. 6567.
Bennett, E.H., 1977, Reconnaissance geology and geochem-
istry of the Blackbird Mountain-Panther Creek region, Hughes, G.H., 1983, Basinal setting of the Idaho cobalt belt,
Lemhi County, Idaho: Idaho Bureau of Mines and Geology Blackbird mining district, Lemhi County, Idaho, in Ranta,
Pamphlet 167, 108 p. D.E., Kamilli, R.J., and Pansze, A.G., eds., The genesis of
Rocky Mountain ore depositsChanges with time and tec-
Bonin, Bernard, 2007, A-type granites and related rocks tonics: Denver Region Exploration Geologists Symposium,
Evolution of a concept, problems and prospects: Lithos, November 45, 1982, Proceedings, p. 2127.
v. 97, p. 129.
Krcmarov, R.L., and Stewart, J.I., 1998, Geology and miner-
Bookstrom, A.A., Johnson, C.A., Landis, G.P., and Frost, T.P., alisation of the Greenmount Cu-Au-Co deposit, southeast-
2007, Blackbird Fe-Cu-Co-Au-REE deposits, in ONeill, ern Marimo basin, Queensland: Australian Journal of Earth
J.M., ed., Metallogeny of Mesoproterozoic sedimentary Sciences, v. 45, p. 463482.
rocks in Idaho and MontanaStudies by the Mineral
Resources Program, U.S. Geological Survey, 20042007: Landis, G.P., and Hofstra, A.H., 2012, Ore genesis constraints
U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 20071280 on the Idaho cobalt belt from fluid inclusion gas, noble gas
B, p. 1320. (Also available at http://pubs.usgs.gov/ isotope, and ion ratio analyses: Economic Geology, v. 107,
of/2007/1280/.) p. 11891205.
Criss, R.E., and Fleck, R.F., 1987, Petrogenesis, geochronol- Lewis, R.S., and Frost, T.P., 2005, Major oxide and trace ele-
ogy, and hydrothermal systems of the northern Idaho batho- ment analyses for igneous and metamorphic rock samples
lith and adjacent areas based on 18O/16O, 87Sr/86Sr, K-Ar, from northern and central Idaho: Idaho Geological Survey
and 40Ar/39Ar studies, in Vallier, T.L., and Brooks, H.C., Digital Analytical Data File DAD2. (Available at http://
eds., Geology of the Blue Mountains region of Oregon, www.idahogeology.org/.)
Idaho, and WashingtonThe Idaho batholith and its border
Maniar, P.D., and Piccoli, P.M., 1989, Tectonic discrimination
zone: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1436, p.
of granitoids: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v.
95138.
101, p. 635643.
Doughty, P.T., and Chamberlain, K.R., 1996, Salmon River
Modreski, P.J., 1985, Stratabound cobalt-copper deposits in
arch revisitedNew evidence for 1370 Ma rifting near
the Middle Proterozoic Yellowjacket Formation in and
the end of deposition of the Middle Proterozoic Belt basin:
near the Challis quadrangle, in McIntyre, D.H., ed.,
Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 33, p. 10371052.
Symposium on the geology and mineral deposits of the
Eiseman, H.H., 1988, Ore geology of the Sunshine cobalt Challis 1 x 2 quadrangle, Idaho: U.S. Geological Survey
deposit, Blackbird mining district, Idaho: Golden, Colorado Bulletin 1658R, p. 203221.
Nakamura, Noboru, 1974, Determination of REE, Ba, Fe, Mg,
Evans, K.V., and Zartman, R.E., 1990, U-Th-Pb and Rb-Sr Na, and K in carbonaceous and ordinary chondrites: Geo-
geochronology of Middle Proterozoic granite and augen chimica et Cosmochimica Acta, v. 38, p. 757775.
gneiss, Salmon River Mountains, east-central Idaho: Geo-
logical Society of America Bulletin, v. 102, p. 6373.
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mentary cobaltiferous-pyrite deposits, Iron Creek, Lemhi
County, Idaho: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1882, 33 p.
Nold, J.L., 1990, The Idaho cobalt belt, northwestern United
StatesA metamorphosed Proterozoic exhalative ore dis-
trict: Mineralium Deposita, v. 25, p. 163168.
Pearce, J.A., Harris, N.B.W., and Tindle, A.G., 1984, Trace
element diagrams for the tectonic interpretation of granitic
rocks: Journal of Petrology, v. 25, p. 956983.
its of the Idaho cobalt belt, USAMultistage hydrothermal
Spence, J.G., 1984, Geology of the Mineral Hill interlayered
amphibolite-augen gneiss complex, Lemhi County, Idaho:
Moscow, Idaho, University of Idaho, M.S. thesis, 170 p.
Sun, S-S., and McDonough, W.F., 1989, Chemical and isoto-
pic systematics of oceanic basaltsImplications for mantle
composition and processes, in Saunders, A.D., and Norry,
M.J., eds., Magmatism in the ocean basins: Geological
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Taylor, S.R., and McLennan, S.M., 1985, The continental
crustIts composition and evolution: Oxford, Blackwell,
312 p.
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district, Lemhi County, Idaho: U.S. Geological Survey
26 p.
13. Petrology of Associated Sedimentary
Rocks
By Karen Lund
13 of 18


U.S. Government.
Suggested citation:
Lund, Karen, 2013, Petrology of associated sedimentary rocks, chap. G13, of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and geoenvi-
ronmental model for cobalt-copper-gold deposits in metasedimentary rocks: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investi-
gations Report 20105070G, p. 123131, http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20105070g.

125
Contents
Importance of Sedimentary Rocks to Deposit Genesis........................................................................127
Rock Names/Mineralogy/Texture/Grain Size.........................................................................................127
Environment of Deposition........................................................................................................................129
Table
131. Setting and character of sedimentary rocks associated with Co-Cu-Au
assemblage deposits................................................................................................................128
13. Petrology of Associated
Sedimentary Rocks
By Karen Lund
Importance of Sedimentary Rocks to Deposit interpreted to have originally formed during sedimentation
Genesis and subsequently were remobilized into deposits during later
orogeny (Pan and Sun, 2003; Feng and others, 2009; Yang and
others, 2001). Subvolcanic sedimentary rocks are present and
Most of the Co-Cu-Au deposits formed in rocks that orig- mineralized at NICO (Mumin and others, 2007). The deposit
inated as part of thick, siliciclastic sedimentary successions at Gladhammar formed along a transcurrent fault where it cuts
(table 131). These deposits formed post-sedimentation but, quartzitic metasedimentary rocks (Sundblad, 2003).
during mineralization that was coeval with metamorphism. In
many cases, metals, brine components, or sulfur required for
the ore-forming fluids and deposits may have originated from Rock Names/Mineralogy/Texture/Grain Size
the host sedimentary rocks. Several of the deposits are inferred
to have formed by metamorphic conversion or upgrading of Intracontinental basin rocks of the Blackbird district
sedimentary-exhalative (SEDEX) metals accumulation within include (1) arkosic siltstone and fine-grained arkosic sandstone
the sedimentary succession. Some deposits are located within from the middle part of the Lemhi Group, and (2) rocks of
structures or in caldera complexes where igneous rocks are similar original composition, but metamorphosed and structur-
also mineralized, and where the role of sedimentary rocks in ally transposed such that stratigraphic correlations are undeter-
deposit genesis is less clear. mined. A major thrust plate, exposed on the western side of the
In the Blackbird district, several previous studies and district (fig. 42), is composed of interlayered arkosic shale
mineral deposit models described bedded, syngenetic mineral- and fine-grained arkosic sandstone, but it also contains zones
ized zones (Earhart, 1986; Nash and Hahn, 1989; Hy, 1995; that originated as evaporite beds (Tysdal and Desborough,
Evans and others, 1995; Bookstrom and others, 2007; Lydon, 1997). Prior to erosion, this plate overlay the district and its
2007). However, bedded ore was not confirmed by recent ore-hosting rocks (Lund and Tysdal, 2007).
detailed regional and district studies (Tysdal, 2000a, b; Evans At the Mt. Cobalt deposit, intracontinental basin host
and Green, 2003; Lund and others, 2011). Syngenetic proto- rocks consist of interlayered siliciclastic rocks, some sulfide-
ore also is unrecognized in the Modum district (Grorud, 1997). bearing, and lesser mafic volcanic rocks. Minor carbonate and
Nevertheless, isotopic data from both of these districts suggest evaporite rocks are also part of the succession (Matthai and
that metals and (or) sulfur originated mainly from the silici- others, 2004; Giles and others, 2006). In the Modum district,
clastic country rocks (Johnson, 2013). Stratiform disseminated country rocks originated as graywacke and intercalated arkosic
pyrite is recognized within the stratigraphic package that hosts sandstone, black shale, and minor carbonate (Grorud, 1997).
the Mt. Cobalt deposit; both sedimentary rocks and amphibo- The Cobalt Hill deposit is hosted by conglomerate, quartz
lite are considered to be metal sources (Croxford, 1974; Nisbet arenite, and arkosic quartzite, with minor carbonate and silty
and others, 1983; Matthai and others, 2004), but isotopic data carbonate units (Schandl, 2004; Schandl and Gorton, 2007).
are inconclusive as to the source of sulfur (Johnson, 2013). Gladhammar host strata are quartzite and siliciclastic rocks
Metacarbonate or scapolite-bearing rocks, which origi- (Sderhielm and Sundblad, 1996; Sundblad, 2003). Prior to
nated as evaporite layers, are locally present in stratigraphic metamorphism, the Kuusamo district host rocks were volcani-
units in the Blackbird district (Tysdal and Desborough, 1997; clastic sandstone, graywacke, and shale interlayered
Johnson and others, 2012), and at Mt. Cobalt (Krcmarov and with andesitic, basaltic, and komatiitic volcanic rocks;
Stewart, 1998) and Cobalt Hill (Schandl and Gorton, 2007). minor metaevaporite rocks are present locally (Pankka and
These strata are significant as they likely contributed brine Vanhanen, 1992; Vanhanen, 2001; Eilu and others, 2003,
components that mobilized metals during mineralization. The 2007). At Sirkka, the host rocks comprise minor fine-grained,
origin of carbonate-bearing rocks in the Modum district is volcanogenic siltstone and black shale underlying a mafic
undetermined (Grorud, 1997). Calc-silicate rocks and garnet- volcanic succession (Eilu and others, 2003; Hanski and
iferous quartzite structurally juxtaposed adjacent to the host Huhma, 2005). Kendekeke and Tuolugou host rocks include
rocks at the Werner Lake deposit are interpreted as meta- quartz-albitite of evaporite origin within a metamorphosed
exhalites (Pan and Therens, 2000). volcano-sedimentary package composed of black shale,
At Kendekeke and Dahenglu, primary metal accumu- sandstone, dacitic tuff, and volcaniclastic sandstone (He and
lations (SEDEX-type) in the sedimentary successions are others, 2010). In the Contact Lake belt and at NICO, host
Table 131. Setting and character of sedimentary rocks associated with Co-Cu Au assemblage deposits.
Importance of sedimentary rocks to Rock names/mineralogy/texture/
Deposit/district name Environment of deposition
deposit genesis grain size
Blackbird district (Lund and Tysdal,2007; Lund Host rock originally sedimentary.Unit contain- Finely laminated arkosic siltstone and sandstone. Very Intracontinental extensional basin, 9-km thick
and others, 2010b, 2011) ing evaporite structurally juxtaposed during fine to fine grained sedimentary package. Turbidite (density) flow
Cretaceous compression, possibly contributed succeeded by marine and fluvial sandstone.
to brine formation Structurally juxtaposed shallow-water succession
contained evaporite layers
Mt. Cobalt (Croxford, 1974; Nisbet and Host rock interlayered siliciclastic and mafic Interlayered siliciclastic, some sulfide-bearing, and Intracontinental extensional basin. Filled during
others, 1983; Giles and others, 2006) volcanic rocks. Sedimentary and igneous rock mafic volcanic rocks. Minor carbonate and evapo- two cycles of extension. Turbidite in deepening
sources for brines, metals rite rocks phase
Modum (Grorud, 1997; Andersen and Grorud, Host rock originally sedimentary and volcanic. Alternating shale, shaley sandstone, thick sandstone, Continental platform sedimentary rocks
1998; Sundblad, 2003; Bingen and others, Ore Pb derived from sedimentary succession minor calcareous horizons in anoxic environment
2005; Andersen and others, 2007)
Cobalt Hill (Schandl, 2004; Marshall and Preferential host site is unconformity between Conglomerate, quartz arenite, and arkosic quartzite Rift-origin, trailing (passive) margin sedimentary
Watkinson, 2001; Schandl and Gorton, sedimentary rocks and underlying Archean with minor silty carbonate and carbonate units basin, 12-km thick sedimentary package
2007) basement. Sedimentary rock origin for ore
brines and metals
Gladhammar (Sderhielm and Sundblad, 1996; Ore hosted along shear zone cutting sedimentary Quartzite and siliciclastic rocks Continental-margin fluvial and deltaic depositional
Sundblad, 2003; Beunk and Page, 2001; country rocks environment
Billstrm and others, 2004)
Kuusamo schist belt (Juomasuo, Kouvervaara, Different host rocks, some originally sedimentary. Volcaniclastic and siliciclastic rocks interlayered Supracrustal volcaniclastic/siliciclastic and interlay-
Meurastuksenaho, Hangaslampi, Lemmon- Preferential ore locations at contacts with with subequal andesitic-basaltic volcanic rocks, ered volcanic rocks in failed rift basin, 2.5-km
lampi, Kuumaso) (Pankka and Vanhanen, mafic igneous rocks. Sedimentary rock source minor evaporitic rocks thick succession. Subaerial to shallow-water
1992; Vanhanen, 2001; Eilu and others, 2003, for halite, chlorine, pyrrhotite with minor evaporite layers
2007; Rsnen and Vaasjoki, 2001)
Sirkka (Eilu and others, 2003; Hanski and Host rocks interlayered volcaniclastic and mafic Minor volcanogenic siltstone and black shale in mafic Gradually deepening, narrow oceanic rift basin
Huhma, 2005) tuffaceous rocks. Sulfide bearing volcanic succession. Fine-grained
Dahenglu (Yang and others, 2001; Feng and Host rocks include volcanic, siliciclastic, and car- Phyllitic quartzite, bi-modal volcanic, phyllite, Intracontinental rift basin
Zhang, 2004; Zhao and others, 2005; Lu bonate rocks. Metal accumulation interpreted minor carbonate
and others, 2006) to be syngenetic-exhalative
Kendekeke (Pan and Sun, 2003; Pan and oth- Volcaniclastic sandstone and underlying mafic Quartz-albitite of possible evaporite origin within Back-arc basin sedimentary rocks overlying island
ers, 2005; Feng and others, 2009; He and volcanic rocks host to inferred syngenetic ore metamorphosed volcano-sedimentary package of arc volcanic rocks
others, 2010) black shale, sandstone, metadacite and tuff, and
volcaniclastic sandstone
Werner Lake (Pan and Therens, 2000) Sedimentary rocks (some interpreted as exhalites) Quartzo-feldspathic, pelitic rocks and minor exha- Fore-arc or back-arc basin.
structurally juxtaposed against ore-hosting lite(?) structurally juxtaposed against host rocks
mafic-ultramafic rocks. Possible source of met-
als and brine components
Andean volcano-plutonic setting
Contact Lake belt (Mumin and others, 2007) Host rocks include supracrustal volcano- Subvolcanic sandstone, siltstone, minor carbonate Caldera-fill sedimentary rocks in Andean arc setting
Camsell River district (Badham, 1975) sedimentary rocks rocks. Thin bedded
NICO (Goad and others, 2000a, b; Mumin and Ore hosted in contact metamorphosed Graywacke section, including arenite (subarkosic Caldera-fill sedimentary rocks in Andean arc setting
others, 2007) subvolcanic sedimentary rocks wacke), dolostone, siltstone, shale. Overlain by
rhyolite ignimbrite
References Cited129
rocks include graywacke, arenite, dolostone, siltstone, and ignimbrite (Badham, 1975; Goad and others, 2000a; Mumin
shale, all of which are overlain by rhyolite ignimbrite and and others, 2007).
constitute part of a caldera-fill succession (Badham, 1975;
Goad and others, 2000a; Mumin and others, 2007).
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The intracontinental-basin sedimentary rocks hosting lead isotope systematics of uranium-enriched cobalt miner-
Blackbird, Mt. Cobalt, Cobalt Hill, and Modum formed in alization in the Modum complex, south NorwayImplica-
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evaporitic sediments formed. The extensional basins, rocks of granitic magmatism in Telemark, southern NorwayNew
which later hosted the Blackbird and Modum districts, were results from laser-ablation ICPMS U-Pb dating of zircon:
mostly amagmatic, containing little or no interlayered volca- Norges Geologiske Underskelse Bulletin 447, p. 1731.
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Billstrm, K., Broman, C., and Sderhielm, J., 2004, The
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gold mineralization at the Cobalt Hill prospect northeast of
15411562.
14. Petrology of Associated Metamorphic
Rocks
By Karen Lund
14 of 18


U.S. Government.
Suggested citation:
Lund, Karen, 2013, Petrology of associated metamorphic rocks, chap. G14, of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and geoen-
vironmental model for cobalt-copper-gold deposits in metasedimentary rocks: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Inves-
tigations Report 20105070G, p. 133142, http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20105070g.

135
Contents
Importance of Metamorphic Rocks to Deposit Genesis......................................................................137
Rock Names/Mineralogy and Assemblages/Grain Size......................................................................137
Mineral Facies.............................................................................................................................................139
Deformation and Textures.........................................................................................................................139
Table
141. Petrology of associated metamorphic rocks........................................................................138
14. Petrology of Associated
Metamorphic Rocks
By Karen Lund
Importance of Metamorphic Rocks to Deposit deposit, a similar SEDEX origin has been invoked for the
metals, followed by remobilization from evaporitic sedimen-
Genesis tary rocks during metamorphism, resulting in the formation of
Most of the Cu-Co-Au deposits (table 11) are in veins and pods of ore within meta-mafic intrusive rocks that
regionally metamorphosed rocks in which the relative timing were juxtaposed by faults against the metasedimentary rocks
of mineralization ranges from pre-metamorphic, through (fig. 55; Pan and Therens, 2000).
syn-metamorphic, to post-metamorphic (table 141). Another Deposits in the Contact Lake belt and at NICO formed
small group of deposits is in contact metamorphosed rocks. during magmatic events. The ore zones are within contact
In the Blackbird district, host rocks range in metamorphic metamorphic zones in subvolcanic sedimentary rocks and in
grade from middle greenschist to lower amphibolite facies altered felsic igneous rocks (fig. 54; Goad and others, 2000a;
according to their structural setting in different thrust-fault Mumin and others, 2007).
domains. Cobalt- and Cu-bearing veins and related breccia
zones lie within and along Late Cretaceous penetrative struc- Rock Names/Mineralogy and Assemblages/
tures. Mineralized zones are discordant to bedding in rocks at
low metamorphic grade, but the zones are progressively more Grain Size
parallel to metamorphic compositional layering in the higher
At Blackbird, the metamorphic mineralogy across the
metamorphic grade rocks. In addition to geochronologic data
district is similar to that of the unmetamorphosed rocks in
(Lund and others, 2011; Aleinikoff and others, 2012), these
that both are dominated by quartz and feldspar. Throughout
fabrics were used to interpret a syn-metamorphic timing for
the district, quartz is recrystallized, feldspar is intergrown
mineralization (Lund and others, 2011). Highest recoverable
with other minerals, metamorphic biotite is ubiquitous but
Au grades (Bending and Scales, 2001) are in rocks that were
at the highest metamorphic temperatures during late-stage exhibits different grain size depending on metamorphic grade,
mineralization (Lund and others, 2011). and minor amounts of muscovite and tourmaline are present
At the Mt. Cobalt deposit, syn-metamorphic ore is hosted locally. The structurally controlled, contrasting grades of
within high strain zones in amphibolite-facies regional metamorphic rocks in different parts of the district resulted in
metamorphic rocks (Croxford, 1974; Nisbet and others, differing amounts of coarsening and differentiation of miner-
1983; Krcmarov and Stewart, 1998; Giles and others, 2006). als. Depending on structural domain, the rocks range from
In the Modum district, despite evidence of earlier uraninite fine-grained phyllite to medium- and coarse-grained schist
formation in the deposit, Co-Cu-Au ore minerals formed and gneiss (Lund and Tysdal, 2007). Biotite-rich layers in the
during Sveconorwegian collision, preferentially along syn- metamorphic rocks originated as (1) interlaminated siltstone,
metamorphic, penetrative shear zones in granulite-facies (2) gangue in veins and in Fe-metasomatized sedimentary
rocks (Grorud, 1997; Bingen and others, 2005). Those events rocks, and (3) pre-metamorphic mafic dikes. Within rocks
may have caused remobilization of an earlier mineralization at higher metamorphic grade, biotite-rich zones that formed
(Andersen and Grorud, 1998). as gangue and in alteration zones, containing more than 75
In the Kuusamo district, volcaniclastic and volcanic volume percent biotite termed biotitite, also contain coarse
rocks were hydrothermally altered by mafic dolerite dikes that porphyroblasts of garnet and (or) chloritoid. Scapolite is an
intruded the layered rocks (fig. 43; Pankka and Vanhanen, important metamorphic mineral in meta-evaporite zones in the
1992; Eilu and others, 2003, 2007). Subsequent regional meta- unit that was thrust over the host rocks and also is common
morphism and structural intercalation of the rocks formed ore along high-angle faults in the non-evaporite-bearing rocks of
deposits within both lithologies in and near the early dike the district (Lund and others, 2011).
contact zones (Pankka and Vanhanen, 1992; Eilu and others, In the Modum district, host rocks are fine- to medium-
2007). grained, quartzo-feldspathic schist, quartzite, sulfidiic schist,
In the Dahenglu and Kendekeke deposits, inferred graphitic schist, and marble. Metagabbro and amphibolite,
syngenetic metal occurrences were upgraded during metamor- which are intercalated with the metasedimentary rocks, origi-
phic events that remobilized metals and localized ore in axial nated as dikes (Grorud, 1997). At Mt. Cobalt, host rocks are
planar and intrafolial vein systems (Pan and Sun, 2003; Pan graphitic quartz-mica schist containing garnet and staurolite
and others, 2005; Feng and others, 2009). At the Werner Lake porphyroblasts (Croxford, 1974; Nisbet and others, 1983).
Table 141. Petrology of associated metamorphic rocks.
Importance of metamorphic
Deposit/district name Rock names Mineral facies Deformation and textures
rocks to deposit genesis
Blackbird district (Lund and Tysdal, Ore hosted in regional metamorphic Country rock: biotite-feldspar-quartz Middle greenschist to middle am- Metamorphism occurred during Late
2007; Lund and others, 2011) fabrics and related minor struc- phyllite to schist and biotite- phibolite. Cretaceous compression, forming
tures. Late-stage Au enrichment feldspar-quartz gneiss. Gangue: Alteration assemblage about same pervasive foliation, polyphase fold-
in highest metamorphic grade tourmaline-biotite and tourmaline- facies as country rock. Retrograde ing, and shear zones
settings chloritoid-garnet-biotite white mica, chlorite with younger
ore stages
Mt. Cobalt (Croxford, 1974; Nisbet and Syn-metamorphic ore hosted in Quartz, mica, graphitic schist w/ Amphibolite. Syn-metamorphic, polyphase fold-
others, 1983; Matthai and others, regional metamorphosed and garnet, staurolite porphyroblasts, Alteration assemblage (Cl-rich ing, pressure-solution and slaty
2004; Giles and others, 2006) deformed rocks albitite layers. Amphibolite. biotite-scapolite) same grade as cleavage in fold hinges. High strain
country rock, retrograde tourma- zones are mineralized. Later high-
line angle faults
Modum (Grorud, 1997; Andersen and Pre-metamorphic ore remobilized by Quartzo-feldspathic schist, quartzite, Granulite 1.1 Ga granulite-facies metamorphism
Grorud, 1998; Sundblad, 2003; 1.1 Ga metamorphism sulfididic schist, graphitic schist, overprinted greenschist metamor-
Bingen and others, 2005; Andersen marble. Metagabbro, amphibolite phism. Ore along penetrative
and others, 2007) deformation and axial planar zones
Cobalt Hill (Marshall and Watkinson, Ore may be related to rift-origin Quartzite, arkosic quartzite Lower greenschist
2001; Schandl 2004; mafic intrusive rocks or may be
Schandl and Gorton, 2007) related to late syn-metamorphic
regional fluids
Gladhammar (Sderhielm and Sundblad, Prograde metamorphism is pre-ore. Quartzite Amphibolite grade country rocks. Ore along transpressional shear zones
1996; Sundblad, 2003; Beunk and Ore related to local retrograde Ore in retrograde shear zones related to local retrograde meta-
Page, 2001; Billstrm and others, metamorphism along morphism
2004) Loftahammar-Linkping shear zone
Kuusamo belt (Juomasuo, Kouvervaara, Mineralization syn- to late-peak Albite-quartz rock (sericitic quartz- Upper greenschist to lower Quartz veins in and across penetra-
Meurastuksenaho, Hangaslampi, metamorphism ite), albite-amphibole rock (mafic amphibolite tive fabrics related to second-order
Lemmonlampi, Kuumaso) (Pankka lava), sericite-chlorite rock (mafic compressional structures near
and Vanhanen, 1992; Vanhanen, 2001; lava), chlorite-talc rock (komatiite) major regional structures
Eilu and others, 2003, 2007; Rsnen
and Vaasjoki, 2001)
Sirkka (Eilu and others, 2003) Ore formed syn- to late-peak meta- Mafic metavolcanic, metatuffite, Middle to upper greenschist Ore is structurally controlled and in-
morphic (meta) komatiite, graphitic phyl- trafolial within or near transcrustal
lite, sulfide-facies iron formation shear zone
Dahenglu (Yang and others, 2001; Zhao Inferred syngenetic ore upgraded dur- Phyllite, quartzite Greenschist Pervasive deformation fabrics
and others, 2005; Lu and others, 2006) ing metamorphic remobilization
Kendekeke (Pan and Sun, 2003; Pan and Stratabound deposits enriched during Spilite-keratophyre and Greenschist Syngenetic ore remobilized to form
others, 2005; Feng and others, 2009; metamorphism. Metamorphic meta-volcaniclastic sandstone disseminated and vein mineraliza-
He and others, 2010) overprint formed veins deposits tion in penetrative fabrics related to
and late Au enrichment ductile folding
14. Petrology of Associated Metamorphic Rocks 139
Amphibolite, originally mafic volcanic rock, is present as a to greenschist-amphibolite facies at Dahenglu (Pan and Sun,
minor component. The Gladhammar and Cobalt Hill deposits 2003; Pan and others, 2005; Feng and others, 2009).
are hosted by quartzite and meta-arkosic quartzite that contain At NICO and Contact Lake, caldera-related subvolcanic
relatively simple mineral assemblages (Sderhielm and graywacke underwent upper greenschist and lower amphibo-
Sundblad, 1996; Schandl and Gorton, 2007). lite facies contact metamorphism imposed by crosscutting
In the Kuusamo district, the ore hosting sericitic quartzite igneous rocks, and later was altered and mineralized as part of
is altered to albite-quartz rock, mafic flows to albite-amphibole the caldera-building process (Goad and others, 2000a; Mumin
or sericite-chlorite rock, and komatiite to chlorite-talc rock and others, 2007).
(Pankka and Vanhanen, 1992; Vanhanen, 2001; Eilu and others,
2003, 2007). At Sirkka, rocks are phyllitic with granoblastic
textures. Metasedimentary rocks consist of albite-quartz- Deformation and Textures
sericite-chlorite-biotite phyllite, whereas the metamorphosed
Textural and deformational features in mineralized rocks
mafic and ultramafic volcanic rocks are talc-chlorite phyllite,
of the Co-Cu-Au deposits include both pervasive oriented
albite-calc-silicate phyllite, and quartz-albite-chlorite phyllite
fabrics in regional metamorphic settings and hornfels in less
(Eilu and others, 2003). At the Werner Lake deposit, the host
common contact metamorphic settings.
rocks consist of amphibolite, meta-ultramafic rock, and garnet-
Sedimentary characteristics of most host rocks in the
biotite schist (mafic metavolcanic rock) that were structurally
Blackbird district were obscured to different degrees by
juxtaposed adjacent to calc-silicate gneiss and garnet quartzite
subsequent metamorphism and deformation. Across the differ-
(inferred meta-exhalite) (fig. 55; Pan and Therens, 2000).
ent structural domains in the district (fig. 42), metamorphic
In the NICO deposit, subvolcanic sedimentary rocks,
fabrics change from (1) fold cleavage in middle greenschist
which host some of the ore zones, were contact metamor-
facies rocks; to (2) transposed layering, axial planar foliation,
phosed to biotite-amphibole-magnetite hornfels, biotite-altered
and shear zones in upper greenschist facies rocks; and to
subarkosic hornfels, and calc-silicate hornfels by (potassium
(3) metamorphic compositional layering, intrafolial foliation,
feldspar-altered) felsic dikes (Goad and others, 2000a; Mumin
and shear zones in lower amphibolite facies rocks (Lund and
and others, 2007).
Tysdal, 2007; Lund and others, 2011). The Co- and Cu-bearing
veins and breccia zones are discordant to bedding and lie
Mineral Facies along fold cleavage in the low metamorphic grade rocks, but
ore zones are progressively more parallel to compositional
The Cu-Co-Au deposits occur in both regional and contact layering in the transposed rocks at higher metamorphic grade.
metamorphic rocks (table 141). Host rocks to the Blackbird The degree to which gangue minerals in Co ore zones are
district range in metamorphic grade from middle greenschist foliated decreases for younger veins in all structural domains,
to lower amphibolite facies in different thrust-plate domains indicating a syn- to late-metamorphic and syn- to late-ductile
(Lund and Tysdal, 2007). Mt. Cobalt host rocks were meta- deformation age of introduction for these ore zones (Lund
morphosed to amphibolite facies (Croxford, 1974; Nisbet and others, 2011). Late-metamorphic, Cu-bearing zones are
and others, 1983; Matthai and others, 2004; Giles and others, characterized by unoriented metamorphic gangue minerals
2006); those of the Cobalt Hill deposit were metamorphosed to intergrown with sulfide minerals (Lund and others, 2011). Gar-
lower greenschist facies (Schandl and Gorton, 2007; Marshall net porphyroblasts that overprint early ore zones in the highest
and Watkinson, 2001). Ore deposits in the Modum district metamorphic grade domain, monazite and xenotime within
formed when host rocks, and possibly early metal accumula- foliated biotite of early ore veins in the highest and intermedi-
tions, were metamorphosed to granulite facies (Grorud, 1997; ate metamorphic grade domains, and unoriented muscovite
Andersen and Grorud, 1998). In the Kuusamo district and at surrounding late-stage veins are all dated as Late Cretaceous
the Sirkka deposit, the interlayered sedimentary and volcanic (Zirakparvar and others, 2007; Lund and others, 2011;
rocks were in-folded into the Central Lapland greenstone belt Aleinikoff and others, 2012). The alternative model
and later were contact metamorphosed during emplacement of of Slack (2012) involves epigenetic Mesoproterozoic
mafic dikes. Subsequently, country rocks and dikes were over- Co-Cu-Bi-Au-REE mineralization that was significantly
printed by greenschist- to amphibolite-facies metamorphism remobilized into Cretaceous structures.
contemporaneous with mineralization (Pankka and Vanhanen, In the Modum district, host rocks were structurally
1992; Vanhanen, 2001; Eilu and others, 2003, 2007). Host interleaved during continental collision (Sveconorwegian)
rocks at Werner Lake were metamorphosed to granulite facies events and granulite facies metamorphism (Bingen and others,
and overprinted by retrograde greenschist metamorphism; 2005). Ore is located along foliation, axial planar fabrics, and
both metamorphic events were coeval with mineralization penetrative shear zones (Grorud, 1997; Andersen and Grorud,
(Pan and Therens, 2000). Scant available information about 1998). Crosscutting, fabric-discordant veins are related to
mineral assemblages at the Chinese deposits suggests that younger continental rifting (Grorud, 1997). At the Mt. Cobalt
host rocks and inferred syngenetic metal endowments were deposit, vein and disseminated orebodies formed in shear
metamorphosed to lower greenschist facies at Kendekeke and zones, fault hinges, and penetrative fabrics. These high-strain,
compressional structures developed during regional metamor- Beunk, F.F., and Page, L.M., 2001, Structural evolution of
phism due to collision-related basin inversion (Matthai and the accretional continental margin of the Paleoproterozoic
others, 2004). Svecofennian orogen in southern Sweden: Tectonophysics,
In the Kuusamo schist belt, Paleoproterozoic compres- v. 339, p. 6792.
sional collision events closed the original Paleoproterozoic
rift basin, causing medium-grade metamorphism, isoclinal Billstrm, K., Broman, C., and Sderhielm, J., 2004, The
folding, and shearing of interlayered volcaniclastic, siliciclas- Solstad Cu oreAn Fe oxide-Cu-Au type deposit in SE
Sweden [abs.]: GFF [Geologiska Freningens i Stockholm
tic, and mafic volcanic rocks together with mafic dikes
Frhandlingar], v. 126, p. 147148.
that had intruded the layered succession (Pankka and
Vanhanen, 1992; Eilu and others, 2003, 2007). The ore is late Bingen, Bernard, Skr, yvind, Marker, Mogens, Sigmond,
metamorphic in timing, localized in fold hinges and shear E.M.O., Nordgulen, ystein, Ragnhildstveit, Jomar, Mans-
zones (Pankka and Vanhanen, 1992; Eilu and others, 2003, feld, Joakim, Tucker, R.D., and Ligeois, J.P., 2005, Timing
2007; Sundblad, 2003). At the Kendekeke and Dahenglu of continental building in the Sveconorwegian orogen,
deposits, inferred syngenetic metal concentrations in the SW Scandinavia: Norwegian Journal of Geology, v. 85, p.
sedimentary rocks were remobilized into disseminated and 87116.
vein ore zones within penetrative fabrics that formed during
ductile folding (Pan and Sun, 2003; Pan and others, 2005; Croxford, N.J.W., 1974, Cobalt mineralization at Mount Isa,
Feng and others, 2009). Queensland, Australia, with references to Mount Cobalt:
At the NICO deposit, sulfide minerals are intergrown Mineralium Deposita, v. 9, p. 105115.
with undeformed hornfels minerals within contact metamor- Eilu, Pasi, Hallberg, A., Bergman, T., Feoktistov, V., Korsa-
phic haloes that developed in sedimentary rocks adjacent to kova, M., Krasotkin, S., Lampio, E., Litvinenko, V., Nurmi,
felsic dikes, which also contain ore zones (fig. 54; Goad and P.A., Often, M., Philippov, N., Sandstad, J.S., Stromov, V.,
others, 2000a; Mumin and others, 2007). and Tontti, M., 2007, Fennoscandian ore deposit database
and metallogenic map: Geological Survey of Finland, avail-
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Cretaceous garnet growth in the Idaho cobalt beltEvi-
dence from Lu-Hf geochronology [abs.]: Geological Society
of America Abstracts with Programs, v. 39, no. 6, p. 413.
By John F. Slack
15 of 18


U.S. Government.
Suggested citation:
Slack, J.F., 2013, Theory of deposit formation, chap. G15, of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and geoenvironmental model
20105070G, P. 143157, http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20105070g.

145
Contents
Evidence for Epigenetic Mineralization..................................................................................................147
Ore Deposit System Affiliations................................................................................................................148
Evaluation of SEDEX and VMS Affiliations....................................................................................148
Evaluation of Sediment-Hosted Stratiform Copper Affiliations..................................................149
Evaluation of Five-Element Vein Affiliations..................................................................................149
Evaluation of Orogenic Gold Affiliations........................................................................................149
Evaluation of IOCG Affiliations.........................................................................................................149
Sources of Metals and Other Ore Components.....................................................................................150
Sources of Fluids and Ligands Involved in Ore Component Transport..............................................151
Chemical Transport and Transfer Processes.........................................................................................151
Fluid Drive, Including Thermal, Pressure, and Geodynamic Mechanisms.......................................151
Character of Conduits/Pathways that Focus Ore-Forming Fluids......................................................152
Nature of Traps and Wallrock Interaction that Trigger Ore Precipitation.........................................152
Structure and Composition of Residual Outflow Zones.......................................................................152
By John F. Slack
Evidence for Epigenetic Mineralization Age of Mineralization

Abundant evidence of epigenetic mineral deposition Absolute ages of mineralization in the deposits are in
exists for most of the Co-Cu-Au deposits considered in this most cases unknown. Broad constraints are recorded by the
report. Characteristic are sulfide-rich lenses, veins, or typically post-sedimentation and the pre- to syn-metamorphic
nature of the ore zones, but with few exceptions the ages of
breccias that are variably discordant to bedding or layering
sedimentation and metamorphism are not firmly established.
in metasedimentary host rocks such as those in the Black-
Only deposits in the Blackbird and Modum districts, and
bird district in Idaho and the Kuusamo schist belt in Finland some in the Kuusamo schist belt, have been directly dated
(Lund, 2013a; Slack, 2013a). These discordant ore zones are by geochronology. At Blackbird, SHRIMP U-Pb geochronol-
typically localized by faults, shear zones, and fold axes, and ogy of the cores of xenotime grains intergrown with cobaltite
hence formed after sedimentation and diagenesis. Most of the yields a Pb-Pb age of 1370 4 Ma, which is within analytical
Co-Cu-Au deposits (table 11) are deformed and metamor- uncertainty of the SHRIMP U-Pb zircon age of 1377 4 Ma
phosed, as reflected by pervasive recrystallization of cobaltite obtained for a nearby megacrystic granite (Aleinikoff and
and other ore and gangue minerals in the Blackbird district, others, 2012). Slack (2012) used textural and geochemical data
the Modum district in Norway, the Werner Lake deposit for the Blackbird district, including widespread intergrowths
in Ontario, and Mt. Cobalt in Australia (Slack, 2013a, and of cobaltite with xenotime, to propose that this metal suite was
introduced together with Y and REE in the xenotime, and
references therein). In several deposits, such as those in the
with associated Bi (residing mainly in native bismuth and
Blackbird district (Slack, 2012), remobilized sulfides occur in
bismuthinite) and Be (in gadolinite), from predominantly
piercement cusps and in durchbewegung structures in which magmatic-hydrothermal fluids generated during emplacement
sulfide-rich rock is brecciated and locally rotated within a of the nearby granite; some components also were derived
single layer or lens (see Marshall and Gilligan, 1989; Marshall from the metasedimentary host rocks based on isotope data
and others, 2000). Also in the Blackbird district, cobaltite (Johnson, 2013a). In contrast, Lund and others (2011) pre-
locally is encased in euhedral garnet (Eiseman, 1988; Slack, sented microtextural data and Ar-Ar ages of 83 Ma for white
2012). These metamorphogenic features demonstrate clearly mica in post-ore veinlets as the basis for a model in which
that in some deposits, Co-Cu-Au mineralization predated the the Co-Cu-Au mineralization is Cretaceous and genetically
latest stages of deformation and regional metamorphism. unrelated to the Mesoproterozoic xenotime present in the ore
Several of the Co-Cu-Au deposits have been attributed zones. Additional in-situ geochronological studies will be
needed to resolve these conflicting interpretations.
to SEDEX hydrothermal activity. This non-epigenetic model
In the Modum district, uraninite intergrown with cobaltite
has been applied to the Werner Lake (Pan and Therens, 2000), from the Skuterud deposit has a Pb-Pb age of 1434 29 Ma
Dahenglu (Yang and others, 2001), and Kendekeke (Pan and (Andersen and Grorud, 1998). This age does not correspond
others, 2005) deposits (Lund, 2013a). These authors recog- to any known major intrusive igneous event in the district,
nized the deformed and metamorphosed nature of the ores although it is within analytical uncertainty of the 1472
but interpreted the original mineralization as having occurred 69 Ma Sm-Nd isochron age of alkaline mafic dikes in the
contemporaneously with deposition of the host sedimentary Bamble sector approximately 150 km to the south (Nijland
and (or) volcanic rocks. Principal evidence used to support and others, 2000). No geochronological data are available on
this SEDEX model is the broadly stratabound and locally the granitic and granodioritic gneisses of the district (fig. 52),
stratiform (bedded) nature of the ore zones, but such geometry but lithologically similar felsic orthogneisses in the region
have U-Pb zircon ages of 1.52 to 1.48 Ga (Bingen and others,
can also form by selective replacement of reactive sedimentary
2005). The local metagabbro bodies were emplaced at
rocks, such as limestone, or by filling of bedding-parallel shear
1224 15 Ma based on a Sm-Nd isochron age obtained by
zones or faults. The SEDEX origins attributed by other work- Munz and Morvik (1991). High-grade metamorphism in the
ers to the Werner Lake, Dahenglu, and Kendekeke deposits are Modum complex is constrained by Pb-Pb ages of 1102
thus problematic and require careful evaluation by additional 28 Ma and 1066 10 Ma on zircon rims (Bingen and others,
studies. As a result, the origin of these deposits is considered 2001) and a Pb-Pb age of 1092 1 Ma on monazite (Bingen
uncertain. and others, 2008). The 1434 29 Ma age of uraninite in the
Skuterud deposit was interpreted by Andersen and Grorud greenschist-facies metamorphism of the host metasedimentary
(1998) as recording Co-Cu-Au-U mineralization within an rocks (Sderhielm and Sundblad, 1996; Sundblad, 2003).
orogenic interlude between the local Gothian/Kongsbergian
(~1.5 Ga) and regional Sveconorwegian (1.20.9 Ga) orog-
enies. This interpretation is consistent with the pervasively Ore Deposit System Affiliations
recrystallized nature of the Co-sulfides and other minerals in The diversity of mineralization among the Co-Cu-Au
the deposits (Grorud, 1997), thus implying that the Co-Cu-Au deposits considered in this report (table 11) makes it diffi-
mineralization predates the predominant Sveconorwegian cult to present a unified genetic model. Previous workers, for
metamorphism in the region; it is unclear whether this example, have invoked a wide spectrum of origins including
mineralization took place during or after the older Gothian/ syngenetic or early diagenetic mineralization like that docu-
Kongsbergian metamorphic event. Because scapolite altera- mented in SEDEX and VMS systems (Goodfellow and Lydon,
tion in the district is superimposed on the metagabbro bodies 2007; Galley and others, 2007), diagenetic mineralization as
(Engvik and others, 2011), this alteration postdates the observed in many sediment-hosted stratiform copper systems
mineralization by at least ~210 m.y. and hence must have (Hitzman and others, 2005), post-tectonic mineralization as
formed by unrelated processes. The widespread albite in so-called five-element veins (Kissin, 1992; Marshall and
alteration in the district reportedly formed at 1080 3 Ma Watkinson, 2000); and syn-metamorphic mineralization
based on U-Pb dating of titanite (Munz and others, 1994), but similar to that in orogenic gold and iron oxide-copper-gold
U-Pb isotope systematics of this mineral commonly are reset (IOCG) systems (Goldfarb and others, 2005; Williams and
by metamorphism (for example, Bibikova and others, 2001; others, 2005). In the following discussion, these different
Slack and others, 2008). Hence, this age is questionable and ore-forming systems are evaluated as possible genetic models
as a result the relative timing of Co-Cu-Au mineralization for the Co-Cu-Au deposits.
and albite alteration in the Modum district remains uncertain.
A similarly young Re-Os age of 1112 4 Ma determined on
molybdenite grains within cobaltite from the Skuterud deposit Evaluation of SEDEX and VMS Affiliations
reflects post-ore growth or recrystallization of the molybdenite
The common presence of post-lithification epigenetic
during Sveconorwegian metamorphism (Bingen and features in the Co-Cu-Au deposits, and the absence of docu-
others, 2008). mented exhalative chemical sedimentary rocks (exhalites),
In the Kuusamo schist belt, Mnttri (1995) obtained argue against a predominantly SEDEX model. A VMS model is
a U-Pb age of 1829 5 Ma on inclusions of brannerite rejected on similar grounds, and because metavolcanic rocks
[(U,Ca,Ce)(Ti,Fe)2O6] in pyrrhotite from the Hangaslampi hallmarks of VMS systems (for example, Galley and others,
deposit. This age is coeval with emplacement in the belt of 2007; Shanks and Thurston, 2012)are absent or volumetri-
late orogenic granites of the Central Lapland granite complex cally minor in or near the Co-Cu-Au deposits, except at NICO
at 1840 to 1800 Ma (Nironen, 2005), but no genetic link is where metarhyolite occurs above most of the ore zones (Goad
known between Co-Au mineralization in this deposit and and others, 2000b). Additional evidence against both VMS and
intrusion of the granites. However, the 1829 5 Ma age of SEDEX models comes from the narrow range of sulfur isotope
the brannerite is within the 1840-1880 Ma age range of the values for sulfide minerals in most of the Co-Cu-Au deposits
predominant deformation and metamorphism in the Kuusamo that contrasts with the much broader range known for VMS
schist belt (Lahtinen and others, 2003; Sorjonen-Ward and and SEDEX deposits, the former suggesting sulfide deposition
others, 2003). by high-temperature thermochemical sulfate reduction and
Petrologic studies of the Werner Lake deposit in Ontario the latter by low-temperature microbial reduction of seawater
provide strong evidence that Co mineralization predated sulfate (Johnson, 2013).
regional metamorphism at 2690 Ma. Prograde metamorphic The occurrence of laterally extensive, stratabound
silicates within the depositincluding spinel, olivine, and magnetite-rich rocks such as those in the Iron Creek area south-
pyroxenecontain elevated Co contents that suggest meta- east of the Blackbird district were classified as syngenetic iron
morphic equilibration between these gangue minerals and formation by previous workers (Nash, 1989). However, these
Co sulfides, in which fluid exchange during metamorphism magnetite-rich rocks are not uniformly layered as in typical
resulted in the growth of Co-bearing silicates (Pan and synsedimentary iron formation (for example, Peter, 2003; Bek-
Therens, 2000). These authors interpreted the ores as being ker and others, 2010), and they locally contain high contents
of SEDEX origin, but this model is problematic, for reasons of Bi, Y, and Te (Slack, 2012; 2013a)unknown in true iron
given above. Hence, the age of mineralization at the Werner formation. Magnetite- and hematite-rich lenses and breccias
Lake deposit is considered uncertain. A similar uncertain tim- also occur in the NICO deposit in Canada, but similarly are not
ing for mineralization is applied to the Dahenglu and Kend- considered synsedimentary iron formation (Goad and others,
ekeke deposits in China. 2000b). In summary, geological, mineralogical, and geochemi-
At the Gladhammar deposit in Sweden, mineraliza- cal data argue strongly against SEDEX or VMS models for the
tion was controlled by transcurrent faulting that postdated Co-Cu-Au deposits.
15. Theory of Deposit Formation 149
Evaluation of Sediment-Hosted Stratiform 1992), in contrast to the pretectonic toin some cases
syntectonic timing of mineralization that characterizes the Co-
Copper Affiliations Cu-Au deposits (Lund, 2013a; Slack, 2013a). Second, the five-
Sediment-hosted stratiform Cu deposits also have some element veins lack the widespread sodic or potassic alteration
features in common with the Co-Cu-Au deposits described zones that are spatially associated with the Co-Cu-Au deposits
in this report, including high Co contents (fig. 21). How- (Slack, 2013b). These fundamental geologic and geochemi-
ever, three major differences are evident. First is the lack of cal differences indicate that the five-element Ag-Ni-Co-As-
associated redbed sedimentary rocks or their metamorphosed Bi veins are genetically unrelated to the Co-Cu-Au deposits
equivalents (for example, magnetite-bearing quartzite), which considered in this report.
are characteristic of sediment-hosted stratiform Cu deposits
in the central African copperbelt and worldwide (Hitzman
Evaluation of Orogenic Gold Affiliations
and others, 2005). Second, the Co-Cu-Au deposits typically
have high As contents, present in Co-bearing sulfarsenide and Orogenic gold deposits have some similarities to the
arsenide minerals, whereas the stratiform Cu deposits gener- Co-Cu-Au deposits. Chief among these is occurrence of many
ally lack anomalously high As concentrations. Third, most of of the former deposits within ductile structures in metamor-
the Co-Cu-Au deposits have much higher Au grades relative phic terranes (for example, Goldfarb and others, 2005). An
to the stratiform Cu deposits (fig. 22), excluding rare deposits orogenic gold model was applied to the Co-Cu-Au deposits of
such as Kolwezi in the Democratic Republic of Congo that the Kuusamo schist belt in Finland by Pankka (1997) and Eilu
contain elevated Au and several other deposits in the cop- and others (2003), based on the localization of these deposits
perbelt with post-kinematic quartz-carbonate veins containing in similar ductile structures and their generally high Au con-
Cu-U-Mo-(Au) mineralization (Hitzman and others, 2005, centrations (fig. 22). However, orogenic gold deposits lack
and references therein). These major differences suggest that high contents of Co, or the high Y and REE concentrations
the Co-Cu-Au deposits are not linked genetically to stratiform found in several of the Co-Cu-Au deposits, such as Juomasuo,
Cu deposits. However, some stratiform Cu deposits, such as Mt. Cobalt, and those in the Blackbird district (Slack, 2013a).
those in the Zambian copperbelt, contain zones of pervasive Furthermore, magnetite-rich rocks and widespread sodic- or
albite alteration (Large and others, 2006; Hitzman and oth- potassic-rich alteration zones that characterize most of the Co-
ers, 2008), similar to many of the Co-Cu-Au deposits (Slack, Cu-Au deposits are absent in orogenic gold systems (Gold-
2013b). Although the albite alteration in the Zambian cop- farb and others, 2005). These fundamental mineralogical and
perbelt deposits has been attributed to formation prior to ore geochemical differences imply that the Co-Cu-Au deposits are
deposition, syn-ore biotite alteration is also present (Large unrelated in a direct way to orogenic gold deposits. Neverthe-
and others, 2006) that may be analogous to that recognized less, their common localization in ductile structures, together
in the Blackbird district (Slack, 2013b). One interpretation of with stable isotope signatures that suggest metamorphic fluid
these mineralogically similar alteration zones is that sodic and involvement in the Co-Cu-Au deposits (Johnson, 2013), allow
potassic alteration in sedimentary rock-hosted ore deposits for the possibility that the latter deposits formed by similar
record major involvement of evaporite-derived brines in the metamorphogenic processes. Additional isotopic studies of
hydrothermal systems (for example, Barton and Johnson, the Co-Cu-Au deposits may provide the data required to better
1996), independent of the style or timing of mineralization or evaluate this possibility.
the metal(s) deposited. Alternatively, the Co-Cu-Au deposits
considered in this model could have formed from hydrother-
mal systems like those related to the stratiform Cu-Co deposits Evaluation of IOCG Affiliations
of the central African copperbelt, with the important differ- A potential genetic affiliation exists with IOCG deposits.
ence that later, during or after regional metamorphism, Au was Deposits included within this classification are epigenetic and
added to the resulting deposits. generally pre- to syn-tectonic, and contain, in addition to Cu,
Au, and iron oxides, locally abundant U, Co, Ni, Mo, Ag, Bi,
Evaluation of Five-Element Vein Affiliations Y, and (or) REE (Williams and others, 2005; Groves and
others, 2010). This is the same metal suite that occurs, overall,
The Co-Cu-Au deposits have some geochemical similari- within most of the metasedimentary rock-hosted Co-Cu-Au
ties to five-element Ag-Ni-Co-As-Bi veins (Kissin, 1992; deposits (table 11; appendix 1). Such metallogenic similari-
Marshall and Watkinson, 2000). In particular is the typical ties, together with geological and geochemical data, were used
metal assemblage of Co together with As, Ni, and Bi, which by Goad and others (2000a, b) and Vanhanen (2001) to argue
occur in nearly all of the Co-Cu-Au deposits (table 11). A for IOCG affinities for the NICO and Kuusamo belt deposits,
major difference is the absence or scarcity of high Cu and Au respectively. Eilu and Niiranen (2002) suggested that the latter
concentrations within these veins. Two additional differences deposits are transitional between orogenic gold and IOCG
are evident. First, the five-element veins are entirely post- deposits. For comparison, other Cu-Co-Au deposits and
tectonic in origin, filling planar faults and fractures (Kissin, prospects that also contain abundant iron oxides are most
commonly classified as IOCG systems, including Ahma- Sources of Metals and Other Ore Components
vuoma, Sweden (Tertiary Minerals, Plc., 2006), Vhjoki,
Finland (Eilu, 2007), and Guelb Moghrein, Mauritania (Kolb Limited stable and radiogenic isotope data for the Co-Cu-
and others, 2006). Au deposits suggest that the majority of sulfur and lead
Slack (2006, 2012) has proposed that the Co-Cu-Au-Bi- in the ores was derived from the host sedimentary rock
Y-REE deposits of the Blackbird district also belong to the successions (Johnson, 2013). Sulfur isotope values for sulfide
IOCG class. The presence of abundant albite and (or) biotite minerals from deposits in the Blackbird and Modum districts
in alteration zones spatially related to most of the Co-Cu-Au and from three other deposits (Werner Lake, Mt. Cobalt,
deposits included herein (Slack, 2013b) supports this interpre- Dahenglu) show a total range from -1 to 24 per mil. All of
tation, based on the widespread occurrence of such alteration these deposits, except those in the Modum district, display
zones in IOCG deposits (Williams and others, 2005). Albitic relatively narrow ranges of d34S values of less than
alteration is more characteristic, whereas biotite alteration is 6 per mil, which suggest that sulfur sources were not seawa-
uncommon except in the Blackbird district, possibly reflecting ter or pore fluid sulfate (reduced by low-temperature bacte-
mineralization at an intermediate depth, above the deep zone rial processes) in shallow environments, but instead the host
of albitic alteration (see Barton and Johnson, 2004; Pollard, sedimentary sequences (Johnson, 2013). Values near 0 per
2006). Occurrences of highly saline and CO2-rich fluid inclu- mil, such as those reported for the Werner Lake deposit, could
sions in the Blackbird and Cobalt Hill Co-Cu-Au deposits reflect a predominantly igneous source for the sulfur, either
are also consistent with the IOCG classification, although an directly by derivation from magmatic-hydrothermal fluids or
important caveat is that the paragenesis of fluid inclusions in indirectly by the leaching of plutonic or volcanic rocks; alter-
these deposits is unconstrained (Johnson, 2013). Also note- natively, these values could record only a sedimentary source.
worthy in this context is the volcanic rock-hosted Kiskama- Lead isotope ratios for sulfides in the Blackbird deposits are
vaara Cu-Co-Au deposit in northern Sweden, which has been extremely radiogenic and require that the lead source(s) are
interpreted by Martinsson (2011) to be an IOCG deposit. predominantly Precambrian upper crustal rocks, which may
Some key features of the Co-Cu-Au deposits could include the host metasedimentary strata in the district (Pan-
be viewed as prohibiting an IOCG classification. Primary neerselvam and others, 2012). It is important to emphasize
among these is the limited amount of iron oxides, except for that these lead isotope results do not necessarily apply to other
the NICO deposit that contains abundant hematite and mag- metals that are concentrated in the Co-Cu-Au deposits such as
netite (Goad and others, 2000a, b). In the Blackbird district, Co, Cu, Ni, Au, Bi, Y, REE, and Be, which could have other
magnetite-rich rocks occur in several small Co Cu Au sources including mafic and felsic magmas.
Bi prospects (fig. 51; see Slack, 2012), but not within the Mineralogical and geochemical data for some of the
relatively large ore zones that have been mined in the past or Co-Cu-Au deposits provide permissive evidence for a felsic
are currently being developed and explored. Nevertheless, the magmatic contribution to the orebodies. Key data are the high
laterally extensive lenses of magnetite-rich rock in the Iron concentrations of Y and REE present in several deposits of the
Creek area, to the southeast of the district, locally contain high Blackbird district (as much as 0.83 and 2.56 weight percent,
Co, Cu, Bi, Te, or Y concentrations (Nash, 1989; Slack, 2012) respectively), the Kuusamo schist belt, and at NICO and Mt.
that suggest a genetic link to the Co-Cu-Au deposits of the Cobalt (Slack, 2012; table 11; appendix 1). Mineralogical
Blackbird district, despite the distance of ~25 km between the residence of the Y and REE is chiefly in xenotime, monazite,
two areas. The lack of magnetite-rich rocks within the large and allanite (Nisbet and others, 1983; Goad and others, 2000b;
Co-Cu-Au deposits of the Blackbird district may be analogous Vanhanen, 2001; Slack, 2012); bastnsite is also an impor-
to some of the iron oxide-poor IOCG deposits, such as tant host mineral of REE at the Juomasuo deposit (Dragon
the Moonta Cu-Au orebody in the Gawler craton of South Mining Ltd., 2012). The Scadding Au-Co-Cu deposit in
Australia (Skirrow and others, 2002) and the Mount Dore Ontario and some Blackbird district deposits also have high
Cu-Au and Greenmount Cu-Au-Co deposits in the Cloncurry Be contents present in the Y-Fe-Be silicate gadolinite (Schandl
district of Queensland (Beardsmore, 1992; Krcmarov and and Gorton, 2007; Slack, 2012). Occurrence of this distinc-
Stewart, 1998; Duncan and others, 2011). An IOCG affinity tive element suite of Y + REE Be suggests an origin from
has also been proposed by Williams (2010) for the Mount magmatic-hydrothermal fluids derived from evolved felsic
Cobalt deposit that lacks iron oxides. The formation of sulfide- plutons, or possibly from igneous carbonatite intrusions. In
rich Co-Cu-Au deposits, with minor or no associated iron the Blackbird district, a temporal link between Y-REE-Be
oxides, could reflect high S contents and high S/Cl ratios of mineralization and nearby megacrystic granite is suggested
the hydrothermal fluids as suggested by other workers by coeval SHRIMP ages for cores of xenotime grains within
(Barton and Johnson, 2004; Schandl and Gorton, 2007). the deposits and zircon grains in the granite (Aleinikoff and
Additional textural, geochemical, and geochronological others, 2012), which has a peraluminous A-type composi-
studies of the Co-Cu-Au deposits will be required to fully tion (Schulz, 2013). By analogy, the concentrations of Y and
evaluate an IOCG model for their genesis. REE in the NICO, Mt. Cobalt, and some of the Kuusamo belt
deposits similarly could have been derived from magmatic-
hydrothermal fluids. Potential contributions of Co, Cu, and
15. Theory of Deposit Formation 151
Au by magmatic-hydrothermal fluids to the metasedimentary stromatolites that Vanhanen (2001) interpreted as a sequence
rock-hosted deposits (table 11) also should be considered, of metamorphosed shallow-water and evaporitic sediments.
including the possibility that deposits spatially associated
with gabbroic plutons are distal products of skarn-type
mineralization like that attributed to the Cu-Co-Au-Ag mag- Chemical Transport and Transfer Processes
netite deposit at Cornwall, Pennsylvania (see Lapham, 1968;
Transport of most metals in hydrothermal fluids is within
Rose and others, 1985).
chloride or sulfide complexes. For Fe, Cu, and Co, chloride
complexes are likely the principal metal-bearing aqueous
Sources of Fluids and Ligands Involved in Ore species at elevated temperatures above ~200 C (Seward and
Barnes, 1997; Migdisov and others, 2011). Such chloride
Component Transport complexes are important because they greatly increase the
In a recent study of the Blackbird district, Landis and solubility of metals in the hydrothermal fluids. Sulfide and
Hofstra (2012) report chemical and isotopic analyses of gas bisulfide complexes also may play a major role in hydrother-
extracts and leachates from fluid inclusions in quartz gangue mal transport of metals, including Cu and Au (Mountain and
within the Co-Cu-Au deposits. Leachates obtained on samples Seward, 2003; Stefnsson and Seward, 2004; Williams-Jones
from three ore zones display a narrow range of ion ratios and others, 2009). The presence of high-salinity fluid
(Na, K, NH4, Cl, Br, F) that suggest a mixed fluid composed inclusions in the ores of some deposits supports metal
transport mainly by chloride complexes (for example,
of magmatic and basinal brine; helium isotope data for quartz
Landis and Hofstra, 2012), but more detailed studies are
gangue indicate a mantle source for the He (Landis and
needed in order to fully evaluate the complexes involved in
Hofstra, 2012). Relatively high boron isotope values of
ore formation.
tourmaline in the ores of the Blackbird deposits (-6.9 to
3.2 per mil) suggest a boron source derived predominantly
from marine evaporites, although the possibility of a minor Fluid Drive, Including Thermal, Pressure, and
component of magmatic boron cannot be excluded (Trumbull
Geodynamic Mechanisms
and others, 2011). Carbon and oxygen isotope data for siderite
gangue in deposits of the Blackbird district (Johnson and The characteristic setting of the Co-Cu-Au deposits
others, 2012) suggest that the contained carbon is a mixture within greenschist- to amphibolite-facies metamorphic
of sedimentary organic carbon and magmatic and (or) terranes (Lund, 2013a, Lund, 2013b) and the typical epigen-
metamorphic carbon; oxygen and hydrogen isotope systemat- etic timing of mineralization in the deposits can be used as a
ics of biotite- and tourmaline-rich wall rocks do not identify a framework for constraining the mechanisms that drove fluid
distinct fluid source. flow and ultimately ore deposition. Based on the likelihood of
Several of the Co-Cu-Au deposits are noteworthy for significant depths for mineralization in the deposits,
containing Cl-rich hydrous silicate gangue minerals. Examples as inferred from ductile structures that host many of the
are biotite in deposits of the Blackbird district and scapolite in orebodies, fluid migration probably was driven by hydraulic
distal metasedimentary host rocks (Nash and Conner, 1993), gradients between deep fluid reservoirs and shallower
and biotite in the NICO deposit (Goad and others, 2000b). networks of faults and shear zones (for example, Cox, 2005).
High-salinity and CO2-bearing fluid inclusions are also char- By analogy with orogenic Au deposits, large pressure fluctua-
acteristic of some of the deposits (Johnson, 2013), including tions during seismic events may have played a major role
Cobalt Hill and several in the Blackbird district (Schandl, in developing such hydraulic gradients (Goldfarb and
2004; Landis and Hofstra, 2012). These features suggest others, 2005).
that the ore-forming fluids acquired high salinities either by Another process that may have driven the migration of
dissolution of evaporites or evaporation of seawater, but an ore-forming fluids is the emplacement of igneous plutons
important caveat is that the paragenesis of fluid inclusions (for example, Norton, 1978). Emplacement of plutons into
in the Blackbird deposits relative to Co-Cu-Au mineraliza- the middle and upper crust typically generates hydrothermal
tion remains uncertain (see Johnson, 2013). The presence of convection cells that can result in mineral deposit formation.
CO2-rich fluid inclusions in the above deposits is consistent However, among the Co-Cu-Au deposits considered in this
with ore deposition from metamorphic or deeply exsolved report (table 11), only those in the Blackbird district have
magmatic fluids. a likely genetic link to igneous plutons, specifically the
Evaporites also may have played a role in Co-Cu-Au Y-REE-Be mineralization based on coeval SHRIMP U-Pb
mineralization in deposits of the Kuusamo schist belt by ages of ~1375 Ma for cores of xenotime grains and granitoid-
providing a source of abundant chlorine for leaching by hosted zircons (Aleinikoff and others, 2012). However, no
hydrothermal fluids. Strata that host these deposits locally direct connection is known between this Mesoproterozoic
contain inferred meta-evaporite units. The Proterozoic granitoid pluton or coeval gabbroic plutons and the Co-Cu-Au
supracrustal succession that contains the Kuusamo deposits mineralization in the district. Other Co-Cu-Au deposits
includes dolomite, dolomite-cemented quartzite, and included in this report that have spatially associated granitoid
or gabbroic plutons, such as Skuterud in Norway, similarly

lack robust evidence for the involvement of magmatically
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rocks, chap. G14, of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and
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G11, of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and geoenvironmental metasedimentary rocks: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific
model for cobalt-copper-gold deposits in metasedimentary Investigations Report 20105070G, p. 133142, http://
rocks: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2010/5070/g/.
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Johnson, C.A., Bookstrom, A.A., and Slack, J.F., 2012, Sulfur, ver-, and REE-bearing copper-cobalt ore deposits, Blackbird
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ProvinceA sedex deposit with late reformation, China]:
16. Exploration/Resource Assessment
Guides
By John F. Slack and Klaus J. Schulz
16 of 18


U.S. Government.
Suggested citation:
Slack, J.F., and Schulz, K.J., 2013, Exploration/resource assessment guides, chap. G16, of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive
and geoenvironmental model for cobalt-copper-gold deposits in metasedimentary rocks: U.S. Geological Survey Scien-
tific Investigations Report 20105070G, p. 159168, http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20105070g.

161
Contents
Geological....................................................................................................................................................163
Geochemical................................................................................................................................................163
Isotopic.........................................................................................................................................................164
Geophysical.................................................................................................................................................164
Attributes Required for Inclusion in Permissive Tracts at Various Scales.......................................166
Factors Influencing Undiscovered Deposit Estimates (Deposit Size and Density).........................166
Figure
161. Simplified flow chart for selecting airborne geophysical anomalies for further
investigation..............................................................................................................................165
16.Exploration/Resource
Assessment Guides
By John F. Slack and Klaus J. Schulz
Geological spatial relationships of such rocks to known Co-Cu-Au depos-

its, although clear genetic links between their formation have
not yet been established (Slack, 2013a).
A first-order guide to the exploration and assessment for
metasedimentary rock-hosted Co-Cu-Au deposits is a thick
succession of siliciclastic metasedimentary rocks that was Geochemical
deposited in a rift-type marine basin, locally with intercalated
mafic metaigneous rocks (Lund, 2013a). Although ages of Potential geochemical guides for the exploration and
these successions range from Archean to Paleozoic, a greater assessment for the metasedimentary rock-hosted Co-Cu-Au
probability for occurrence of the Co-Cu-Au deposits is within deposits include diverse sample media: (1) rocks, (2) minerals,
Proterozoic strata because most of the deposits are hosted by (3) stream sediments including heavy mineral concentrates,
successions of this age (appendix 1). The cause of this age (4) soils and soil gases, (5) glacial till and contained heavy
distribution is unknown, but may relate to preferential occur- minerals, and (6) water. Rocks have logically received the
rence in the Proterozoic of thick and buoyant, subcontinental greatest effort, involving searches for elevated contents of
lithospheric mantle (SCLM) that is linked to abundant mag- the major metals of economic interest (Co, Cu, Au), as well
matism and metamorphism in the middle crust, and related as for associated elements, such as As, and, in most deposits,
formation of epigenetic hydrothermal ore deposits (Groves Bi, Ni, and U. Occurrence of the pink to lilac, secondary Co
and others, 2005). mineral erythrite (Johnson and Gray, 2013) is an obvious
Although some deposits in the Blackbird district show visual guide in the field. Highly sodic and (or) potassic rocks
geochemical and geochronological links between emplace- can be important guides as recorders to hydrothermal altera-
ment of granitoid plutons and the deposition of Y, REE, Be, tion that are closely related to many of the Co-Cu-Au deposits,
and Bi in the Co-Cu-Au deposits (Slack, 2012), the other such as those in the Kuusamo schist belt, the Modum district,
deposits included in this study (table 11) lack such a link, the Blackbird district, and the NICO area (Slack, 2013c). The
despite spatial associations with granitoids in many cases most effective mineralogical guides are primary and secondary
(Schulz, 2013a). Recognition of a strong structural control Co-rich minerals, such as cobaltite and erythrite.
on the localization of the deposits (Lund, 2013a; Slack, Geochemical surveys using stream sediments and (or)
2013) suggests that regional-scale shear zones and map- to panned concentrates are critical components of many mineral
mesoscopic-scale fold axes are favorable sites for Co-Cu-Au exploration and assessment programs. Early studies of the geo-
mineralization. chemistry of stream sediments in the Blackbird district were
Certain types of hydrothermally altered rock are key by Hawkes (1952) and Bennett (1977). In this same district,
guides in favorable metasedimentary terranes. Occurrence of Erdman and Modreski (1984) found that in steep terrain and in
areally widespread rocks containing abundant albite, biotite, streams having high flow rates and limited sediment available
K-feldspar, and (or) tourmaline are particularly valuable, for sampling, aquatic mosses are more effective sample media
based on the presence of such altered rocks at and near the than stream sediments. This is because the mosses have much
Co-Cu-Au deposits considered in this report (Slack, 2013b). higher contrast in contents of Cu and, particularly, Co between
Within each type of altered rock, the predominant mineral mineralized and background areas; concentrations are as much
commonly makes up greater than 50 volume percent, and in as 35,000 ppm Cu and 2000 ppm Co in mosses from the
some cases as much as 90 volume percent of the rock. An mineralized areas. No published data are known for surveys
important caveat is that for very fine-grained albite-rich rocks surrounding the other Co-Cu-Au deposits (table 11), but in
(for example, Kuusamo schist belt, Finland) and tourmaline- most cases high Co and Cu contents would be expected in
rich rocks (for example, Blackbird district, Idaho), these stream sediments, and in places, high gold contents in panned
minerals may be difficult or impossible to identify in the concentrates. Elevated concentrations of these metals, as well
field, even in upper greenschist to amphibolite-facies terranes as Bi, Y, and (or) REE, conceivably could be used as vectors
where the grain size of most metamorphic rocks is generally to Co-Cu-Au mineralization, although such vectors have not
coarse enough for easy mineral identification. Scapolite-rich yet been delineated for a specific deposit. Soil geochemistry
rocks (for example, Modum district, Norway) also may have was the foundation for the discovery in 1996 of the 2.64 Mt.
relevance for exploration and resource assessment, based on Ram Co-Cu-Au deposit in the Blackbird district (see
U.S. Geological Survey, 1997). Compositions of soil gases surveys are fast, economic, mostly independent of terrain hin-
may also be useful in exploration (for example, Kelley and drances, allow measurement of many components simultane-
others, 2006), although no application to Co-Cu-Au deposits ously on the same area, and have good stability and low noise
is known. levels (Turunen and others, 2005). In contrast, ground surveys
McMartin and others (2009, 2011) conducted an orienta- permit denser measuring profiles, remeasurement of signifi-
tion study of heavy minerals in bedrock and till samples cant anomalies, and direct field investigations (Turunen and
surrounding the NICO Co-Au-Bi-Cu-Ni deposit and found others, 2005). A simplified flow chart for selecting airborne
that the abundance, size, and shape of gold grains, and geophysical anomalies for further investigation is presented in
compositions of magnetite and hematite, best characterize the figure 161.
mineralization. In their study, magnetite and hematite grains Aeromagnetic data, together with very-low-frequency
from till collected above or down-ice from the deposit have (VLF) electromagnetic surveys, aid in identifying regional-
lower Ti and V contents relative to those in magnetite and scale structural lineaments, faults, and shear zones that
hematite from up-ice sample sites. Till geochemistry has may be important in localizing deposits. Deposits, although
been a component of exploration programs in the Kuusamo not necessarily coincident with a discrete magnetic
schist belt, but it has not proven successful (Vanhanen, 2001). anomaly, typically occur in areas having magnetically active
Water geochemistry may have potential in the exploration and signatures (Smith, 2002; Turunen and others, 2005). Granitic
assessment for the Co-Cu-Au deposits, based on the presence plutons, which in many districts appear to be contemporane-
in the Blackbird district of ~1,000 g/L dissolved Co in ous with mineralization, can display distinctive positive or
stream waters as much as 8 km from known sulfide deposits, negative gravity and magnetic responses, depending on the
relative to background values of <100 g/L Co in district characteristics of the surrounding rocks. However, regional
stream waters (Eppinger and Gray, 2013). deformation may have a strong control on regional geophysi-
cal patterns (for example, Idaho cobalt belt, Lund and others,
Isotopic 1990), potentially complicating interpretations.
Regional radiometric surveys can be useful in recognizing
No published studies are available that report the use of altered rocks associated with Co-Cu-Au mineralized zones
isotope geochemistry in the exploration for metasedimentary in areas where unweathered rocks are exposed at the surface
rock-hosted Co-Cu-Au deposits. However, analogy with other (Wellman, 1999; Goad and others, 2000). For example, the
hydrothermal ore deposits suggests that this approach could NICO and Sue-Dianne deposits in Canada are associated
have merit. Most applicable is whole-rock oxygen isotope with discrete positive eK (equivalent K) and negative eTh/K
analysis, for identifying cryptic altered zones produced by (equivalent Th/K) anomalies that are coincident with positive
high-temperature fluid flow, like those identified in the wall magnetic anomalies (Goad and others, 2000b). Areas having
rocks of numerous VMS deposits (Shanks and Thurston, enriched uranium also are characterized by increased eU/Th
2012). Among the Co-Cu-Au deposits considered in this (equivalent U/Th) anomalies.
report (table 11), only Werner Lake and the Blackbird At the deposit scale, geophysical signatures are gener-
district have been studied. Pan and Therens (2000) analyzed ally more complex than those determined by airborne surveys.
garnet-biotite schist spatially related to the ore at Werner Strong local magnetic and gravity anomalies and high elec-
Lake, finding slightly lower d18O values than in amphibolite tromagnetic anomalies characterize some Co-Cu-Au deposits
protolithsthus implying premetamorphic isotopic exchange (Goad and others, 2000b; Turunen and others, 2005). Intense
with hydrothermal fluids, which also could have been low in potassium and iron oxide alteration associated with some
d18O. In the Blackbird district, biotite- and tourmaline-rich deposits (for example, NICO) can produce large coincident
rocks adjacent to ore zones lack 18O depletions, relative to radiometric and magnetic highs that are well above the
unaltered wall rocks, although both have lower dD values regional background (Goad and others, 2000b). In the
(Johnson, 2013; Johnson and others, 2012). More whole-rock Kuusamo schist belt, radiometric anomalies in and near the
oxygen isotope studies are needed on deposits are also produced by disseminated uraninite and
other Co-Cu-Au deposits, such as those at NICO and in the allanite, the latter mineral carrying elevated contents of U and
Modum district, to fully evaluate the exploration potential of Th due to formation of metamict grains (Vanhanen, 2001).
this technique. Transient electromagnetic methods (TEM) and induced polar-
ization (IP) have been generally successful in detecting these
Geophysical deposits because most are at least weak conductors. However,
these methods also respond to both iron oxides and barren
Owing to the presence of magnetite and sulfides in most sulfides, which commonly are more laterally extensive than
metasedimentary rock-hosted Co-Cu-Au deposits, geophysi- the target mineralization. Standard electromagnetic geophysi-
cal surveys including magnetics and gravity can be useful in cal methods (EM) have generally not been as successful,
identifying potentially mineralized zones (Schulz, 2013b). probably because massive, continuous mineralized zones are
Both airborne and ground surveys have advantages. Airborne rare in these deposits.
16.Exploration/Resource Assessment Guides165
Select geologically
suitable areas
Is
there an
Row of anomalies anomaly in No
out-of-phase
component
?
What
kind of
anomaly
?
Reject as Modest
swamp, lake, and
fracture or local
weathering
Is
there a
Row of anomalies quadrature No
component
to anomaly
?
Reject as Yes
electrical power
line
What
Negative Very high
kind of
anomaly
?
Reject as
graphite-bearing
Modest schist
What
kind of
High anomaly in No anomaly
magnetic or covers large areas
field
?
Modest
and
local
Reject as Reject
magnetite Reject
Detailed
ground
geophysics
Drill/Reject
Figure 161. Simplified flow chart for selecting airborne geophysical anomalies for further
investigation (after Turunen and others, 2005).
Attributes Required for Inclusion in Permissive Blackbird district and Kuusamo schist belt, reflects regional-
scale hydrothermal alteration systems; the location of deposits
Tracts at Various Scales within each cluster reflects the distribution of favorable faults
As defined by Singer (1993), a permissive tract in mineral and shear zones. Together, these factors directly influence the
resource assessments is an area where geologic features permit density of deposits in a given cluster.
the occurrence of one or more deposit types. Among many
parameters, favorable geology is the most important attribute
for identifying a permissive tract (for example, Raines and
Mihalasky, 2002). In assessments for Co-Cu-Au deposits simi-
References Cited
lar to those considered in this report (table 11), key geologic
criteria are: (1) Proterozoic rift-facies metasedimentary rocks Bennett, E.H., 1977, Reconnaissance geology and geochem-
(Lund, 2013a; Lund, 2013b); (2) occurrence of major faults istry of the Blackbird Mountain-Panther Creek region,
and shear zones (Lund, 2013a; Slack, 2013c); (3) widespread Lemhi County, Idaho: Idaho Bureau of Mines and Geology
hydrothermal alteration zones, particularly those containing Pamphlet 167, 108 p.
abundant albite, biotite, K-feldspar, or tourmaline (Slack,
Cox, D.P., and Singer, D.A., eds., 1986, Mineral deposit mod-
2013b); and (4) presence of known deposits or prospects that
els: U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 1693, 379 p.
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accompanying Bi, Y, REE, or Ni concentrations. Permis- Eppinger, R.G., and Gray, J.E., 2013, Geoenvironmental
sive, but not required geologic criteria include the presence features and anthropogenic mining effects, chap. G17, of
within the tract of magnetic geophysical anomalies (Schulz, Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and geoenvironmental model for
2013b). Other positive criteria are anomalously high contents cobalt-copper-gold deposits in metasedimentary rocks: U.S.
of Co, Cu, As, or Au in stream sediments and (or) panned Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2010
concentrates. 5070G, p. 169181, http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2010/5070/g/.
Particular importance must be given to geologic map
scales because different scales can produce major differences Erdman, J.A., and Modreski, P.J., 1984, Copper and cobalt in
in the shape and size of permissive tracts. For example, the aquatic mosses and stream sediments from the Idaho cobalt
use of large-scale maps can result in misleading generalization belt: Journal of Geochemical Exploration, v. 20, p. 7584.
of a given tract, or arbitrary enlargement of a tract in order Galley, A.G., Hannington, M.D., and Jonasson, I.R., 2007,
to include deposit types that occur in restricted settings. As Volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits, in Goodfellow,
emphasized by Singer and Menzie (2008), use of such maps W.D., ed., Mineral deposits of CanadaA synthesis of
commonly causes inappropriate inclusion of geologic settings major deposit-types, district metallogeny, the evolution of
that are not permissive for a given deposit type. This problem geological provinces, and exploration methods: Geological
of map scale was quantified for the assessment of VMS Association of Canada, Mineral Deposits Division Special
deposits by Singer and Menzie (2008), indicating that a Publication 5, p. 141161.
geologic map having twice the detail of a more generalized
map will decrease the area of a permissive VMS tract by Goad, R.E., Mumin, A.H., Duke, N.A., Neale, K.L., Mulligan,
50 percent. D.L., and Camier, W.J., 2000, The NICO and Sue-Dianne
Factors Influencing Undiscovered Deposit model in exploration: Exploration and Mining Geology,
Estimates (Deposit Size and Density) v. 9, p. 123140.
The size and density of undiscovered mineral deposits Groves, D.I., Vielreicher, R.M., Goldfarb, R.J., and Condie,
are affected by several factors. Size estimates rely chiefly on K.J., 2005, Controls on the heterogeneous distribution of
statistical data for grades and tonnages for a given deposit mineral deposits through time: Geological Society of
type (for example, Cox and Singer, 1986). Giant orebodies London Special Publication 248, p. 71101.
typically contain the largest resources, thus very small or
Hawkes, H.E., 1952, Geochemical prospecting in the Black-
low-grade deposits do not greatly affect grade-tonnage bird cobalt district, Idaho [abs.]: Geological Society of
distributions; differences in cutoff grades and other economic America Bulletin, v. 63, p. 1260.
factors similarly are not significant (Singer, 1993). Statistical
studies of relationships between permissive area and deposit Johnson, C.A., 2013, Geochemical characteristics, chap.
density can be used together with grade-tonnage models as G11, of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and geoenvironmental
predictors of the number of undiscovered deposits and the model for cobalt-copper-gold deposits in metasedimentary
total amount of undiscovered metals (Singer, 2008). rocks: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations
By analogy with VMS deposits (Galley and others, Report 20105070G, p. 105112, http://pubs.usgs.gov/
2007), the diameter of clustered deposits, such as those in the sir/2010/5070/g/.
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Johnson, C.A., and Gray, J.E., 2013, Weathering/supergene Raines, G.L., and Mihalasky, M.J., 2002, A reconnaissance
processes, chap. G10, of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and method for delineation of tracts for regional-scale mineral-
geoenvironmental model for cobalt-copper-gold deposits in resource assessment based on geologic-map data: Natural
metasedimentary rocks: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Resources Research, v. 11, p. 241248.
Investigations Report 20105070G, p. 99104, http://pubs.
usgs.gov/sir/2010/5070/g/. Schulz, K.J., 2013a, Petrology of associated igneous rocks,
chap. G12, of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and geoenviron-
Johnson, C.A., Bookstrom, A.A., and Slack, J.F., 2012, Sulfur, mental model for cobalt-copper-gold deposits in metasedi-
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen isotope geochemistry of the mentary rocks: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investiga-
Idaho cobalt belt: Economic Geology, v. 107, p. 12071221. tions Report 20105070G, p. 113121, http://pubs.usgs.
gov/sir/2010/5070/g/.
Kelley, D.L., Kelley, K.D., Coker, W.B., Caughlin, B., and
Doherty, M.E., 2006, Beyond the obvious limits of ore Schulz, K.J., 2013b, Geophysical characteristics, chap. G6,
depositsThe use of mineralogical, geochemical, and bio- of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and geoenvironmental model
logical features for the remote detection of mineralization: for cobalt-copper-gold deposits in metasedimentary
Economic Geology, v. 101, p. 729752. rocks: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations
Report 20105070G, p. 6373, http://pubs.usgs.gov/
Lund, Karen, 2013a, Regional environment, chap. G4, of sir/2010/5070/g/.
Descriptive and geoenvironmental model for cobalt-copper-
gold deposits in metasedimentary rocks: U.S. Geological Shanks, W.C., III, and Thurston, Roland, eds., 2012, Volcano-
Survey Scientific Investigations Report 20105070G, genic massive sulfide occurrence model: U.S. Geological
p. 2947, http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2010/5070/g/. Survey Scientific Investigations Report 20115070C,
345 p.
Lund, Karen, 2013b, Petrology of associated igneous rocks,
chap. G13, of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and geoenviron- Singer, D.A., 1993, Basic concepts in three-part quantitative
mental model for cobalt-copper-gold deposits in metasedi- assessments of undiscovered mineral resources: Natural
mentary rocks: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investiga- Resources Research, v. 2, p. 6981.
tions Report 20105070G, p. 123131, http://pubs.usgs.
Singer, D.A., 2008, Mineral deposit densities for estimating
gov/sir/2010/5070/g/.
mineral resources: Mathematical Geosciences, v. 40, p.
Lund, K., Alminas, H.V., Kleinkopf, M.D., Ehmann, W.J., 3346.
and Bliss, J.D., 1990, Preliminary mineral resource assess-
Singer, D.A., and Menzie, W.D., 2008, Map scale effects on
ment of the Elk City 1 x 2 quadrangle, Idaho and Mon-
estimating the number of undiscovered mineral deposits:
tanaCompilation of geologic, geochemical, geophysical,
Natural Resources Research, v. 17, p. 7986.
and mineral resource information: U.S. Geological Survey
Open-File Report 890016, 118 p. Slack, J.F., 2012, Stratabound Fe-Co-Cu-Au-Bi-Y-REE depos-
its of the Idaho cobalt belt, USA Multistage hydrothermal
McMartin, Isabelle, Corriveau, Louise, and Beaudoin,
Georges, 2009, Heavy mineral and till geochemical sig-
natures of the NICO Co-Au-Bi deposit, Great Bear mag-
matic zone, Northwest Territories, Canada, in Lentz, D.R., Slack, J.F., 2013a, Theory of deposit formation, chap. G15, of
Thorne, K.G., and Beal, K.-L., eds., Proceedings of the 24th Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and geoenvironmental model for
International Applied Geochemistry Symposium, Frederic- cobalt-copper-gold deposits in metasedimentary rocks: U.S.
ton, New Brunswick, Canada: Nepean, Ontario, Association Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2010
of Applied Geochemists, v. II, p. 573576. 5070G, p. 143157, http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2010/5070/g/.
McMartin, I., Corriveau, L., and Beaudoin, G., 2011, An Slack, J.F., 2013b, Hydrothermal alteration, chap. G8, of
orientation study of heavy mineral signature of the NICO Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and geoenvironmental model for
Co-Au-Bi deposit, Great Bear magmatic zone, NW Ter- cobalt-copper-gold deposits in metasedimentary rocks: U.S.
ritories, Canada: Geochemistry: Exploration, Environment, Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2010
Analysis, v. 11, p. 293307. 5070G, p. 8392, http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2010/5070/g/.
Pan, Yuanming, and Therens, Craig, 2000, The Werner Lake Slack, J.F., 2013c, Physical description of deposits, chap. G5,
Co-Cu-Au deposit of the English River subprovince, of Descriptive and geoenvironmental model for cobalt-
Ontario, CanadaEvidence for an exhalative origin and copper-gold deposits in metasedimentary rocks: U.S.
effects of granulite facies metamorphism: Economic Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2010
Geology, v. 95, p. 16351656. 5070G, p. 4962, http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2010/5070/g/.
Smith, R.J., 2002, Geophysics of iron oxide copper-gold

deposits, in Porter, T.M., ed., Hydrothermal iron oxide
copper-gold & related depositsA global perspective:
Adelaide, Australia, Australian Mineral Foundation, Inc.,
v. 2, p. 357367.
Turunen, Pertti, Vanhanen, Erkki, and Pankka, Heikki, 2005,
Application of low altitude airborne geophysics to mineral
exploration in the Kuusamo schist belt, Finland, in Airo,
M.L., ed., Aerogeophysics in Finland 19742004Meth-
ods, system characteristics, and applications: Geological
U.S. Geological Survey, 1997, The mineral industry of Idaho:
U.S. Geological Survey. (Also available at http://minerals.
usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/state/981698.pdf.)
Wellman, Peter, 1999, Gamma-ray spectrometric data
Modeling to map primary lithology: Exploration Geophys-
ics, v. 30, p. 167172.
17. Geoenvironmental Features and
Anthropogenic Mining Effects
By Robert G. Eppinger and John E. Gray
17 of 18


U.S. Government.
Suggested citation:
Eppinger, R.G., and Gray, J.E., 2013, Geoenvironmental features and anthropogenic mining effects, chap. G17,
of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and geoenvironmental model for cobalt-copper-gold deposits in metasedimentary
rocks: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 20105070G, p. 169181, http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/
sir20105070g.

171
Contents
Mining Methods and the Volume of Mine Waste and Tailings...........................................................173
Ore Processing and Smelting...................................................................................................................175
Climate and Geographic Effects...............................................................................................................175
Human Health and Ecosystem Effects....................................................................................................175
Figures
171. Sample locations in the Idaho cobalt belt.............................................................................174
172. Concentration of Cu, Co, Fe, Mn, and As versus pH for unfiltered water from the
Idaho cobalt belt.......................................................................................................................178
173. Concentration of Cu in unfiltered water versus distance from mines in the
Blackbird area............................................................................................................................179
174. Concentration of Co in unfiltered water versus distance from mines in the
Blackbird area............................................................................................................................179
175. Concentration of Cu versus Co soil collected from the Ram and Goose prospect
areas, Idaho cobalt belt............................................................................................................180
Table
171. Geochemical data for water, mine waste, stream sediment, and soil collected
proximal to mines and from background sites in the Idaho cobalt belt...........................177
17. Geoenvironmental Features and
Anthropogenic Mining Effects
By Robert G. Eppinger and John E. Gray weathering. The Blackbird mine had 12 levels, 9 portals, at
least 16 km of underground mine workings, and numerous
Published geoenvironmental data for Co-Cu-Au deposits adits, shafts, winzes, and portals (Reiser, 1986; Beltman and
in metasedimentary rocks worldwide are limited. However, others, 1993). Several mine portals were plugged in an attempt
there have been several studies published that report surface to limit mine water discharge; however, mine drainage pres-
geochemical data (mine waste, water, stream sediment, and ently continues to seep into the Blackbird ecosystem. As a
soil) for the Blackbird mine and other deposits of the Idaho result, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA)
cobalt belt (ICB) (for example, Baldwin and others, 1978; listed Blackbird Creek, Bucktail Creek, Big Deer Creek, and
Reiser, 1986; Beltman and others, 1993; Mebane, 1994; Rocky Panther Creek as contaminated with metals (Idaho Department
Mountain Consultants, 1995; CH2MHill, 2001; Idaho Depart- of Environmental Quality, 2001); consequently, the area
ment of Environmental Quality, 2001; Eppinger and others, underwent several years of reclamation in the 1980s and
2003; Giles and others, 2009). No published reports have been 1990s. One remediation effort was the installation of a drainage
found containing surface geochemical data for other deposits tunnel that diverted water from the Blacktail open pit and some
worldwide with geochemical and geological characteristics of the underground workings to a water treatment plant with a
similar to those of Co-Cu-Au deposits in metasedimentary design capacity of as much as 1,000 gallons per minutes (gpm),
rocks (table 11). Thus, the geoenvironmental characteristics which used conventional lime precipitation to remove metals
described in this section are based solely on information (Rocky Mountain Consultants, Inc., 1995; CH2MHill, 2001).
available for the mines and deposits of the ICB. Water from the treatment plant was discharged into Blackbird
Creek and monitoring indicated that loads of Cu and Co in
discharge effluent from the treatment plant were reduced by as
Mining Methods and the Volume of Mine Waste much as 50 percent (Rocky Mountain Consultants, Inc., 1995).
and Tailings However, remaining in this area are point sources, such as ore,
mine wastes, mill tailings, and contaminated stream sediments
Mining of Blackbird deposits began in 1893 when gold that, during weathering and leaching, contribute metal-rich
was initially recovered (Reed and Herdlick, 1947; Nash and water to Blackbird Creek and its tributaries (CH2MHill, 2001).
Hahn, 1989). Cobalt was discovered in 1901, but there was Mining and ore processing in and along Blackbird Creek
little demand for this metal until World War I. As a result, Co has resulted in a disturbed area estimated at about 40 km2,
and Cu were mined and milled in the area from 1917 to 1967 which includes Blackbird Creek, Meadow Creek, Bucktail
(Nash and Hahn, 1989; Idaho Department of Environmental Creek, and the West Fork of Blackbird Creek (Beltman and
Quality, 2001). Production of Co in the Blackbird area was others, 1993). Water and sediment runoff from the mined
primarily from 1951 to 1959 and totaled about 6,400 t (Lund areas affects the larger ecosystem farther downstream includ-
and others, 1983; Nash and Hahn, 1989; Johnson and oth- ing Panther and Big Deer Creeks (Eppinger and others, 2007),
ers, 1998). Additional production from Blackbird has been although these streams are generally not disturbed by mining
reported as 24,000 t of Cu, 0.5 t of Pb, 1.08 t of Au, and 2.47 activities related to Blackbird. Throughout the Blackbird area,
t of Ag (Lund and others, 1983; Johnson and others, 1998). several waste rock and tailings piles are present. As a result
There has been no mining in the Blackbird area since 1967 of ore processing, greater than 3,500,000 m3 of tailings were
(Rocky Mountain Consultants, Inc., 1995), but the Blackbird estimated in the Blackbird Creek area (Beltman and others,
district contains one of the largest Co resources in the United 1993). The largest part of these tailings is stored behind a dam
States (Slack and others, 2013). constructed in the 1950s on the West Fork of Blackbird Creek
Mining methods used in the Blackbird district included near its confluence with Blackbird Creek, which contains over
underground and open-pit mining. Most of the underground 1,500,000 m3 of tailings (Reiser, 1986). Settling ponds and
workings and numerous waste rock piles are located along pipelines were constructed along Blackbird Creek in the 1940s
Meadow Creek, which flows into Blackbird Creek. The now- and l950s, but these containment measures were ineffective
reclaimed Blacktail open pit covered about 46,500 m2 and (Reiser, 1986). Periodic spills from the pipelines that carried
is at the headwaters of Bucktail Creek, which flows into Big tailings from the mill to the West Fork Creek dam resulted in
Deer Creek and eventually into Panther Creek (fig. 171). the release of large quantities of tailings into Blackbird Creek
At least 750,000 t of ore was removed from this open pit and eventually into Panther Creek (Beltman and others, 1993).
(Rocky Mountain Consultants, Inc., 1995). Large blocks of ore During mining in the early 1900s, some mine tailings were dis-
were present in the Blacktail pit and were exposed to surface carded directly into Blackbird Creek, and part of these wastes
11430' 11400' 11330'
n River
lmo
SALMON CANYON Sa
COPPER CO.
n
ai
4520' M
Map area
IDAHO
SALMON
_
^
4510' S
28
.
93
Middle Fork Salmon River
BLACKBIRD Le
m
AREA
hi
Riv
er
BLACKPINE
4500'
Creek
he r
IRON CREEK
Pa n t
(NO NAME)
4450'
0 5 10 15 20 KILOMETERS
0 5 10 MILES
Deer Creek Pa
Big nth
er
k
C r ee
Bucktail
rk
Fo
Creek
uth
IDAHO COBALT PROJECT (FM)

So
ADITS
BLACKBIRD OPEN PIT
Meadow
Creek ADIT
HAYNES-STELLITE ADIT
GOOSE PROSPECT (FM)

We
st
Fo
EXPLANATION rk
Blac
k bird Creek Bla
Solid sample, Beltman and others (1993) ckb
ird
Water sample, Beltman and others (1993) Cre
ek
Solid sample, Giles and others (2009)
Water sample, Giles and others (2009)
Sediment and water, Eppinger and others (2003)
0 1 2 3 4 5 KILOMETERS
0 1 2 3 MILES
Figure 171. Sample locations in the Idaho cobalt belt. [Idaho Cobalt Project, formerly known as the Ram prospect].
17. Geoenvironmental Features and Anthropogenic Mining Effects 175
was dredged from Blackbird Creek in the 1970s and 1980s and Climate and Geographic Effects
placed along the banks of Blackbird Creek (Baldwin and
others, 1978; Reiser, 1986; Beltman and others, 1993). Climate significantly affects runoff from mined areas
in the Blackbird district and downstream environmental
geochemistry. This region in Idaho is characterized by mild
Ore Processing and Smelting summers and cold winters with snow from November to April,
Information on mining methods, ore processing, and and rain during the remainder of the year when thunderstorms
milling of ore from mines in the Blackbird area is limited. are common (Rocky Mountain Consultants, Inc., 1995).
Several piles of discarded mill tailings exist along Blackbird Temperatures average 29 oF (-1.7 oC) in December and 83 oF
and Meadow Creeks. Separation of Co- and Cu-sulfide ore (28.3 oC) in July. Precipitation varies with elevation, but
minerals from gangue and Fe-sulfides was dominantly by flota- annual average precipitation is about 46 cm near the aban-
tion processes in the Blackbird district. Wells and others (1948) doned townsite of Cobalt (elevation 1,535 m, 45o06N,
indicated that the intimate association of Cu and Co minerals 114o14W) and is about 67 cm at an elevation of 2,100 m
in ore made the production of separate Cu and Co concentrates (Baldwin and others, 1978). The region is also characterized
difficult. The separation of cobaltite from pyrite and chalcopy- by rounded mountain tops with steep slopes reaching approxi-
rite in high-grade sulfide ores was also noted as being com- mately 40 degrees. Peaks are as high as 2,694 m. Creek
plicated (Wells and others, 1948). In about 1915, a 10-stamp gradients are as steep as 20 percent. In the higher elevations,
concentration mill was operating on Blackbird Creek, and from vegetation is forested with pine, fir, and spruce trees, whereas
1938 to 1941, a 68-t flotation mill was the lower elevations are covered with various shrubs, grasses,
operating at the portal of the Uncle Sam mine on the east sagebrush, and some pine, fir, and spruce (Baldwin and others,
bank of Blackbird Creek (Reed and Herdlick, 1947; Wells and 1978; Rocky Mountain Consultants, Inc., 1995). Areas that
others, 1948). Reed and Herdlick (1947) reported that a high have been mined or covered with waste rock are generally
recovery of metal was made from Blackbird ore using bulk devoid of vegetation, and this lack of vegetation combined
flotation methods following grinding or milling of ore. Libera- with the effects of steep elevation and periods of high precipi-
tion of cobaltite inclusions in chalcopyrite and quartz stringers tation lead to significant erosion as evidenced by occurrence
required grinding to minus 200-mesh (Wells and others, 1948). of numerous deep gullies on the slopes of mine waste piles
Generally, milling of ore necessary for successful flotation (Rocky Mountain Consultants, Inc., 1995).
leads to increased sulfide mineral surface area exposure, and Seasonal variations affect the environmental geochem-
thus, during surface weathering there is a potential increase in istry in the Blackbird district; for example, snow pack and
metal contamination in runoff sediment and water. Separation its eventual melting affects surface runoff in the region. The
of economically important metals was improved using addi- steep, open-pit walls and other windblown areas are generally
snow-free most of the winter (Mebane, 1994). Dust blowing
tional flotation techniques and recovery of about 93 percent for
from these highly contaminated areas is metal-rich and settles
Co and Cu and 73 percent for Au was obtained (Bending and
on snow pack. Such dust also contains water-soluble second-
Scales, 2001).
ary minerals that may contribute acid water upon melting as
Flotation of various sulfide minerals is affected by pH
well as highly elevated metal concentrations in runoff water.
(Shanks and others, 2009). Additions of compounds such as
Soluble, metal-rich compounds in the dust are quickly flushed
lime (CaO) and sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) are commonly
from the snow during the initial spring thaw, producing a spike
used to increase pH during flotation procedures and such
in metal concentrations several weeks before peak spring
compounds have a significant effect on water geochemistry fol-
runoff (Mebane, 1994). Stream discharge and metal concen-
lowing discharge from mill tailings (Shanks and others, 2009).
trations in surface water in the Blackbird mining area were
However, it is unclear what influence flotation
shown to be closely interrelated (Baldwin and others, 1978).
procedures, or the use of potential additives during flotation,
Metal concentrations in mine runoff water were (1) low during
had on surface runoff in the area.
winter months, (2) increased sharply during the initial spring
Research carried out at Blackbird in the 1940s by the
runoff period, (3) were again lower during the latter part of the
U.S. Bureau of Mines (USBM) also used combined techniques
spring runoff, and (4) increased gradually during later summer
of flotation, low-temperature calcination, and re-flotation on
months (Baldwin and others, 1978).
high-grade sulfide ore for separation of cobalt from Fe-sulfides
(Wells and others, 1948). However, it is unclear if these USBM
research techniques were standard practices used throughout Human Health and Ecosystem Effects
the district. Smelting was not carried out in the Blackbird
Creek area, and milled and processed ore concentrates were Human health effects of the Blackbird mines and deposits
reported to have been shipped to smelters in Niagara Falls, are primarily associated with exposure to metals by ingestion
New York, Anaconda, Montana, and Tacoma, Washington or inhalation. The ingestion pathway is generally via contami-
(Reed and Herdlick, 1947). Thus, there are no known geoenvi- nated water, but in addition, contaminated particles can be
ronmental effects in the Blackbird district related to smelting. inhaled or ingested. Ecosystem effects are dominantly related
to contamination of sediment, soil, water, and to exposure of affected with respect to Cu. Similarly, Cu concentrations in
toxic elements to aquatic organisms. Metal concentrations in soil collected prior to any disturbances at the active Ram (now
mine runoff water and sediment are highly elevated relative to the Idaho Cobalt Project) and Goose prospects ranged from
regional background concentrations (table 171). Several 360 to 1,600 g/g and were elevated compared to regional
studies have indicated that the primary concern is human backgrounds (39 to 230 g/g; table 171). However, such
exposure to elevated concentrations of Cu, Co, As, Fe, and soil Cu concentrations were below the USEPA residential soil
Mn, which have been listed as the contaminants of concern in screening level of 3,100 g/g (table 171).
the Blackbird area (Baldwin and others, 1978; Reiser, 1986; There are no known human health criteria for Co, but
Mok and Wai, 1989; Beltman and others, 1993; Rocky Moun- concentrations of Co were as high as 75,000 g/L in water
tain Consultants, 1995; Mebane, 1997; CH2MHill, 2001). draining mines and mine waste in the Blackbird area, whereas
Generation of acidic water is another potential effect on Co in stream water collected from background sites in this
ecosystem health in the Blackbird region. As discussed above, region ranged from <0.02 to 6.3 g/L (table 171). An
the oxidation of pyrite, and to a lesser degree other sulfide important Co concentration to evaluate ecosystem effects is an
minerals, generates acidic water as indicated by the following LC-50 concentration of 346 g/L (fig. 174), which was the
reaction: lethal concentration of Co found to result in a 50 percent
mortality of rainbow trout during laboratory experiments
FeS2 + 15/4 O2 + 7/2 H2O Fe(OH)3 + 2 H2SO4 (Marr and others, 1998). Concentrations of Co in stream
water collected proximal to mined areas exceeded the LC-50
Some water samples collected from adits, mine pits, concentration for Co by more than 200 times, and there is
seeps, and effluent from tailings in the Blackbird area have pH likely an adverse effect to rainbow trout on these creeks. There
<6.5 and are of concern (table 171, fig. 172). In addition, are few environmental guidelines for Co in sediment, but
stream water collected adjacent or proximal to mine wastes similar to Co in water, Co concentrations in stream sediment
(for example, Blackbird, Meadow, and Bucktail Creeks) also collected proximal to mines (ranging from 26 to 7,400 g/g)
has pH <6.5, but stream water collected downstream and were significantly higher than Co found in stream sediment
distal from mines of the ICB is circum-neutral due to natural from regional background areas (ranging from 4.0 to 59 g/g).
dilution by surrounding streams. Acidic water most likely has Concentrations of Co in undisturbed soil collected in the Idaho
an adverse effect only in areas directly draining mines, mine Cobalt Project area ranged from 29 to 940 g/g (fig. 175),
wastes, or mill tailings. Most of the larger streams and rivers exceeding the EPA residential soil screening level for Co of
in the region have water pH ranging from 6.5 to 9.0, which 23 g/g (table 171).
is recommended as acceptable by the USEPA (U.S. Environ- Concentrations of As found in water and sediment in the
mental Protection Agency, 2009). Blackbird area are a potential human health concern because
Concentrations of Cu in water were highly elevated in As is highly toxic and a known carcinogen. The USEPA drink-
the Blackbird area, particularly in mine adit water, where ing water guideline for As is 10 g/L (U.S. Environmental
concentrations were as high as 312,000 g/L (table 171). Protection Agency, 2009). Although few water samples col-
The EPA drinking water guideline for Cu is 1,300 g/L (this is lected from mine seeps, adits, and tailings piles exceeded the
a MCLG, maximum contaminant limit goal) at a water hard- drinking water guideline for As (table 171), most stream water
ness of 100 mg/L. However, open streams in the Blackbird samples contain As concentrations that were below the 10-g/L
area are generally not sources of public drinking water. Two EPA drinking water guideline. However, as previously men-
other water guidelines for comparison are (1) the 12-g/L tioned, streams in the Blackbird area are generally not sources
EPA chronic aquatic life guideline for Cu at a water hardness of public drinking water. Nearly all of the water samples
of 100 mg/L, which is the concentration intended to be collected in the Blackbird region contained As concentrations
protective of the majority of the aquatic communities; and below the 190 g/L chronic aquatic life guideline for As, and
(2) the 14-g/L LC-50 concentration (fig. 173), which has only one mine-seep water sample that contained 930 g/L
been found to be a lethal concentration of Cu producing a exceeded this guideline. Conversely, mine waste and stream
50 percent mortality of rainbow trout during laboratory experi- sediment collected proximal to mines in the Blackbird area
ments (Marr and others, 1998). Concentrations of Cu in mine contained highly elevated As concentrations that ranged from
waste and stream sediment collected downstream from mines 350 to 17,000 g/g, all of which exceeded the PEC of 33 g/g
in the Blackbird area ranged from 170 to 17,000 g/g, all for As (MacDonald and others, 2000), suggesting probable
of which exceeded the probable effect concentration (PEC) harmful effects to sediment-dwelling organisms. Concentra-
for Cu of 149 g/g, the concentration above which harmful tions of As in undisturbed soil collected in the Idaho cobalt
effects are likely in sediment-dwelling organisms (MacDonald project area ranged from 37 to 610 g/g (Giles and others,
and others, 2000). Considering that concentrations of Cu in 2009), which greatly exceeded the USEPA residential soil
stream water and stream sediment collected proximal to mines screening level for As of 0.39 g/g (table 171).
in the Blackbird area were generally an order of magnitude Streams in the Blackbird region have been known for
higher than environmental guidelines, such streams should many years to contain Fe precipitates and highly elevated con-
be considered contaminated and these ecosystems adversely centrations of Fe in sediment and water (Baldwin and others,
Table 171. Geochemical data for water, mine waste, stream sediment, and soil collected proximal to mines and from background
sites in the Idaho cobalt belt. [Data from Beltman and others (1993), Eppinger and others (2003), Giles and others (2009), and USEPA
(2009)]. Table modified from Gray and Eppinger (2012).
Water
Sample type Co (g/L) Cu (g/L) As (g/L) Fe (g/L) Mn (g/L) pH
Adits, seeps, open pits <1.3-75,000 8.5-312,000 <1.6-930 138-159,000 3.9-35,000 2.7-6.8
Streams proximal to mines 420-49,000 250-310,000 <1-18 28-25,000 54-6,900 3.3-8.1
Regional background stream water <0.02-6.3 <0.5-67 <0.2-8.2 9.4-150 0.11-10 6.4-8.6
Water Guidelines
EPA Chronic Aquatic Life guideline *12 190 1,000 6.5-9.0
EPA Drinking water guideline *1,300 10 300 50
LC-50 rainbow trout 346 14
Mine Waste, Stream Sediment, and Soil
Co (g/g) Cu (g/g) As (g/g) Fe (g/g) Mn (g/g)
Mine waste 90-7,400 680-17,000 440-17,000 82,000-234,000 85-660
Stream sediment proximal to mines 26-700 170-6,800 350-2,900 14,000-320,000 65-760
Regional background stream sediment 4.0-59 7.0-230 3.0-47 14,000-45,000 230-1,100
Soil proximal to mines 29-940 360-1,600 37-610 44,000-73,000 160-440
Regional background soil 14-59 39-230 11-47 26,000-42,000 380-1,100
Sediment and Soil Guideliness
EPA Residential Soil Screening Level 23 3,100 0.39 55,000
EPA Industrial Soil Screening Level 300 41,000 1.6 720,000
Probable Effect Concentration 149 33
*
Water Hardness = 100 mg/L
1978; Beltman and others, 1993; Mebane, 1994). Mine water Mn concentrations that ranged from 65 to 760 g/g, whereas
runoff and streams proximal to mines contained Fe concen- stream sediment samples collected from background areas
trations that ranged from 28 to 159,000 g/L and generally contained similar, but generally higher, Mn concentrations
exceeded both the USEPA drinking water guideline (300 g/L) that ranged from 230 to 1,100 g/g. Similarly, Mn concentra-
and chronic aquatic life guideline (1,000 g/L) for Fe (table tions in undisturbed soil collected in the Idaho Cobalt Project
171). Conversely, stream water samples collected from back- area ranged from 160 to 440 g/g (Eppinger and others, 2003;
ground sites in the Blackbird area contained Fe concentrations Giles and others, 2009), whereas soil collected from back-
that ranged from 9.4 to 150 g/L, all below the water quality ground areas contained generally higher Mn concentrations
guidelines. Concentrations of Fe in samples of mine waste and that ranged from 380 to 1,100 g/g (Beltman and others, 1993;
stream sediment were elevated (as high as 320,000 g/g), but table 171). Because there are no sediment or soil quality
there is no PEC established for Fe in sediment. Concentrations guidelines for Mn, it is unclear if concentrations of Mn in
of Fe in undisturbed soil collected in the Idaho Cobalt Project stream sediment and soil in the Blackbird region are of con-
area ranged from 44,000 to 73,000 g/g, most of which were cern for ecosystem health.
below the EPA residential soil screening level for Fe (55,000 Human exposure to metals through potential inhalation of
g/g, table 171). mine waste particulates or ingestion via hand-to-mouth contact
There are few water quality guidelines and no sedi- in the Blackbird mine area was investigated by the ATSDR
ment or aquatic life guidelines established for Mn. The only (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 1995,
established guideline for Mn in water is the USEPA maximum 1998). These studies concluded that the Blackbird mine site
contaminant limit goal of 50 g/L. Concentrations of Mn could pose a public health hazard for hikers, campers, fisher-
varied widely in adit, seepage, and discharge water collected men, former mine employees, site investigators, and site work-
from mined areas in the Blackbird area, and ranged from 3.9 ers, through ingestion, inhalation, or skin contact with dust or
to 35,000 g/L; mine water generally exceeded the 50-g/L airborne particulates. In the second study (Agency for Toxic
goal (table 171). Water collected from background sites con- Substances and Disease Registry, 1998), cleanup workers at
tained much lower Mn concentrations and ranged from 0.11 the Blackbird mine site had elevated As concentrations in
to 10 g/L, well below the Mn goal. Mine waste and stream their hair samples, and soil and indoor dust samples collected
sediment collected proximal to Blackbird mines contained from businesses and residences in the region had elevated As
A B
100,000
100,000
Co, in micrograms per liter

10,000
Cu, in micrograms per liter
10,000 1,000
100
1,000
10
100
1
10 0.1
0.01 Co
1
Cu 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5
pH
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5
pH
C D
1,000
100,000
As, in micrograms per liter

Fe, in micrograms per liter
10,000 100
1,000
10
100
1
Fe As
10
3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5
pH pH
E
10,000
Mn, in micrograms per liter
1,000
100
10
1
Mn
3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0
pH
EXPLANATION
Water draining adit or seeping from mine waste pile
Seep below mill tailings pile
Stream water downstream and proximal (< 8 km) to deposits
Stream water downstream and distal (8 to 50 km) to deposits
Background water, natural seep at Ram deposit area
Background water, proximal/upstream to deposits
Background water, distal
Figure 172. Concentration of Cu, Co, Fe, Mn, and As versus pH for unfiltered water from the Idaho cobalt belt. Data from Giles and
others (2009), Eppinger and others (2003), and Beltman and others (1993).
1,000,000
100,000 Seeps and adit water
EPA drinking water guideline

Cu, in micrograms per liter
10,000 (1,300 g/L @ 100 mg/L water hardness)

Blackbird Creek
1,000
Backgrounds distal to mines

100
Backgrounds proximal
10 to mines
LC-50 (14 g/L) for rainbow trout and the EPA chronic toxicity
aquatic life guideline (12 g/L @ 100 mg/L water hardness)
1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Distance from mines, in kilometers
Figure 173. Concentration of Cu in unfiltered water versus distance from mines in the Blackbird area. Water data are from
Beltman and others (1993), an LC-50 concentration is from Marr and others (1998), and the guidelines are from U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency (2009).
100,000
Seeps and adit water
10,000
Co, in micrograms per liter
1,000
LC-50 (346 g/L)

for rainbow trout
100 Blackbird Creek
10
Backgrounds proximal to mines Backgrounds distal to mines
1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Distance from mines, in kilometers
Figure 174. Concentration of Co in unfiltered water versus distance from mines in the Blackbird area. Water data are from
Beltman and others (1993) and an LC-50 concentration is from Marr and others (1998).
1,000 Baldwin, J.A., Ralston, D.R., and Trexler, B.D., 1978, Water
resource problems related to mining in the Blackbird mining
district, IdahoCompletion Report for Supplements 35 and
48 to Cooperative Agreement 12-11-204-11, USDA Forest
Service; Moscow, College of Mines, University of Idaho,
232 p.
Co, in parts per million
100
Beltman, D., Holmes, J., Lipton, J., Maest, A., and Schardt, J.,
1993, Blackbird mine site source investigationField sam-
pling report: Prepared by CG/Hagler, Bailly, Inc., Boulder,
10 Colo., for the State of Idaho, Idaho Department of Environ-
mental Quality, 1410 N. Hilton, Boise, Idaho, 83706.
mean concentrations of Bending, J.S., and Scales, W.G., 2001, New production in the
soils in western United States
Idaho cobalt beltA unique metallogenic province: Institu-
tion of Mining and Metallurgy Transactions, v. 110, sec. B
1
10 100 1,000 10,000 (Applied Earth Science), p. B81B87.
Cu, in parts per million
EXPLANATION
CH2MHill, 2001, Final aquatic ecological risk assessment,
Ram prospect soils Blackbird mine site: Prepared by CH2MHill for U.S. Envi-
Goose prospect soils ronmental Protection Agency, Region X, Idaho Operations,
1435 North Orchard Street, Boise, Idaho, 83706.
Figure 175. Concentration of Cu versus Co in soil
collected from the Ram (now called the Idaho Cobalt Eppinger, R.G., Briggs, P.H., and Rieffenberger, B., 2007,
project) and Goose prospect areas, Idaho cobalt belt. Baseline geochemistry of a part of the Salmon River drain-
Values for mean concentrations of soil in western U.S. agetwo examples, in Lund, Karen, ed., Earth science
from Smith and Huyck (1999). studies in support of public policy development and land
stewardshipHeadwaters province, Idaho and Montana:
U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1305, p. 6271.
concentrations as well. The As in indoor dust was reported to
Eppinger, R.G., Briggs, P.H., Rieffenberger, B., Van Dorn, C.,
be transported by workers at the Blackbird mine, who carried
Brown, Z.A., Crock, J.G., Hageman, P.H., Meier, A., Sutley,
contaminated dust home on their shoes and clothing (Agency
S.J., Theodorakos, P.M., and Wilson, S.A., 2003, Geochem-
for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 1998).
ical data for stream sediment and surface water samples
Potential human exposure to highly elevated concentra-
from Panther Creek, the Middle Fork of the Salmon River,
tions of Cu, Co, and As is through ingestion or inhalation of
and the main Salmon River, collected before and after the
mine waste particulates. Additional concerns are mine wastes
Clear Creek, Little Pistol, and Shellrock Wildfires of 2000
used for road or other construction materials and permanent
in central Idaho: U.S. Geological Survey Open File Report
living structures (for example, homes) built on, or adjacent
03152, 32 p., CD-ROM. (Also available at http://pubs.
to, mined areas that may lead to human exposure to these
er.usgs.gov/usgspubs/ofr/ofr03152.)
elements.
Giles, S.A., Granitto, M., and Eppinger, R.G., 2009, Selected
geochemical data for modeling near-surface processes
in mineral systems: U.S. Geological Survey Data Series
References Cited 433, CD-ROM. (Also available at http://pubs.er.usgs.gov/
usgspubs/ds/ds433.)
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 1995,
Public health assessment, Blackbird mine, Cobalt, Lemhi Gray, J.E., and Eppinger, R.G., 2012, Distribution of Cu, Co,
County, Idaho: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease, As, and Fe in mine waste, sediment, soil, and water in and
accessed March 1, 2011, at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/hac/ around mineral deposits and mines of the Idaho cobalt belt,
pha/pha.asp?docid=1040&pg=0. USA: Applied Geochemistry, v. 27, p. 10531062.
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 1998, Idaho Department of Environmental Quality (IDEQ), 2001,
Exposure investigation, Blackbird mine, Cobalt, Lemhi Middle Salmon River-Panther Creek subbasin assessment
County, Idaho: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease, and TMDL: Idaho Department of Environmental Quality,
accessed March 1, 2011, at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/hac/ Boise, Idaho, accessed May 13, 2010, at http://www.epa.gov/
pha/pha.asp?docid=1039&pg=0. waters/tmdldocs/1379_Salmon%20Panther%20TMDL.pdf.
References Cited181

Johnson, R., Close, T., and McHugh, E., 1998, Mineral Shanks, W.C., III, Dusel-Bacon, Cynthia, Koski, R.A., Mor-
resource appraisal of the Salmon National Forest, Idaho: gan, L.A., Mosier, D.L., Piatak, N.A., Ridley, W.I., Seal,
U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 98478, 64 p. R.R. II, Schulz, K.J., Slack, J.F., and Thurston, Roland,
2009, A new occurrence model for the national assessment
Lund, K., Evans, K.V., and Esparza, L.E., 1983, Mineral of undiscovered volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits: U.S.
resource potential map of the special mining management Geological Survey Open-File Report 20091235, 27 p.
zoneClear Creek, Lemhi County, Idaho: U.S. Geologi-
cal Survey Miscellaneous Field Studies Map MF1576A, Slack, J.F., Johnson, C.A., and Causey, J.D., 2013, Deposit
scale 1:50,000, with pamphlet. type and associated commodities, chap. G2, of Slack, J.F.,
ed., Descriptive and geoenvironmental model for cobalt-
MacDonald, D.D., Ingersoll, C.G., and Berger, T.A., 2000, copper-gold deposits in metasedimentary rocks: U.S.
Development and evaluation of consensus-based sediment Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2010
quality guidelines for freshwater ecosystems: Archives of 5070G, p. 919, http://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2010/5070/g/.
Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, v. 39, p.
Smith, K.S., and Huyck, H.L.O., 1999, An overview of the
2031.
abundance, relative mobility, bioavailability, and human
Marr, J.C.A., Hansen, J.A., Meyer, J.S., Cacela, D., Podrabsky, toxicity of metals, in Plumlee, G.S., and Logsdon, M.J.,
T., Lipton, J., and Bergman, J.L., 1998, Toxicity of cobalt The environmental geochemistry of mineral deposits, Part
and copper to rainbow troutApplication of a mechanistic A, Processes, techniques, and health issues: Reviews in
model for predicting survival: Aquatic Toxicology, v. 43, p. Economic Geology, v. 6A, p. 2970.
225238. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2009, National
Mebane, C.A., 1994, Blackbird mine preliminary natural Recommended Water Quality Criteria: U.S. Environmental
resource survey: Seattle, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmo- Protection Agency, accessed June 18, 2010, at http://www.
spheric Administration, Hazardous Materials Assessment epa.gov/waterscience/criteria/wqctable/index.html.
and Response Division, 130 p. Wells, H.R., Sandell, W.G., Snedden, H.D., and Mitchell, T.F.,
1948, Concentration of copper-cobalt ores from the Black-
Mebane, C.A., 1997, Use attainability analysis, Blackbird
bird district, Lemhi County, Idaho: U.S. Bureau of Mines
Creek, Lemhi County, Idaho: Idaho Division of Environ-
Report of Investigations 4279, 21 p.
mental Quality and Water Quality Assessment and Stan-
dards Bureau, and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
Region 10, 17 p.
Mok, W.M., and Wai, C.M., 1989, Distribution and mobiliza-

tion of arsenic species in the creeks around the Blackbird
mining district, Idaho: Water Resources, v. 23, p. 713.

Reiser, D.W., 1986, Panther Creek, Idaho, habitat rehabilita-

tionFinal report: Prepared for the U.S. Department of
Energy, Bonneville Power Administration, Division of Fish
and Wildlife, Project No. 84-29, Contract No. DE-AC79-
84BP17449, 479 p.
Reed, G.C., and Herdlick, J.A., 1947, Blackbird cobalt depos-

its, Lemhi County, Idaho: U.S. Bureau of Mines Report of
Investigations 4012, 14 p.
Rocky Mountain Consultants, Inc., 1995, Physical restoration

analysis, Blackbird mine, Lemhi County, Idaho: Prepared
for National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
pursuant to Task order no. 56-DGNC-4-50097 of NOAA
contract no. 50-DGNC-1-00007.
18. Knowledge Gaps and Future Research
Directions
By John F. Slack, Klaus J. Schulz, John E. Gray, and Robert G. Eppinger
18 of 18


U.S. Government.
Suggested citation:
Slack, J.F., Schulz, K.J., Gray, J.E., and Eppinger, R.G., 2013, Knowledge gaps and future research directions,
chap. G18, of Slack, J.F., ed., Descriptive and geoenvironmental model for cobaltcoppergold deposits in
metasedimentary rocks: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 20105070G, p. 183187,
http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20105070g.

185
Contents
Relationship to Igneous (Granitic) Rocks...............................................................................................187
Timing of Alteration Relative to Deposit Formation...............................................................................187
Role of Sedimentary Rocks in Deposit Genesis.....................................................................................187
Role of Tectonism in Deposit Genesis.....................................................................................................187
Possible Relationship to Iron Oxide-Copper-Gold (IOCG) Deposits...................................................187
Geoenvironmental Issues..........................................................................................................................187
18. Knowledge Gaps and Future
Research Directions
By John F. Slack, Klaus J. Schulz, John E. Gray, and
Robert G. Eppinger
This review of Co-Cu-Au deposits in metasedimen- Possible Relationship to Iron Oxide-Copper-

tary rocks has identified several topics that warrant further Gold (IOCG) Deposits
research. These topics are itemized in the following list
(unranked). a. Constraints of minor to no-iron-oxide gangue in some
of the Co-Cu-Au deposits
b. Co-rich metal suite of Co-Cu-Au deposits versus
Age of Mineralization Co-poor suite in most IOCG deposits
c. Evaluate possible zoning in terms of proximal and
a. Detailed textural and paragenetic studies using light distal Co-Cu-Au deposits
microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging d. Stable and radiogenic isotope studies to determine
b. High-precision geochronology of ore and gangue sources of metals and fluids
minerals
Geoenvironmental Issues
Relationship to Igneous (Granitic) Rocks
a. With the exception of deposits in the Idaho cobalt belt,
a. High-precision geochronology of spatially-associated geoenvironmental data for other Co-Cu-Au deposits world-
plutons and orthogneisses wide could not be located in public literature sources
b. Evaluation of possible role of magmatic fluids in b. Monitoring of Cu, Co, and As in surface sediment and
water runoff is needed for Cu-Co-Au deposits worldwide in
deposit genesis
addition to the Blackbird district
c. Additional surface geochemical data could lead to a
Timing of Alteration Relative to Deposit Formation more thorough understanding of affects on water quality and
ecosystem health.
a. Detailed textural and paragenetic studies of spatially
associated alteration zones
b. High-precision in-situ geochronology of alteration
minerals (for example, titanite, rutile, tourmaline)
c. Geologic and geochemical studies of ironstones to
discriminate from iron formations
Role of Sedimentary Rocks in Deposit Genesis

a. Definition of lithostratigraphic architecture of the
sedimentary basins
b. Search for meta-evaporites within the sedimentary
successions
Role of Tectonism in Deposit Genesis

a. Detailed structural studies to discern timing of ore
formation relative to tectonic events
b. Importance of discriminating primary from tectonically
remobilized mineralization
Appendix 1. Database for Co-Cu-Au Deposits Included in This Report 189
Appendix 1. Database for Co-Cu-Au Deposits Included in This Report

By J. Douglas Causey and John F. Slack
The deposits described in this appendix are the ones that we believe are representative of the Co-Cu-Au deposit model type.
This appendix contains a concise description of the deposit records that are stored in a master relational database. The
information in the database was gleaned from personal contacts and published reports, which are cited in the description of each
deposit.
Information shown on the following pages was extracted from the database using queries of tables to select the pertinent
data. A database form was used to provide structure to the data and printout of the deposit descriptions. Names associated with
each piece of data on the forms are usually abbreviations and their full meaning is described below.
Name Description
DepID Unique deposit identification number.
Deposit name Main name for the deposit.
Other names Alternate name(s) for the deposit.
Includes Names of mines, claims, owners, etc. which are included in the deposit description.
Country Country or countries in which deposit occurs.
State/Province State(s) or Province(s) in which deposit occurs.
Latitude Latitude of center of deposit in WGS 84 (World Geodetic System, 1984).
Longitude Longitude of center of deposit in WGS 84.
Major Metals Major metals in the deposit.
Minor Metals Minor or associated metals.
Regional Tectonic Set Regional tectonic setting of the deposit.
Metamorphic Grade Metamorphic grade - list maximum and describe any retrograde metamorphism.
Deposit geometry Deposit geometry - length, width, and depth (in meters).
Host Rk Age Age of the host rock.
Cntry Rk Lithol Lithology of the country rock.
Wall Rk Lithol Lithology of the wall rock.
Ore Mineral Ore minerals present.
Gangue Mineral Gangue minerals present.
Supergene Min Supergene minerals present.
Hydrot Alteration Hydrothermal alteration.
Assoc Pluton If there are plutons present are they felsic, mafic, both and any names.
Assoc Mag-rich Rk List any associated magnetite-rich rocks. (this does not include hematite-rich rocks)
Min Age Age of mineralization.
Struct Control Structural controls of ore deposit.
Hi Salinity? Do fluid inclusions indicate high salinity? (yes or no)
Isotope Sig Description any isotopic signatures.
References References for data in this deposit record.
Metric tons Tonnage of deposit in metric tons.
Cu grd Grade of copper in weight percent.
Co grd Grade of cobalt in weight percent.
Au grd Grade of gold in g/t.
Resource desc Resource description and other pertinent information.
DepID 13 Deposit name Country State/Province Latitude Longitude

Blackbird-Idaho Cobalt belt USA Idaho 45.1229 -114.3486
Other names Associated magnetite-rich rock
Includes Ram, Sunshine, Chicago, Uncle Sam, Idaho, Dandy, Merle,
Blacktail, Brown Bear, Northfield, St. Joe, Hawkeye, Burl, Calera
Major metals Co, Cu, Fe Hi salinity?
Minor metals Au, Y, REE, Bi, As, Ni, Zn Min Age Mesoproterozoic Host rock age Mesoproterozoic
Ore mineral cobaltite, chalcopyrite, native gold, pyrite, glaucodot, bismuth, arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, bismuthinite, monazite,
xenotime, marcasite, gadolinite-(Y), tellurobismuthite(?), gersdorffite(?), millerite, safflorite, sphalerite
Gangue mineral iron-rich biotite (annite), quartz, albite, microcline, apatite, zoisite, tourmaline, siderite, calcite, ankerite,
ilmenite, zircon, magnetite, garnet, chloritoid, muscovite, chlorite, epidote, graphite, allanite
Supergene mineral erythrite, covellite, chrysocolla, azurite, malachite, bornite, chalcocite, cuprite, native copper, native silver
Cntry rock lithology Apple Creek Formation - banded siltite unit (meta-siltite and meta-argillite) with biotite, Gunsight
Formation - metasandstone and minor metashale
Wall rock lithology Biotitite, biotite phyllite, biotite-tourmaline phyllite, sugary quartz, schistose, and siliceous rock
Hydrothermal alteration Silicification, tourmalinization, biotitization
Regional tectonic settting Folded strata in fault-bounded Blackbird structural block
Metamorphic grade Middle greenschist to lower amphibolite
Deposit geometry 12 ore zones - each with multiple lodes in 4 km x 2 km block
Structural control Axial plane cleavage in folds; shear zones, and breccias
Associated pluton Mesoproterozoic granite (peraluminous, two-mica granite to quartz monzonite with rapakivi megacrysts)
(1.37 Ga), augen gneiss, and 1.379 Ga gabbroic pluton
Isotopic signature 34S = 7-9; carbonate sample: 13C = -4.0 permil (relative to VPDB), and 18O = 9.6 permil (relative to
VSMOW)
References Anderson, A.L., 1943, A preliminary report of the cobalt deposits in the Blackbird District, Lemhi County, Idaho:
Idaho Bureau of Mines and Geology Pamphlet 61, 34 p.
Anderson, A.L., 1947, Cobalt mineralization in the Blackbird district, Lemhi County, Idaho: Economic Geology v.
42, p. 22-46.
Bennett, E.H., 1977, Reconnaissance geology and geochemistry of the Blackbird Mountain - Panther Creek Region,
Lemhi County, Idaho: Idaho Bureau of Mines and Geology Pamphlet no. 167, 108 p.
Bookstrom, A.A., Johnson, C.A., Landis, G.P., and Frost, T.P., 2007, Blackbird Fe-Cu-Au-REE deposits, in O'Neil,
J.M., ed. Metallogeny of Mesoproterozoic sedimentary rocks in Idaho and Montana-Studies by the Mineral
Resources Program, U.S. Geological Survey, 2004-2007:U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2007-1280, p. 13-
20.
Kunter, Richard, and Prenn, Neil, 2008, Formation Capital Corp. Technical Report Idaho Cobalt Property Feasibility
Study (Ram Deposit): Samuel Engineering, Inc. NI 43-101 Technical Report for Formation Capital Corp., 142 p.
Nash, J.T., Hahn, G.A., and Sauners, J.A., 1987, The occurrence of gold in siliceous Co-Cu exhalite deposits of the
Blackbird mining district, Lemhi County, Idaho: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 87-410, 14 p.
Prenn, Neil, 2006, Geology and resources Idaho Cobalt Project feasibility study, Lemhi County, Idaho USA,
prepared for Formation Capital Corporation: Mine Development Associates, Mine Engineering Services, 140 p. plus
appendices.
Slack, J.F., 2006, High REE and Y concentrations in Co-Cu-Au ores of the Blackbird district, Idaho: Economic
Geology, v. 101, p. 275-280.
Vhay, J.S., 1948, Cobalt-copper deposits of the Blackbird district, Lemhi County, Idaho: U.S. Geological Survey,
U.S. Strategic Minerals Investigations Preliminary Report no. 3-219 (U.S.G.S. Open-File Report 48-1), 26 p.
A-1
Metric ton Co % Cu % Au g/t Resource Description Citation
16,800,000 0.735 1.37 1.04 Tonnage and grades calculated in Anderson (1943), Anderson
2011 by Art Bookstrom and rounded (1947), Bennett (1977), G.A. Hahn
and S.G. Peters (1979) written
commun., S.G. Peters (1981)
written commun., K.D. Loose
(1982) written commun., Prenn
(2006), Kunter and Prenn (2008)
A-2

Cobalt Hill deposit Canada Ontario 46.84 -80.63
Includes
Major metals Co, Cu, Au Hi salinity?
Minor metals Ni, As, Hg, Te Min Age Paleoproterozoic Host rock age Paleoproterozoic
Ore mineral pyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, bravoite, gersdorffite, pentlandite, chalcocite, gold, coloradoite
Gangue mineral albite, chert, quartz, mica, chlorite, calcite, ferroan dolomite, ankerite, fuchsite, monazite, rutile
Supergene mineral
Cntry rock lithology Huronian sedimentary rocks: quartzite, arkosic quartzite
Wall rock lithology Arkosic quartzite
Hydrothermal alteration Regional albitization (1.7 Ga), silicification, pyritization and locally, chlorite, hematized
Regional tectonic settting Collisional orogeny and the development of the Killarney Magmatic Belt. Huronian Supergroup
deposited at the southern margin of a rift, and the passive margin evolved into a convergent
tectonic regime
Metamorphic grade Lower greenschist
Deposit geometry About 100 m diameter
Structural control Brecciated faults and shear zones
Associated pluton Murray Granite, at 2.45 and 2.47 Ga, Nipissing gabbro (2.22 Ga)
Isotopic signature
References Schandl, E.S., 2004, The role of saline fluids in base-metal and gold mineralization at the Cobalt Hill prospect
northeast of the Sudbury igneous complex, Ontario: A fluid-inclusion and mineralogical study: Canadian
Mineralogist, v. 42, p. 1541-1562.
No data
A-3

Contact Lake Belt Canada Northwest Territories 66 -118
Other names Port Radium-Echo Bay-Contact Lake Belt Associated magnetite-rich rock
Includes Contact Lake Mine, Bornite Lake, Azurite Mag Hill 1, Mag Hill
2, J1, K1, K2
Major metals Cu, Au, Ag, Co, U Hi salinity?
Minor metals Bi, Zn, As Min Age Host rock age Proterozoic
Ore mineral pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, cobaltian arsenopyrite, covellite, glaucodot, pitchblende, malachite, erythrite,
chalcocite, marcasite
Gangue mineral albite, magnetite, hematite, biotite, sericite, chlorite, quartz, K feldspar, manganese oxide, tourmaline,
carbonate, jasper
Supergene mineral
Cntry rock lithology Echo Bay Formation: andesite stratovolcano complex; Cameron Bay Formation: sandstone, siltstone,
mudstone, felsic to intermediate ignimbrites and ash-flow tuffs; and granodiorite (on Bornite Lake claims)
Wall rock lithology Surprise Lake Member: porphyritic andesite
Hydrothermal alteration Propylitic, phyllic, potassic, hematite, albitic, silicification, sulfidation, albitization
Regional tectonic settting Folded subduction-related volcano-plutonic arc complex (NW-trending flank of a collapsed andesite
stratovolcano complex in Great Bear Magmatic Zone-1.88 to 1.84 Ga Andean-type calc-alkaline
volcano-plutonic arc complex.)
Metamorphic grade Amphibolite facies
Deposit geometry K2 - discontinuous minimum 3 km x 200-400 m wide, K1 - 4 discontinuous outcrops up to 100 m x 40 m,
Bornite Lake
Structural control Fractures, veins, stockworks, breccias, and replacement zones
Associated pluton Mystery Island Intrusive Complex (diorite to monzonite to granodiorite)-Contact Lake Pluton, Great Bear
batholith (granite, monzonite, granodiorite, syenogranite)
Isotopic signature
References Fingler, J., 2005, Technical report on the Contact Lake property, District of Mackenzie, Northwest Territories,
Canada: Alberta Star Development Corporation, Internal Report, August 4, 2005, 93 p. plus appendices.
Mumin, A.H., Corriveau, L., Somarin, A.K., and Ootes, L., 2007, Iron oxide copper-gold-type polymetallic
mineralization in the Contact Lake belt, Great Bear magmatic zone, Northwest Territories, Canada: Exploration and
Mining Geology, v. 16, p. 187-208.
Drill interval. 0.27%Cu, 0.10% Co, Fingler (2005)

1.31%As, 0.15 g/t Au over 24
meters. No resource calculations
done.
A-4

Dahenglu deposit China Jilin Province 41.9 126.4
Includes
Major metals Co, Cu Hi salinity?
Minor metals Zn, Pb, As Min Age Host rock age Proterozoic
Ore mineral siegenite, cobaltite, skutterudite, Co-bearing pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena
Gangue mineral quartz, calcite
Supergene mineral
Cntry rock lithology B-rich and C-rich phyllite, quartzite. Ore body composed of C-bearing sericite phyllite, tourmaline-
bearing sericite phyllite, quartzite and tourmalite. In Dalizi Formation in Laoling Group
Wall rock lithology
Hydrothermal alteration
Regional tectonic settting Liaoji Proterozoic rifting zone
Metamorphic grade Greenschist-high to amphibolite metamophic facies
Deposit geometry 360 1,400 m long, 95 800 m wide, 3 108.7 m thick
Structural control
Associated pluton basic-intermediate acidic vein rock, and tonalite-trondhjemite
Isotopic signature
References Wei, Yan Guang, Wang, Ke Yong, Yang, Yan Chen, Zhao, Hong Jun, and Liu, Zong Xiu, 2002, The features of
metamorphic minerogenetic fluid of Dahenglu Cu-Co deposit in Baishan County, Jilin Province: Journal of Jilin
University (Earth Science Edition), 2002 issue 2, p. 128-133, accessed November 16, 2011, at
http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTOTAL-CCDZ200202004.htm [in Chinese with English abstract].
Yang, Yan-Chen, Feng, Ben-Zhi, and Liu, Peng E., 2001, Dahenglu-type of cobalt deposits in the Laoling area, Jilin
Province: A sedex deposit with late reformation, China: Changchun Keji Daxue Xuebao [Journal of Changchun
University of Science and Technology], v. 31, p. 40-45, accessed November 16, 2011, at
http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTOTAL-CCDZ200101007.htm [in Chinese with English abstract].
Guo, Wen-xiu, Liu, Jian-min, 2002, The Geologic Features of Dahenglu Cu, Co Deposit and Ore-Controling Factors
in Jinlin Province, China: Progress In Precambrian Research, issue Z1, p. 206-213 accessed November 16, 2011, at
http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTOTAL-QHWJ2002Z1018.htm, [in Chinese with English abstract].
No data
A-5

Gladhammar Sweden Smland 57.7196 16.4249
Other names Gladhammars gruvflt, Lunds, Solberga Associated magnetite-rich rock
Includes Bonde Mine, Holtandare or Baggen Mine, Svensk Mine, massive magnetite / hematite quartzite
Odelmark Mine, Knut Mine, Ryss Mines
Major metals Co, Cu, Fe, Au Hi salinity?
Minor metals Zn, Pb, Mo, Bi Min Age Host rock age Paleoproterozoic
Ore mineral gladite, hammarite, lindstrmite (Pb-Cu-Bi sulfosalts); cobaltite, chalcopyrite, bornite, sphalerite, carrollite, pyrite,
tellurfrande, arsenopyrite, galena, molybdenite
Gangue mineral quartz, ilmenite, magnetite, mica
Supergene mineral
Cntry rock lithology Vstervik Formation - rocks are weathering products of old, volcanic ashes and lavas - metamorphosed to
quarzites and amphiboles
Wall rock lithology Quartzite
Hydrothermal alteration
Regional tectonic settting Early Svecofennian supracrustal sequences; tensional regime, possibly an ensialic continental rift,
penecontemporaneous with folding, migmatization and formation of 'lateorogenic' anatectic granites
Metamorphic grade Amphibolite?
Deposit geometry Discontinuous 3 to 5 foot thick seams over 8,000 feet along strike and 300 feet deep.
Structural control Folds, shear zones
Associated pluton ~1.8 Ga Smland batholith - granitoids (I-granites)
Isotopic signature
References Geological Survey of Finland, Geological Survey of Norway, and Geological Survey of Sweden, 2009,
Fennoscandian Ore Deposit Database (FODD): Geological Survey of Finland (GTK), accessed May 5, 2010, at
http://en.gtk.fi/ExplorationFinland/fodd/. (ID = 1916 in database).
Joansson, ke, 1988, The age and geotectonic setting of the Smland -Vrmland granite-porphyry belt: GFF
(Journal of the Geological Society of Sweden), v. 110, part 2, p. 105-110.
Sandberg, Fredrik, Palm, Veronica, Carlsson, Eva, and Nilsson, Nicholas, 2009, Gladhammars gruvor: Kalmar Lns
Museum, Arkeologisk rapport 2009:52, 198 p. (in Swedish).
5,894 No average grades reported. Mined Geological Survey of Finland and

1874-1934. 15% average cobalt others (2009)
grade mentioned in one mine on the
deposit (Davies, 1884, p. 268).
A-6

Haarakumpu Finland Oulu 66.4243 28.574
Other names Kuusamo-Panajrvi-Kuolajrvi Au-Co district Associated magnetite-rich rock
Includes
Major metals Co, Cu Hi salinity?
Minor metals Au, Bi, Ni Min Age Paleoproterozoic Host rock age Paleoproterozoic
Ore mineral cobaltian pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, cobaltian pentlandite, native gold, native bismuth
Gangue mineral magnetite, albite
Supergene mineral
Cntry rock lithology Quartzite, mica schist (skarn quartzite, tremolite-bearing mica schist, tremolite skarn, amphibolite and
mica schist are the most common rocks of the schist formation. )
Wall rock lithology Tremolite-garnet altered quartz-sericite schist
Hydrothermal alteration Regional albitization of sedimentary rocks and spillitization of volcanic rocks (pre-ore), carbonate, Fe-
Mg-K metasomatism and silicification (mineralizing phase)
Regional tectonic settting Kuusamo Schist Belt - metamorphosed, intracratonic, extensively albitised, supracrustal sequence in
a failed rift system
Metamorphic grade Greenschist/amphibolite
Deposit geometry Upper lens: 500 m x 250 m x 6.5 m, Lower lens: 1000 m x 150 m x 6 m; RefID 140 - one ore body 800 x
200m x10-20m thick open along strike and down dip.
Structural control Cross structures in Hyvaniemi - Maaninkavaara anticline and brecciated zones
Associated pluton Central Lapland Granitoid Complex granite
Isotopic signature
References Franklin, J.M., 2006, Technical Report on the Kuusamo Properties, prepared for Belvedere Resources Ltd,
November 14, 2006: Franklin Geosciences Ltd., Ontario, Canada, 55 p.
Geological Survey of Finland, Geological Survey of Norway, and Geological Survey of Sweden, 2009,
Vsti, K., 2010, FINCOPPER A public database on copper deposits in Finland: Geological Survey of Finland,
Version 1.1, accessed April 19, 2011, at http://en.gtk.fi/ExplorationFinland/Commodities/Copper/haarakumpu.html.
(Deposit_id = 85 in database).
4,680,000 0.17 0.34 Tonnage, Cu, and Co calculated Vsti (2010)

weighted average from
FINCOPPER database
A-7

Hangaslampi deposit Finland Oulu 66.2808 29.2036
Includes
Major metals Au, Co Hi salinity?
Minor metals Ag, Cu, REE, Ni, U, Mo, Pb, W Min Age 18225 Ma Host rock age Paleoproterozoic
Ore mineral pyrite, pyrrhotite, molybdenite, Co-pentlandite, chalcopyrite, cobaltite, uraninite, radiogenic galena, selenides,
calaverite, altaite, frohbergite, melonite, gold, brannerite(?)
Gangue mineral quartz, sericite, chlorite, biotite, albite, rutile, magnetite, hematite, scheelite, ferberite
Supergene mineral
Cntry rock lithology Sericite Quartzite Formation and tholeiitic Greenstone Formation II: Albite-biotite-carbonate rock
Wall rock lithology Contact zone between mafic metavolcanic rocks and metasedimentary rocks (sandy siltstone, mafic
volcanic rocks)
Hydrothermal alteration Regional: albitization, Ore related: Mg-Fe metasomatism, KS metasomatism, biotitisation,
chloritisation, sericitisation, silicification, carbonation
Regional tectonic settting Metamorphosed, intracratonic, extensively albitised, supracrustal sequence in a failed rift system
Metamorphic grade Greenschist to lower-amphibolite
Deposit geometry 2 lodes 40 m apart: larger lode: 200 m x 70 m x 30 m
Structural control WNW-trending faults cut across a doubly-plunging area in the Kyl-Konttiaho Anticline
Associated pluton
Isotopic signature
References Dragon Mining NL, 2005, Annual Report 2004: Dragon Mining NL Annual Report 2004, Perth. 80 p., accessed at
www.dragon-mining.com.au/pdf/Dragon2004Annual.pdf.
Dragon Mining, 2011, Resource increase for the Kuusamo Gold Project, Finland: Dragon Mining ASX
Announcement 03 November 2011, accessed January 30, 2012, at http://www.dragon-
mining.com.au/sites/default/files/2011-11-03_juomasuo_resource_update_v2.pdf.
Eilu, P., and Pankka, H., 2010, FINGOLD A public database on gold deposits in Finland: Geological Survey of
Finland, Version 1.1, accessed May 6, 2010, at http://en.gtk.fi/Geoinfo/DataProducts/latest/. (ID = 93 in database).
Eilu, P., Sorjonen-Ward, P., Nurmi, P., and Niiranen, T., 2003, A review of gold mineralization styles in Finland:
Economic Geology, v. 98, p. 1329-1353.
278,000 0.1 0.1 6.2 Spreadsheet from Pasi Eilu (2011). Eilu (2011) written communication
A-8

Juomasuo deposit Finland Oulu 66.2888 29.1995
Includes
Major metals Au, Co Hi salinity?
Minor metals Cu, Ag, Mo, Ni, REE, U, Bi, Min Age Paleoproterozoic Host rock age Paleoproterozoic
Te, Pb, Zn
Ore mineral pyrite, pyrrhotite, cobaltite, Co-pentlandite, linneaite, chalcopyrite, molybdenite, uraninite, galena, gold, altaite,
calaverite, frohbergite, melonite, rucklidgeite, tellurobismuthite, mattagamite, kawazulite, clausthalite, scheelite
Gangue mineral sericite, quartz, Fe dolomite, chlorite, biotite, albite, magnetite, ilmenite, rutile
Supergene mineral
Cntry rock lithology Sericite Quartzite Formation (of the Kuusamo Schist Belt) containing metasedimentary and metavolcanic
rocks, and dolerites
Wall rock lithology Albite-amphibolite and albite-quartz
Hydrothermal alteration Regional: albitisation; Ore-related: Mg-Fe metasomatism, KS metasomatism, carbonation,
silicification
Metamorphic grade Peak regional metamorphism: lower-amphibolite facies: staurolite porphyroblasts in Al-rich rocks, during
D1? followed by retrograde greenschist-facies metamorphism: sericitisation of staurolite, during D2?
Deposit geometry Oval- or sheet-shaped, 50 x 100 x >300 m (depth) in size, NW-trending, dip approx. 50 to the SW; two
satellite lodes have the same strike and dip. Mineralization open at depth.
Structural control NW-trending ductile shear zone which cut across the regional, NE-trending Kyl-Konttiaho Anticline close
to the contact between Sericite Quartzite and Greenstone II Formations
Associated pluton Mafic and/or ultramafic dikes: altered, mineralised, conformably related to the metasedimentary rocks
Isotopic signature
References Dragon Mining NL, 2005, Annual Report 2004: Dragon Mining NL Annual Report 2004, Perth, 80 p., accessed, at
www.dragon-mining.com.au/pdf/Dragon2004Annual.pdf.
Dragon Mining, 2011, Resource increase for the Kuusamo Gold Project, Finland: Dragon Mining ASX
Dragon Mining, 2012, Maiden cobalt resource highlights size of Juomasou mineralised system: Dragon Mining ASX
Announcement 30 January 2012, accessed January 30, 2012, at http://www.dragon-
mining.com.au/sites/default/files/2012-01-30___juomasuo_cobalt_resource.pdf.
Pankka, H.S., and Vanhanen, E.J., 1992, Early Proterozoic Au-Co-U mineralization in the Kuusamo district,
northeastern Finland: Precambrian Research, v. 58, p. 387-400.
Vanhanen, E., 2001, Geology, mineralogy, and geochemistry of the Fe-Co-Au(-U) deposits in the Paleoproterozoic
Kuusamo schist belt, northeastern Finland: Geological Survey of Finland Bulletin, v. 399, 229 p.
A-9
5,039,000 0.128 0.03 1.96 Summed resources from Dragon Dragon Mining (2011), Dragon
Mining (2011, 2012), then Mining (2012), Eilu (2011) written
calculated weighted average cobalt communication
and gold. Copper grade from Eilu
A - 10

Kendekeke deposit China Qinghai Province 37.019 91.77
Includes
Major metals Co, Bi, Au, Cu Hi salinity?
Minor metals Bi, As, Zn, Pb, Te Min Age Mesozoic Host rock age Late Ordovician
Ore mineral skutterudite, pyrite, arsenopyrite, bismuthinite, bismite, tellurbismuthite, chalcopyrite, malachite, tetrahedrite,
galena, sphalerite, erythrite
Gangue mineral magnetite, K-spar, fluorite
Supergene mineral
Cntry rock lithology Tieshidasi Group volcanic rocks - basalt and minor acid tuff
Wall rock lithology Sedimentary (carbonate. Chert, shale)
Hydrothermal alteration Skarnification, silicification, sericitization, carbonatization, chloritization, epidotization, K-alteration
Regional tectonic settting Kunlun collision belt, Qiman Tag orogen
Metamorphic grade Not described
Deposit geometry
Structural control early Paleozoic back-arc basin of the Kunbei fracture zone
Associated pluton Monzonite porphyry (Indosinian-Yanshanian magma)
Isotopic signature
References Papan Tong, 2008, Geochemical features and origin of siliceous rocks of Kendekeke Co-Au deposit in the eastern
Kunlun metallogenic belt, Qinhai: accessed 5/12/2010, at http://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTOTAL-
DZKT200802010.htm
Pan, Tong, and Sun, Fengyue, 2003, The mineralization characteristics and prospecting of Kendekeke Co-Bi-Au
deposit in Dongkunlun, Qinghai Province: Geology and Prospecting, v. 39, no. 1, p. 18-22 [in Chinese with English
abstract].
Pan, Tong, Zhao, Caisheng, and Sun, Fengyue, 2005, Metallogenic dynamics and model of cobalt deposition in the
eastern Kunlun Orogenic Gelt, Qinghai Province, in Mao, Jingwen and Bierlein, F.P., editors, Mineral Deposit
Research: Meeting the Global Challenge: Springer, Berlin, p. 1551-1553.
No data
A - 11

Kouvervaara deposit Finland Oulu 66.1312 28.8186
Includes
Minor metals Zn, Mo, Bi, W Min Age Paleoproterozoic Host rock age Paleoproterozoic
Ore mineral pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, cobaltite, Co-pentlandite, pyrite, native gold, molybdenite, jaipurite, mackinawite, linnaeite,
scheelite, ferberite, native Bi, maldonite, bismuthinite, hedleyite
Gangue mineral rutile, magnetite, ilmenite, albite, biotite, fuchsite, microcline, tourmaline, zircon
Supergene mineral
Cntry rock lithology Sericite Quartzite Formation - sericite quartzites and sericite schists (actinolite-garnet-biotite rock in
sericite quartzite)
Wall rock lithology Sericitic quartzite
Hydrothermal alteration Regional: albitization; Ore-related: Mg-Fe metasomatism, KS metasomatism, carbonation,
silicification, further Au mineralisation and brittle deformation.
Regional tectonic settting Intracratonic, failed rift filled by a subaerial to shallow-water volcanosedimentary sequence
deposited on late Archaean basement
Metamorphic grade Upper-greenschist facies or transition between upper-greenschist to lower-amphibolite facies at 50050C
Deposit geometry Four gold lodes are reported to overprint the 900 m long, 200 m wide zone
Structural control Intersection of two parallel, WNW-trending, faults and the ENE-trending Hyvniemi-Maaninkavaara
Anticline
Associated pluton
Isotopic signature
References Eilu, P., and Pankka, H., 2010, FINGOLD : A public database on gold deposits in Finland: Geological Survey of
1,580,000 0.1 0.2 0.4 1.58 Mt: 0.1% Co, 0.4 ppm Au; Geological Survey of Finland and
estimated as 10x10x10 m blocks by others (2009)
linear kriging with a cut off grade of
0.05% Co.
A - 12

Lemmonlampi deposit Finland Oulu 66.1437 28.8069
Includes
Minor metals Min Age Paleoproterozoic Host rock age Paleoproterozoic
Ore mineral pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, Co-pentlandite, cobaltite
Gangue mineral magnetite, ilmenite, albite, carbonate, biotite, quartz, muscovite, garnet, anthophyllite, rutile
Supergene mineral
Cntry rock lithology Greenstone belt: komatiite, metadolerite, mica schist, quartzite
Wall rock lithology Garnet-anthophyllite gneiss, albite-carbonate rock
Hydrothermal alteration Regional: albitization; Ore-related: Mg-Fe metasomatism, KS metasomatism, carbonation,
silicification, further Au mineralisation and brittle deformation.
Regional tectonic settting Metamorphosed, intracratonic, extensively albitised, supracrustal sequence in a failed rift system
Metamorphic grade Upper-greenschist to lower-amphibolite
Deposit geometry
Structural control NE-trending fault in the NE-trending Kyl-Konttiaho Anticline (ductile/brittle deformation)
Associated pluton Differentiated, 2050 Ma dolerite, altered, predates gold mineralisation
Isotopic signature
References Eilu, P., and Pankka, H., 2010, FINGOLD A public database on gold deposits in Finland: Geological Survey of
A - 13

Meurastuksenaho deposit Finland Oulu 66.1985 29.0796
Other names Mutka-Aho 4 Associated magnetite-rich rock
Includes
Major metals Co, Au, Cu Hi salinity?
Minor metals Mo, U, REE Min Age Paleoproterozoic Host rock age Paleoproterozoic
Ore mineral pyrrhotite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, Co pentlandite, cobaltite, magnetite, bornite, covellite, molybdenite, ilmenite, rutile,
uraninite, selenides, tellurides, gold
Gangue mineral biotite, sericite, calcite, quartz, albite, magnetite, rutile, chlorite, tremolite, garnet, epidote
Supergene mineral
Cntry rock lithology Mafic lava, Komatiite, Dolerite - greenstone belt
Wall rock lithology Sericite quartzite
Hydrothermal alteration Albitisation, Mg-Fe metasomatism, KS metasomatism, carbonation, silicification
Metamorphic grade Greenschist facies
Deposit geometry >220 m x10-30 m x >210 m deep
Structural control The NE-trending Kyl-Konttiaho Anticline
Associated pluton
Isotopic signature
References Dragon Mining, 2011, Resource increase for the Kuusamo Gold Project, Finland: Dragon Mining ASX
Eilu, P., and Pankka, H., 2010, FINGOLD: A public database on gold deposits in Finland: Geological Survey of
Finland, Version 1.1, accessed May 6, 2010, at http://en.gtk.fi/Geoinfo/DataProducts/latest/.
Eilu, P., Hallberg, A., Bergman, T., Feoktistov, V., Korsakova, M., Krasotkin, S., Lampio, E., Litvinenko, V.,
Nurmi, P.A., Often, M., Philippov, N., Sandstad, J.S., Stromov, V., and Tontti, M., 2007, Fennoscandian ore deposit
database: http://en.gtk.fi/ExplorationFinland/fodd/. (ID = 32 in database).
Vanhanen, E., 1989, :Geological Survey of Finland, Report M19/4611/-89/1/10, 20 p. (in Finnish).
Dragon Mining (2011) reported
892,000 tonnes ore at 0.2 % Co and
2.3 g/t Au, but is not used because
they did not report copper grade.
A - 14

Mount Cobalt deposit Australia Queensland -21.71 140.47
Includes Selwyn Hematites (massive hematite-
magnetite rock)
Major metals Cu, Co, W Hi salinity?
Minor metals As, Ni, Au, REE Min Age Host rock age Proterozoic
Ore mineral cobaltite, scheelite, chalcopyrite, alloclasite, (?) glaucodot, cobaltian arsenopyrite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, erythrite
Gangue mineral quartz, chlorite, ilmenite, allanite, xenotime, apatite, jasperoid, siderite
Supergene mineral malachite, azurite, native copper, hematite
Cntry rock lithology Kuridala Formation - pelitic schists, shale, acid and basic volcanics, quartzitic sediments (recrystallized
carbonaceous quartz dolomite siltstones and cherts?)
Wall rock lithology Silica-dolomite, vitric tuff layers. Mineralization in shear zones at the contact between an amphibolite and
enclosing pelitic schists, and within the amphibolite itself
Hydrothermal alteration Biotite-oligoclase/andesine-scapolite assemblage, tourmaline alteration
Regional tectonic settting Mt. Isa Inlier, 3 generations of folding
Metamorphic grade Upper greenschist-amphibolite
Deposit geometry "Surface mineralization is largely confined to the eastern contact of the main amphibolite (Fig. 3) and
extends for about 1300 m from Mt. Cobalt to New Hope."
Structural control Shear zones at the contact between an amphibolite and enclosing pelitic schists
Associated pluton biotite and hornblende-biotite granites (1509 22 m.a.) -Williams Granite, Gin Creek Granite, Mt. Cobalt
Granite
Isotopic signature
References Croxford, N.J.W., 1974, Cobalt mineralization at Mount Isa, Queensland, Australia, with references to Mount
Cobalt: Mineralium Deposita, v. 9, p. 105-115.
Davidson, G.J., and Dixon, G.H., 1992, Two sulphur isotope provinces deduced from ores in the Mount Isa eastern
succession, Australia: Mineralium Deposita, v. 27, p. 30-41.
Nisbet, B.W., Devlin, S.P., and Joyce, P.J., 1983, Geology and suggested genesis of cobalt-tungsten mineralization at
Mt Cobalt, northwestern Queensland: Proceedings of the Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, v. 287, p.
9-17.
60,000 0.05 0.33 Values are from copper mill feed Croxford (1974)
percents. Produced 779 tons of
cobalt.
A - 15

NICO Canada Northwest Territories 63.7 -116.9
Includes ironstone
Major metals Co, Au, Bi Hi salinity?
Minor metals As, W, Fe Ba, P, Cu, F, Be Min Age Host rock age Proterozoic
Ore mineral arsenopyrite/cobaltite, bismuthinite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, scheelite
Gangue mineral magnetite, hematite, biotite, amphibole, K-feldspar, quartz, tourmaline, diopside, carbonate, chlorite
Supergene mineral
Cntry rock lithology Potassium feldspar- (hematite magnetite) altered rhyolite. Biotite-magnetite-amphibole-hematite-K-
feldspar ironstone in subarkosic wacke and rhyolite (2011 - The mineralization at NICO is hosted in
brecciated clastic sedimentary rocks of the Snare Group near their unconformity with overlying felsic
volcanic rocks of the Faber Group).
Wall rock lithology Altered wackes
Hydrothermal alteration Host wackes are pervasively metasomatized to a "black rock" alteration assemblage-massive, banded
and locally schistose biotite amphibole, magnetite, hematite, K-feldspar, minor chlorite, quartz,
tourmaline, diopside, carbonate and ore minerals
Regional tectonic settting Great Bear magmatic zone, major basement discontinuity with a major transverse fault
Metamorphic grade None described
Deposit geometry Mineralized lenses can be traced continuously along a 1.9 km strike length and width between 250 m and
700 m
Structural control Diatreme and fracture breccias, schists at intersection of structural lineaments, unconformity?
Associated pluton Marian River granites and porphyry dikes
Isotopic signature
References Fortune Minerals Limited, 2010, Annual Information Form, Fiscal year ended December 31, 2009: Fortune Minerals
Limited, March 22, 2010, 43 p.
Goad, R.E., Mumin, A.H., Duke, N.A., Neale, K.L., Mulligan, D.L., and Camier, W.J., 2000a, The NICO and Sue-
Dianne Proterozoic, iron oxide-hosted, polymetallic deposits, Northwest Territories: Application of the Olympic
Dam model in exploration: Exploration and Mining Geology, v. 9, p. 123-140.
Goad, R.E., Mumin, A.H., Duke, N.A., Neale, K.L., Mulligan, D.L., and Camier, W.J., 2000b, Geology of the
Proterozoic iron oxide-hosted NICO cobalt-gold-bismuth, and Sue-Dianne copper-silver deposits, Southern Great
Bear Magmatic zone, Northwest Territories, Canada, in Porter, T.M., (Ed,), Hydrothermal iron oxide copper-gold &
related deposits: A global perspective: Adelaide, PGC Publishing, v. 1, 249-267.
30,986,000 0.12 0.04 0.91 p. 21. In addition to the mineral Fortune Minerals Limited (2010)
reserves, there are 6.5 Mt of
marginal sub-economic material.
A - 16

Pohjasvaara Finland Oulu 66.27815 29.21701
Includes
Major metals Au, Co, Cu Hi salinity?
Minor metals Ag, As, Au, B, Fe, Hg, K, Mo, Min Age Paleoproterozoic Host rock age Paleoproterozoic
S, Se, Te, U
Ore mineral Pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, pyrite; Co-pentlandite, cobaltite, molybdenite, uraninite, selenides, tellurides, gold
Gangue mineral Quartz, carbonate, sericite, epidote
Supergene mineral
Cntry rock lithology Sericite Quartzite Formation rocks of the Kuusamo Schist Belt, close to the contact to the Greenstone
Formation
Wall rock lithology
Hydrothermal alteration Albite-sericite
Regional tectonic settting Kuusamo Schist Belt -metamorphosed, intracratonic, extensively albitised, supracrustal sequence in
Metamorphic grade Greenschist facies
Deposit geometry
Structural control WNW-trending faults which cut across the antiform
Associated pluton
Isotopic signature
References Dragon Mining, 2011, Resource increase for the Kuusamo Gold Project, Finland: Dragon Mining ASX
Geological Survey of Finland, 2010, On-line mineral deposit database: accessed May 6, 2010, at
http://en.gtk.fi/ExplorationFinland/Commodities/Gold/depositlist.html.
Dragon Mining (2011) reported
130,000 tonnes ore at 0.15 %Co
and 4.2 g/t Au, but is not used
because they did not report copper
A - 17

Sirkka deposit Finland Lapland 67.8143 24.7322
Includes Sirkka kaivos, Sirkka W Sulfide-facies iron-formation nearby
Major metals Co, Ni, Au, Cu Hi salinity?
Minor metals U, Zn, Ag, As Min Age Paleoproterozoic Host rock age Paleoproterozoic
Ore mineral pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, ilmenite, pentlandite, graphite, Ag pentlandite, sphalerite, mackinawite, violarite,
arsenopyrite, gersdorffite, cobaltite, gold, melnikovite
Gangue mineral quartz, ankerite, siderite, Fe-dolomite, albite, sericite, fuchsite, biotite, carbonate, rutile, tourmaline
Supergene mineral
Cntry rock lithology Black shale, quartzite, dolerite, mafic lavas, tuffs, and tuffites
Wall rock lithology Volcano-metasedimentary in the footwall and metakomatiite in the hanging wall
Hydrothermal alteration Regional: albitization and carbonatization; Ore-related: sericitisation, sulfidation, carbonatisation
Regional tectonic settting FennoScandian Shield, intracratonic rift ( 2.5-1.9 Ga) related volcano-sedimentary sequence -
Central Lapland Greenstone Belt
Metamorphic grade Mid- to upper-greenschist
Deposit geometry E-W trending 1.5 km long, 100-200 m wide
Structural control The Sirkka Line Shear Zone which here has a E-W trend.
Associated pluton
Isotopic signature
References Eilu, P., and Pankka, H., 2010, FINGOLD A public database on gold deposits in Finland: Geological Survey of
Finland, Version 1.1, accessed May 6, 2010, at http://en.gtk.fi/Geoinfo/DataProducts/latest/.
Holma, M.J., Eilu, P., Keinnen, V.J., and Ojala, V.J., 2007, The Sirkka Au-Cu-Ni-Co occurrence, northern Finland:
An orogenic gold deposit with multimetallic, atypical metal association, in Andrew, C.J., et al., eds., Digging deeper:
Proceedings of the Ninth Biennial Meeting of the Society for Geology Applied to Mineral Deposits: Dublin, Irish
Association for Economic Geology, 20-23 August, 2007, v. 1, p. 581-584.
250,000 0.1 0.38 0.8 Holma and Keinnen (2007), p. 167: Eilu and Pankka (2010)
Produced three kg of gold from
3000 t of ore (1 g/t Au, 0.16 %
Co, 0.5 % Cu, 0.9% Ni.
A - 18

Werner Lake deposit Canada Ontario 50.47 -94.96
Includes West Werner Lake
Major metals Cu, Co, Au Hi salinity?
Minor metals Mo, Zn, Ag, Ni Min Age Host rock age Meso-Neoarchean
Ore mineral chalcopyrite, cobaltite, cobalt pentlandite, pentlandite, pyrrhotite, pyrite, linnaeite, molybdenite, sphalerite, native
gold, native silver, altaite, chalcocite, covellite, erythrite, malachite, magnetite
Gangue mineral Wall Rock is gangue - phlogopite-biotite, garnet, quartz, K-Feldpar, plagioclase, sillmanite, orthoclase,
muscovite, epidote, prehnite, albite, magnetite, ilmenite, rutile, hercynite, apatite, uraninite, monazite, zircon,
calcite, olivine, ankerite
Supergene mineral
Cntry rock lithology The Werner Lake Co-Cu-Au deposit is confined to a mixed unit of orthopyroxene- bearing amphibolites,
ultramafic rocks, lherzolitic peridotite, pyroxenite, garnetiferous biotite schists, calc-silicate rocks, and
garnet-rich quartzites.
Wall rock lithology Garnetiferous biotite schists. Calc-silicate rocks and garnet-rich quartzites are present. locally, pyroxenite,
amphibolite , and gabbro also host sulfides.
Hydrothermal alteration Carbonatization (mainly calcite), epidotization, chloritization, sulfidation (mainly pyrite),
serpentinization
Regional tectonic settting Faulted, multiply deformed metasedimentary belt interpreted to represent fore-arc basin to island-arc
system, an accretionary prism, or back-arc basin. The current structural geometry of the English
River subprovince is a result of polyphase deformation.
Metamorphic grade Granulite facies (temperature estimates of 680 to 780C)
Deposit geometry Numerous small lenses of mineralization
Structural control F2 fold hinges, S2 foliation
Associated pluton Marijane Lake batholith and the Gone Lake stock (tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite)
Isotopic signature 34S Near zero value of cobaltite and sulfides. whole-rock 18O values of the cobaltite-rich ores and calc-
silicates are 6.5 to 7.6 and 5.6 to 8.3 per mil, respectively
References Hrabi, R.b., and Cruden, A.R., 2006, Structure of the Archean English River subprovince: implications for tectonic
evolution of the western Superior Province, Canada: Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 43, p. 947-966.
Puget Ventures, 2011, Reserves & resources: Puget Ventures website, accessed April 25, 2011 at,
http://www.pugetventures.com/properties.php?bp=682.
Pan, Y., and Therens, C., 2000, The Werner Lake Co-Cu-Au deposit of the English River subprovince, Ontario,
Canada: Evidence for an exhalative origin and effects of granulite facies metamorphism: Economic Geology, v. 95,
p. 1635-1656.
1,337,607 0.27 0.27 0.31 Recalculated tonnage and grade Puget Ventures (2012)
from reference. "Proven reserves
total 140,031 tonnes of 0.47%
cobalt, 0.26% copper and 0.008 oz/t
gold.
Probable reserves total 40,829
tonnes of 0.25% cobalt, 0.43%
copper and 0.030 oz/t gold.
Indicated resources total 51,456
copper and 0.003 oz/t gold.
Inferred resources total 869,378
copper and 0.011 oz/t gold. The
Eastern Shallows deposit contains
total indicated resources of 63,517
A - 20
tonnes with 0.29% cobalt and

0.63% copper. The Big Zone
deposit contains total indicated
resources of 172,396 tons with
0.26% copper, 0.62%nickel, 0.02%
cobalt, 0.009 oz/t platinum and
0.030 oz/t palladium."
Includes Norpax deposit, West
Cobalt deposit, the Werner Lake
Mine site Cobalt deposit, the
Eastern Shallows Cobalt deposit,
and the Big Zone deposit.
A - 21
Appendix 2. Database for Co-Cu-Au Deposits Not Included in This Report

By J. Douglas Causey and John F. Slack
The deposits described in this appendix have many of the characteristics of the deposits used in our Co-Cu-Au deposit
model, but these are reported as containing less than the 0.1 percent Co cutoff used in the model.
This appendix contains a concise description of the deposit records stored in a master relational database. The information
in the database was gleaned from published reports, which are cited in the description of each deposit.
The information shown on the following pages was extracted from the database using queries of tables to select the perti-
nent data. A database form was used to provide structure to the data and printout of the deposit descriptions. Names associated
with each piece of data on the forma are usually abbreviations and their full meaning is described in table A1 in appendix 1.
Appendix 2. Database for Co-Cu-Au Deposits Not Included in This Report 211

Great Australia deposit Australia Queensland -20.717 140.521

finely bedded magnetite/albite-bearing
metasediments
Cu, Au, Co
Proterozoic
chalcopyrite, pyrite, gold, malachite, chrysocolla, cuprite, chalcocite, native copper, bornite, atacamite,
brocknerite, azurite, claringbullite, connellite, cornetite, gerhardtite
magnetite, albite, carbonate, chlorite, anhydrite, hematite, biotite, muscovite, quartz, actinolite, biotite
malachite, chrysocolla, cuprite, chalcocite, native copper, bornite, atacamite, brocknerite, azurite,
claringbullite, connellite, cornetite, gerhardtite
Toole Creek Volcanics (TCV)- basaltic meta-andesite with interbedded sediments and intrusive
diorites, and finely bedded magnetite/albite-bearing metasediments; Corella Fm - bedded calc silicate
rocks (meta-carbonates and metasiliciclastics)
Hanging wall - metabasalt, Footwall - metasediments (dominant dolomite)
Sodic-calcic I -albite/magnetite/actinolite assemblage (pre-ore). Potassic -biotite replacing albite
and actinolite; sericite, carbonate, hematite. Sodic-calcic II - albite, magnetite, actinolite,
chalcopyrite, pyrite, carbonate, chlorite
Major splay of the Cloneurry fault, which forms a regional tectonic contact with the
metasedimentary Corella Formation in part of Mt Isa inlier formed in a series of rifts
Retrograde greenschist facies containing some amphibolite facies minerals
About 150 m by 400 m
Fault/dilational vein (brittle deformation) - breccia/crackle breccia
sodically altered granitic Naraku batholith to north and Williams batholith to south
Quartz 18O=11.4 to 13.4 per mil, Dolomite 18O= 13.9-18.4%, Calcite 13C= -3.1 to -6.1%, Calcite
18O= 10.0-16.7%
Anderson, Michael, 2010, EXCO's project pipeline, Australian Au & Cu: EXCO Resources Limited presentation
at Mining 2010 - Brisbane, 28 October, 2010, 24 slides, accessed March 9, 2011 at,
http://www.excoresources.com.au/investors-center/conferences-exhibitions/Mining-2010-Resources-
Convention.aspx.
Cannell, J., and Davidson, G.J., 1998, A carbonate-dominated copper-cobalt breccia/vein system at the Great
Australia deposit, Mt. Isa eastern succession: Economic Geology, v. 93, p. 1406-1421.
2,100,000 1.54 0.13 Indicated = 1,400,000 t @1.53 Anderson (2010)

%Cu, 0.13 g/t Au; Inferred =
800,000 t @ 1.57 %Cu, 0.14 g/t Au.
A-2 - 1

Greenmount deposit Australia Queensland -21.029 140.535

yes
Cu, Au, Co
Zn Mesoproterozoic
chalcopyrite, pyrite, covellite, chalcocite, cobaltite, marcasite, sphalerite
microcline with subordinate albite, sericite (retrogressed microcline) and lesser hematite, rutile,
tourmaline, quartz, dolomite sulfides magnetite

Calcareous and evaporitic metasediments with subordinate altered basalts of the Staveley Formation
(fine- to medium-grained, massive to wellbedded sandstone unit with subordinate proportions of
siltstone calcareous, albitic, dolomitic rocks, BIF)

Magnetite alteration, potassic-hematite alteration, Ca-Mg-Fe carbonate metasomatism,
silicification, microcline and scapolite metasomatism tourmaline and rutile alteration
Mary Kathleen group, Eastern Fold Belt of Mt Isa Inlier. North-northwest- to north-trending
dextral fault zones associated with the Caravan Fault Zone-Some structures have a sinistral
component. East-southeast-trending structures (sinistral)
Lower to middle greenschist facies
600 m long
Breccia, sedimentary contact
mafic and felsic intrusions, bi-modal, sodic I-type granite, gabbro, dolerite

Krcmarov, R.L., and Stewart, J.I., 1998, Geology and mineralisation of the Greenmount Cu-Au-Co deposit,
southeastern Marimo basin, Queensland: Australian Journal of Earth Sciences, v. 45, p. 463-482.
Hodgson, G.D., 1998, Greenmount copper-cobalt-gold deposit, in Geology of Australian and Papua New
Guinean mineral deposits: Monograph 22, p. 769-774.
3,600,000 0.042 1.5 0.78 inferred resource of approximately Krcmarov and Stewart (1998)
3.6 Mt at about 1.5% Cu, 0.78 g/t
Au and 420 ppm Co (23.8 Mt
grading 0.47% Cu and 493 g/t Co:
Hodgson, 1998).
A-2 - 2

Guelb Moghrein deposit Mauritania 19.7504 -14.4252

2489 8 Ma Late Archean - Early
Proterozoic
chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, FeCoNi arsenides, arsenopyrite, cobaltite, uraninite and
BiAuAgTe minerals
Mg-rich FeMg carbonate, FeMg clinoamphibole, calcite, chlorite, monazite, magnetite
The host rocks to the mineralization are mainly a metacarbonate body composed of coarse-grained Mg-
rich siderite and intercalating Fe-rich metapelites represented by clinoamphibole-chlorite phyllonites
(Fig.1; Kolb et al., 2006).
Central Mauritanides fold and-thrust belt - allochthonous terranes lying unconformably onto
the western margin of the West African Craton
Lower greenschist-facies retrogression at 1742+12 Ma, amphibolite-facies hornblendeplagioclase
paragenesis, upper greenschist-facies garnetbiotite paragenesis
Chalcopyrite has a 34S of 0.1 to 1.1 , pyrrhotite -0.5 to 0.4 and cobaltite -0.2 VCD. Graphite:
13C values at 27.3 PDB.
Kolb, J., Meyer, F.M., Vennemann, T., Hoffbauer, R., Gerdes, A., and Sakellaris, G.A., 2008, Geological setting
of the Guelb Moghrein Fe oxide-Cu-Au-Co mineralization, Akjoujt area, Mauritania, in Ennih, N., and Ligeois,
J.-P., eds., The boundaries of the West African craton: Geological Society Special Publication 297, p. 53-75.
Kolb, J., Sakellaris, G.A., and Meyer, F.M., 2006, Controls on hydrothermal Fe oxide-Cu-Au-Co mineralization
at the Guelb Moghrein deposit, Akjoujt area, Mauritania: Mineralium Deposita, v. 41, p. 68-81.
Sakellaris, G.A., and Meyer, F.M., 2008, A metamorphic origin of the Guelb Moghrein Fe oxide-copper-gold-
cobalt deposit, Mauritania: RMS DPI 2008-1-101, p. 169-172.
Strickland, C.D., and Martyn, J.E., 2002, The Guelb Moghrein Fe-oxide copper-gold-cobalt deposit and
associated mineral occurrences, Mauritania: A geological introduction, in Porter, T. M., ed., Hydrothermal iron
oxide copper-gold & related deposits: A global perspective: Adelaide, Australian Mineral Foundation, v. 2, p.
275-291.
23,600,000 0.0143 1.88 1.41 total measured and indicated Strickland and Martyn (2002)
resource of 23.6 Mt @1.88 % Cu,
1.41 g/t Au and 143 ppm Co
A-2 - 3

Lala deposit China Sichuan Province 26.68158 102.25
Lalachang
magnetic quartzite
Cu, REE, Au
1000 Mesoproterozoic
magnetite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, minor bornite, molybenite, REE-rich apatite, cobaltite, pyrrhotite, native gold,
native silver, chalcocite, rare telluride
albite, carbonate, biotite, quartz, fluorite, sericite, almandine, K-feldspar, minor chlorite, tourmaline

Hekou Group: spilite, keratophyre, keratophyre volcanics, intrusive rocks, magnetic quartzite, mica
schist, marble

Albitization and sericitization

Upper greenschist to amphibolite facies
vein to lens shaped interrupted by breccia zones

Li, Z.-Q., Hu, R.-H., Wang, J.-Z., Liu, J.-J., Li, C.-Y., Liu, Y.-P., and Ye, L., 2002, Lala Fe-oxide-Cu-Au-U-REE
ore deposit, Sichuan, China: An example of superimposed mineralization: Bulletin of the Chinese Society of
Mineralogy, Petrology and Geochemistry, v. 21, p. 258-260 [in Chinese with English abstract].
Meyer, Michael, Schardt, Christian, Sindern, Halbach, Peter, Lahr, Janine, and Li, Jiao, 2011, Characteristics and
origin of the Lala iron oxide Cu-Co-(U, REE) deposit: Sichaun Southern China (abs.): Anchorage, Alaska,
Alaska Miners Association 2011 Annual Convention Abstracts, p. 10-12.
Wang, Jiangzhen, Li, Zeqing, and Li, Chaoyang, 2005, The La-La iron-oxide (Cu-Au-REE) deposit, China: REE
mineralization: Goldschmidt Conference Abstracts 2005 Ore Deposits, p. A573.
200,000,000 0.022 0.92 0.16 The deposit contains 200 Mt at Meyer and others (2011)
0.92% Cu, 0.018% Mo, 0.022% Co,
0.25% REE oxides, 0.16 ppm Au,
and 1.89 ppm Ag.
A-2 - 4

Monakoff deposit Australia Queensland -20.6252 140.6888

Cu, Au, Co, U, Ag

Pb, Zn, As, Sb, W, REE (La, Proterozoic
Ce)
chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, arsenopyrite, mackinawite, molybdenite, brannerite, davidite, pentlandite,
linnaeite, malachite
barite, siderite, carbonate, fluorite, magnetite, pyrolusite, ponite (Fe-rhodochrosite), pyrite, tourmaline,
monazite
Magnetite-bearing muscovite pelite, psammo-pelite, metadolerite arenite, quartzo-feldspathic arenite,

carbonaceous pelite, metagreywacke, metabasalt, iron formation, garnet-biotite schist, basaltic tuff
Sheared magnetite-bearing siltstones
Carbonate-quartz/barite, muscovite/sericite. Near-ore alteration is porphyroblastic spessartine-
biotite-quartzplagioclase-chloritoid-tourmaline-biotite development in the meta-andesite
Pumpkin Gully Syncline, Monakoff Shear
Amphibolite. Peak metamorphism exceeded the almandine isograd
Main western zone: 700 m long x 2-10 m thick, unknown depth extent, Eastern mineralisation: ~ 100 m
northeast of the end of the western zone, forms a pipe-like body that plunges very steeply west, with a
40 m strike length at surface
Faults/shear zones, folds
Naraku Batholith, meta-dolerite
Anderson, Michael, 2010, EXCO's project pipeline, Australian Au & Cu: EXCO Resources Limited presentation
at Mining 2010 - Brisbane, 28 October, 2010, 24 slides, accessed March 9, 2011 at,
http://www.excoresources.com.au/investors-center/conferences-exhibitions/Mining-2010-Resources-
Convention.aspx.
Davidson, G.J., Davis, B.K., and Garner, A., 2002, Structural and geochemical constraints on the emplacement of
the Monakoff oxide Cu-Au (-Co-U-REE-Ag-Zn-Pb) deposit, Mt Isa inlier, Australia, in Porter, T.M., ed.,
Hydrothermal iron oxide copper-gold & related deposits: A global perspective: Adelaide, PGC Publishing, v. 2,
p. 49-75.
4,000,000 1.32 0.42 Monakoff and Monakoff East: Anderson (2010)

Indicated = 2,000,000 t @ 1.39
%Cu, .44g/t Au, Inferred =
2,000,000 t @ 1.3 %Cu, 0.4 g/t Au.
A-2 - 5

Scadding deposit Canada Ontario 46.65 -80.62

1700
pyrite, chalcopyrite, chalcocite, bornite, arsenopyrite, pentlandite, millerite, violarite, pyrrhotite
Ti-poor magnetite and hematite, albite, quartz, rutile, ilmenite, biotite, stilpnomelane, calcite, dolomite,
ankerite, Th-poor hydrothermal monazite, gadolinite, bastnsite-(Ce), synchysite, gadolinite, allanite

Serpent Formation of the Huronian Supergroup (predominantly of metasedimentary units with
subordinate volcanic rocks). The quartzite unit contains all of the orebodies, and consists of almost
pure quartz, lesser arkosic quartzite, and calcareous, argillaceous sandstone.
Overlying rocks: argillites and greywackes of the Gowganda Formation. Underlying rocks: The
southern part of the deposit is underlain by greywackes and conglomerates of the Bruce Formation.

Margin of a rift ("convergent tectonic regime")

Schandl, E.S., and Gorton, M.P., 2007, The Scadding gold mine, east of the Sudbury igneous complex, Ontario:
An IOCG-type deposit?: Canadian Mineralogist, v. 45, p. 1415-1441.
No data
A-2 - 6

Tuolugou deposit China Qinghai Province 35.8 94.8

Co, Au
Cu 42929 Ma (2) Late Ordovician to Early
Silurian
pyrite; minor arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, sphalerite, linnaeite, carrollite, rare cobalt pentlandite, cobalt-
bearing pyrite, native gold, native copper
quartz, albite, carbonate (including ferrodolomite, calcite), minor sericite, chlorite, tourmaline, zircon
Nachitai Group - volcano-sedimentary sequence metamorphosed rock (metamorphosed black shale,

metamorphosed tuff and sandstone, metamorphosed volcano-sedimentary rocks, and metamorphosed
sandstone)
Quartzalbitite rock
Central part of the eastern Kunlun orogenic belt

Lower greenschist facies
30
34S values for pyrite=1.8 to 0.2%. Quartz 18O=11.4 to 15.6%

Feng, C.-Y., Qu, W.-J., Zhang, D.-Q., Dang, X.-Y., Du, A.-D., Li, D.-X., and She, H.-Q., 2009, Re-Os dating of
pyrite from the Tuolugou stratabound Co(Au) deposit, eastern Kunlun orogenic belt, northwestern China: Ore
Geology Reviews, v. 36, p. 213-220.
12,800,000 0.06 0.75 Gold grade is average of 0.45 to Feng and others (2009)
1.05 g/t given in reference. Jinxing
Mining Company carried out
detailed exploration and extensive
drilling in the Duangou ore block
from 2002 to 2004, and established
reserves of 12.8 Mt ore.
A-2 - 7

Vhjoki deposit Finland 66.1115 25.2791

29 magnetite ore bodies yes
Co, Cu, Fe
Au, As Paleoproterozoic
cobaltite, chalcopyrite, native gold, pyrite, arsenopyrite, sphalerite, galena, mackinawite, linneaite, bornite,
marcasite, pyrrhotite,
magnetite, hematite, marcasite, tremolite-actinolite, cummingtonite, hornblende chlorite, dolomite, Fe
dolomite, calcite, ankerite, Mg-rich biotite, Fe-rich biotite, Ba-rich biotite, talc, quartz, plagioclase,
epidote, spinel, graphite
None reported
Perpohja Schist Belt - dolomitic marble and tuffites of the 2.142.0(?) GaTikanmaa Formation
The lodes are vein networks, blobs and bands in "amphibole skarn" (mafic metavolcanics) and
conformable bands in tremolite-chlorite schist and mica schist.
Hot brines reacted with the host sequence and produced the ironstone bodies. This was followed
by circulation of low-salinity H2O-CO2 fluids
Perpohja schist belt contains a N-S array of 29 magnetite bodies.
Upper-greenschist facies (peak metamorphic - 465 50C, 24 kbars)
The lodes are in a N-S trending domain of about 1.5 x 3.5 km in horizontal extent, and are open at
depth of 100 m.
North-south trending fault zone, and a fold hinge in proximity to a major eastwesttrending fault
No intrusive rocks have been detected in the vicinity of Vhjoki.

Finland, Version 1.1, accessed May 6, 2010, at http://en.gtk.fi/Geoinfo/DataProducts/latest/. (ID = 75 in
database).
http://en.gtk.fi/ExplorationFinland/fodd/ (ID = 36 in database).
10,500,000 0.029 0.17 0.2 ID = 36 in reference Geological Survey of Finland and

others (2009)
A-2 - 8

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For more information concerning this publication, contact:

Center Director, USGS Central Mineral and Environmental Resources
Science Center
Box 25046, Mail Stop 973

Denver, CO 80225
(303) 236-1562
Or visit the Central Mineral and Environmental Resources Science

Center Web site at:
http://minerals.cr.usgs.gov/
Slack and others Descriptive and Geoenvironmental Model for Cobalt-Copper-Gold Deposits in Metasedimentary RocksScientific Investigations Report 20105070G
http://dx.doi.org/10.3133/sir20105070g

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Descriptive and Geoenvironmental Model for

Cobalt-Copper-Gold Deposits in Metasedimentary Rocks

Scientific Investigations Report 20105070G

U.S. Department of the Interior

Scientific Investigations Report 20105070G

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2013

ISSN 23280328 (online)

2. Deposit Type and Associated Commodities

3. Historical Evolution of Descriptive and Genetic Knowledge and Concepts

5. Physical Description of Deposits

Gravity Signature .........................................................................................................................................70

7. Hypogene Ore and Gangue Characteristics

9. Supergene Ore and Gangue Characteristics

10. Weathering/Supergene Processes

11. Geochemical Characteristics

12. Petrology of Associated Igneous Rocks

13. Petrology of Associated Sedimentary Rocks

14. Petrology of Associated Metamorphic Rocks

15. Theory of Deposit Formation

16. Exploration/Resource Assessment Guides

17. Geoenvironmental Features and Anthropogenic Mining Effects

18. Knowledge Gaps and Future Research Directions

Appendix 1. Database for Co-Cu-Au Deposits Included in This Report............................................189

Appendix 2. Database for Co-Cu-Au Deposits Not Included in This Report....................................210

121. Compositional characteristics of metagranitic augen gneiss from north of the

Abbreviations Used in This Report

Chemical elements and compounds

Scientific Investigations Report 20105070G

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2013

ISSN 23280328 (online)

Table 11. Selected features of Co-Cu-Au deposits in metasedimentary rocks.

Scientific Investigations Report 20105070G

U.S. Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2013

ISSN 23280328 (online)

21. Tonnage-grade data for Co-Cu-Au deposits in metasedimentary rocks compared to

Name and Synonyms Primary and Byproduct Commodities

102 t 104 t 106 t 108 t

Figure 21. Tonnage-grade data for Co-Cu-Au deposits in metasedimentary rocks

Mine La Motte-Fredericktown that contained an average of

A 8 Figure 22. Co versus Cu (A) and Co

Galley, A.G., Hannington, M.D., and Jonasson, I.R., 2007,

Williams, P.J., Barton, M.D., Johnson, D.A., Fontbot, Llus,

Wilson, A.B., Causey, J.D., Denning, P.D., Hayes, T.S.,

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U.S. Geological Survey

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2013

ISSN 23280328 (online)

Slack, J.F., 2012, Stratabound Fe-Co-Cu-Au-Bi-Y-REE depos-

Slack, J.F., Johnson, C.A., Lund, K.I., Schulz, K.J., and

Vanhanen, Erkki, 2001, Geology, mineralogy, and geochem-

Vhay, J.S., 1948, Cobalt-copper deposits in the Blackbird

Williams, P.J., Barton, M.D., Johnson, D.A., Fontbot, Llus,

Yang, Yan-chen, Feng, Ben-zhi, and Liu, Peng-e, 2001,

Scientific Investigations Report 20105070G

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U.S. Geological Survey