PHYSICS ASSIGNMENT

TOPIC
ENERGY AND MOMENTUM CONSERVATION IN
ELECTRODYNAMICS

ABHIK SARKAR
PHI16004
MANAS PRATIM CHETRY
PHI16015

0
Contents:
Newtons Third Law in Electrodynamics..2

Physical Interpretation of Newtons Third Law in Electrodynamics6

Poyntings Theorem...9

Applications of Poyntings Theorem...13

Alternative Forms of Poyntings Theorem...20

References....21

Index.22

1
Newtons Third Law in Electrodynamics:
The laws of Newton for motion form the basis of all our ideas of mechanics and hence
are at the very foundation of physics and conservation of momentum and angular momentum
of isolated systems, which these laws deduce into, are the main principles to which we can
firmly adhere, when other details of a problem may be in doubt. These laws form a unified
frame and the violation of any one of these would imply violation of conservation of
momentum, which is not acceptable. For example if Newtons third law were not true for
some systems, the forces between the particles of that system would imply changes of
momentum of the particle, in such a way that the momentum of the whole system would be
altered, even in the absence of external forces acting on the system.

Fig: 1: Charged particles moving with constant speeds in opposite directions along parallel
FE FM
paths exert on each other electric forces and magnetic forces as shown.
Over the time, many people have called attention to a class of phenomenafrom time to
time, in which Newtons third law seems not to hold, especially when electromagnetic forces
are involved. We shall mention two examples of this. The first one is that of two equally
charged bodies, as shown in the figure, having velocities which are equal in magnitude and
FE
opposite in direction. Besides the electrostatic force between them, which is repulsive
in nature and acts along the line joining the instantaneous positions of the two charges, there
F
is an additional force, M acting on both the charges. This is a magnetic force, which
arises because of the motion of the charges and a charge in motion is essentially a current
element.The magnetic forces acting on the two charges are also equal in magnitude, as a
result of the symmetry of the situation, but they do not act along the same line.
The second example is that of motion of two equally charged bodies at right angle to
each other. If one considers the moving charges essentially as current elements, it is apparent
that at the instant the second charge passes the trajectory of the first one, the magnetic field of
the second one exerts a force on the first one, while the latter is in no position to influence the
former through magnetic interactions.
In both of these examples, in absence external forces, the individual charges will be
accelerated by the electromagnetic forces, as per Newtons second law, but the total
momentum or angular momentum of the pair of charges will be changing; or, if some external

2
forces are applied for balancing the electromagnetic forces, and as such accelerationis
prevented, there will be no change in momentum of the pair of charges, even though the sum
of the applied external forces is not equal to zero.
This is not a new resolution. The magnetic forces between two charges in motionas
v 2
well as the corrections to the electrostatic forces are of the order ( ) compared to the
c

electrostatic forces. Here v represents the mean or the average velocity of the charges, and
c is the velocity of light. Now, the effects of electrodynamics propagate with a finite

velocity c . This finite time of propagation or retardation in propagation through space,

v 2
introduces corrections in the force of order ( ) and hence we should take this into
c

account when we deal with magnetic forces. This sounds as if we might hope for the validity
of a modified third law, in which average of momentum is considered in some way over time.
Basically, we can reestablish the third law to complete decency and validness by introducing
1
the ploy of the electromagnetic field to which one attributes a momentum density( 4 c )(

E
H ), where
E
H
and are electric and magnetic field strengths respectively, as
per Gaussian system of units. The field here is as real as the concept of momentum.
Momentum is transferred from a charge to the field, through the field, and similarly to other
charges.
As we fail to apply Newtons third law to the system of two charged bodies, this can
now be explained by saying that the system that isconsidered must consist of the two charges
as well as the field. When external forces are absent, the constancy of the momentum of the
system, charges as well as the field, is an assumption that can be defended, whereas without
introducing the field, the case is invalid. The external magnetic forces on the two charges and
the sum of these forces should be equal to the time rate of change of the momentum of the
field, because the momentum of the charges does not change.
The field produced at any point given by (x , y , z) by a particle of charge e

moving with a constant velocity v in the x direction and located at the origin, are
given by,

v 2 12 ex
Ex ()
= [1 c ] ( R3 )

2 1
v 2 ey
Ey
= [1
c ()
] ( R3 ) } (1)

3
 2 1
v 2 ez
Ez
= [1
c()] ( R3 )

Hx = 0

2 1
Hy
= [ ( )] ( )
1
v
c
2 v
c
ez
( R3 ) } (2)

2 1
Hz
= [ ( )] ( )
1
v
c
2 v
c
ey
( R3 )

Where,
c
v /

+ y 2+ z 2 (2)
1

R x 2 /
2

v ta , 0, 0 v2 t ,
At the time t , the coordinates of the two charges will be ( 1 and (0,

0), respectively. At the instant t=0 , the charges will be in the position indicated in the
figure. Then, by the equations (1) and (2), the electromagnetic force on particle 1 at any time
is

v 2 2 12 e2 ( v1 ta)
F1 x ( )
= [1 c ] Q13
,

v 2 2 12 e2 v 1 t v 1 v 2 e2 ( v 1 ta)
F1 x
( )
= [1 c ] [ Q 3 + e 2
1 Q1 3
],

F1 z = 0;

And that on particle 2

v 1 2 12 e2 (v 1 ta) v 1 v 2 e2 v 2 t
F2 x
( )
= [1 c ] [ Q2 3
+ 2
c Q2 3
],

2 1
F2 y
= [ ( )]
v
1 1
c
2 e2 v 2 t
Q2
3
,

F2 z = 0.

And we arrive at

4
 (v 2 t)
Q12 (v1 ta)2 +
v2 2
1( )
c

( v 1 t a)2
2
Q2 2
+(v 2 t )2
v
1( 1 )
c

For any point in space, the electric and magnetic fields are the vector sum of the
respective fields due to each of the charges separately. We may indicate this by suitable
subscripts 1 and 2. Then the momentum density m will be given by

4 c
E1
m =

1/[(+
E 2 ) (
H 1 +
H 2 )]

4 c

E1
=
1/[(
H 1 )+(
E2
H 2)]+ (
E1
H 2 ) +(
E2
H1)

m1+
m2 + m
12
=
m1
m2
v1
The integrals of and defined over all space are mere functions only of and
v2
, respectively, and as such will not change if no acceleration is allowed. Hence we only
m12
M of the total momentum that is due to
need to calculate the part namely,

M m12 dV
=

We can divide M into different component as per the Cartesian system as follows:

5
 v1
c

1

v2
c

1



e2
M x=
4 c

v1
c

1

v2
c

1



e2
M y=
4 c

v1
c

1

v2
c
,
1



e2
M z=
4 c

Where
2
2 ( xv 1 +a) 2 2
R1 2
+ y +z
1 ( vc )
1 ,

6
 2
2 ( y v 2 t )
2
R2 x + 2
+ z2 ,
v
1 2
c( )
Initially they were unable to evaluate these integrals exactly. However, the calculation
can be carried out for low velocities also. These expressions for the forces can be expanded in
v v
powers of c . As previously mentioned, the terms independent of c in the expressions

for the forces on the two charges are equal and opposite, and as such cancel each other out.
v
c
We are interested mainly in the terms of order . If we can calculate the momentum of the

v
field to the lowest order of c , the derivative (with respect to time) of this lowest order

v
c
term should just correspond to the term of order in the force expressions.

2 2
v1 v2
Thisguesstimate is roughly equivalent to dropping all factors 1 ( )
c or 1 ( )
c in

the equations (7) and (8). The resulting integrals are not difficult to evaluate.

Lets us introduce the new coordinates,

1. Integrals in which the numerator the numerator is linear in X and Y; these integrals vanish
because the integrands are odd functions of X and Y.
1
X S 2
2. 4
dV =0
D
2
z
2
Y
D D
3. ()dV = dV =2 /S



We can as such carry out the evaluation of the integrals of 2 and 3

7
 v 1 ta
S

M x=
e2
2
2c S [
{v 1 ( 2+1 ]v 2
v 2 t ( v 1 t a )
S2 },

2
e2 v 2 t ( v 1 t a ) v2 t
M y= 2
2c S
{v 1
S
2
[ ( )
+ 2 S + 1]}
v

Taking the time derivative, we obtain, after some simplification,

v 1 ta


v2 t

v1 2
( )
c

d M x e2 1 v 12v 22 v1 v2 3 v 1 ta
= 3{ ( v 1 ta ) v 2 t
dt S 2 c2 c2 2 S2

v 1 ta


v2 t

v1 2
c ( )

d M y e 2 1 v 12v 22 v v 3v t
= 3{ v 2 t 1 2 2 ( v 1 ta ) 22
dt S 2 c 2
c 2 S

v
c
We would like to compare these quantities with the terms of order in the expression for

the forces on the charged particles. In the x direction, the sum of the electromagnetic
forces on the charge is
2 2 2 2 2 3
e2 1 v 1 3 v2 ( v2 t ) 1 v1 3 v 1 ( v 1 ta ) v 1 v 2
F x= 3 {
S 2 c ( )
( v 1 t a )
2 c ( )
S2
( v1 ta )
2 c( ) ( v 1 ta ) + ( )
2 c S2
+ 2 v2 t }
c

8
 v2 t

v1 2 v1 2
=
2 2
( )
c
v
( 1 ta ( )
) c ( 2 ] }
2
, to the approximation being
e 2 1 v 2 v 1 v1 v2 3 v 1 ( v 1 ta )
{
S3 2 c2
( v 1 ta ) +
c2
v 2 t+ ( )
2 c S2

considered. Similarly, the sum of the electromagnetic forces in the y direction is given by

2 2 3 2 2 2
e2 1 v2 3 v2 ( v2 t ) v1 v2 1 v1 3 v 1 ( v 1 ta )
F y = 3 {
S 2 c ( )
(v2 t )+
2 c ( )
S2
+ 2 ( v 1 ta ) +
c 2 c ( )v 2 t
2 c ( ) S2
v2 t }

v2 t

v1 2 v1 2
c
2
( ) 2
( )
( v1 t a ) c ( 2 ] }
2
e 2 1 v 1 v 2 v v 3v t
3{ 2
v 2 t+ 1 2 2 ( v 1 ta ) 22
S 2 c c 2 S

A likewise comparison of these expressions shows that

F x =d M x /dt , F y =d M y /dt

The negative sign here comes from the fact that the external forces are opposite in direction
to the electromagnetic forces.
Now, we should stretch upon to calculate the angular momenta of the field about a set of
orthogonal axis and show that the derivative of the angular momentum with respect to time
about each axis equals the torque about the axis. The angular momentum of the field about
any axis is obtained by multiplying the momentum density at each point and integrating the
result over all space. Again, for the total momentum density,
m=m 1 +m 2+ m12

m12 m1
We shall concern ourselves with , as that part of the angular momentum due to
m2
and shows no variation with time. If we choose for then axes, the angular momenta
about the x and y axes becomes zero whereas that about the z axis is given by
N z = (x m12 y ym12 x )dV

x ( xv 1 t+ a ) + y 2 + z 2 }
dV v y v x
3 3
{ 1 [ x 2+ y ( y v 2 t ) + z2 ] + 2
R 1 R2 c c
e2 v 1 2 12 v 1 2 12
[1 ] [ 1( ) ]
4 c c c

9
The angular momentum in this case can be calculated to the same approximation as was the
v
c
linear momentum by neglecting terms of order compared to unity. This is done by using

the same transformation as shown before. The same integrals occur, and so the result is
readily obtained:

[ ] [ ]
2 2
e
2
v1 ( v1 t a ) v2 t v 2 ( v 1 ta ) ( v 2 t )
Nz= { v2 t + 2
+ v 1 ta+ 2
}
2cS c S c S

{
e 2 v1
2 cS c
v
v 2 t + 2 ( v 1 ta )
c
( v 1 ta ) v 2 t v 1
S
2
c
( [ v
v 1 ta ) 2 v 2 t ,
c ]}
Whence
v2 t

v2 t

2 2
v1 v
( )
c
2
( )
( v 1 t a ) 2 ( 2 ] }
c
2
2 3 ( v 1 ta ) v 2 t
( 2 ( v 1 ta ) ] +
2 S
2

d N z e 2 1 v 22v 12 v v
= 3{ 2 ( v 1 ta ) v 2 t + 1 2 2
dt S 2 c c

We have to compare this expression with that for the torque exerted by the external forces on
the charged particles, namely,
Lz =( v 1a ) F 1 y +(v 2 t) F 2 x

c 2
Neglecting terms of order higher than v ) , this becomes
(

{ [ ] [
2 2 3 2 3
e2 1 v 2 3 v2 ( v2 t ) v1 v2 1 v 1 v 2 2 ( v1 t a ) v 1 v 2
Lz = 3 ( v 1 ta )
S 2 c
v 2 t+ ( )
2 c S2 ( )
+
c2
v
( 1 ta v t
) 2 2 c ( 1
+ v t a ) c
+ ( ) S2 ( )
+ 2
c

10
 v2 t

v2 t

v1 2 v2 2
( )
c
( v1 ta )
2
( )c
( 2 ] }

2
( 2 ( v 1 ta ) ] +
3 ( v1 ta ) v 2 t

2 S2
2 2
e 2 1 v 2 v 1 v v
3{ ( v 1 ta ) v 2 t + 1 2 2
S 2 c 2
c

Lz N z /dt
Now, we find that , the applied torque is identical with d which is the rate of
increase of angular momentum with respect to time.
So we see that, to the order of approximation used here, including the momentum of the
electromagnetic field gives results completely in accordance with Newtons law, whereas
neglecting the field results in serious difficulties.
Physical Interpretation of Newtons Third Law in Electrodynamics:
Let us imagine a point charge q traveling in along the x axis with a constant speed v .
As the charge is in motion, its electric field cannot be given by Coulombs law, as applicable

for static charges; even though electric field E still points in radially outward direction
from the position of the charge at any given instant. Since, moreover, a point charge in
motion does not constitute a steady current; its magnetic field cannot be given by the Biot-

Savart law, as applicable for steady current. Nevertheless, it is a fact that B will still circle
around the axis in a manner suggested by the right-hand thumb rule.

Fig: 2

11
 Fig: 3
Now we can assume a situation such that this charge encounters another identical charge,
proceeding in at the same speed along the y axis. It is certain that the electromagnetic force
between the charges would try to drive them off the respective axes, but we can assume that
they are mounted on tracksor something like that, so they are forced to maintain the same
direction and the same speed. The electric force between them is repulsive in nature whereas
q1 q
the magnetic field of points into the page (at the positionof 2 ), so the magnetic
q2 q2
force on is toward the right, whereas the magnetic field of is out of the page (at
q1 q1
the position of ), and the magnetic force on is directed upward. The net
q1 q2
electromagnetic force of on is equal in magnitude but not opposite to the force of
q2 q1
on , in violation of Newtons third law. Though, in electrostatics and
magnetostatics Newtons third law holds, but in electrodynamics it does not.
Now, we interested to know how often one actually usesthe third law, in practice. Perhaps the
answer is all the time, because the proof of conservation of momentum rests on the
cancellation of internal forces which eventually follows from Newtons third law. When
wealter with the third law, we are actually placing conservation of momentum in danger,
which one of the holiest law in physics.

12
 Fig: 4
Hence, conservation of momentum is rescued, in electrodynamics, by the realization that the
fields themselves carry momentum with them. This is not an astonishing fact when
weconsider that we havecredited energy to the fields. So, it can be taken as whatever
momentum the particles lose, the field gains it.

13
Poyntings Theorem:
Poyntings Theorem is a statement of energy conservation for the electromagnetic
field, in the form of a partial differential equation. It is parallel to the work-energy theorem in
classical mechanics, & quite similar to the equation of continuity, since it relates the energy
stored in the electromagnetic field to the work done on a charge distribution through energy
flux, and we can find a similar situation in fluid mechanics.

The work necessary to assemble a charge distribution at rest (against repulsion

amongst the positives and negatives) is

0
W e=
2
E 2 dV ,

where E is the resulting electric field. Likewise, the work required to get currents going
(against the back emf developed) is

1
W m= B2 dV ,
2 0

where B is the resulting magnetic field. This suggests the total energy stored in
electromagnetic fields, per unit volume, is given by

1 1
=
2 (
0 E2 + B2 .
0 )
Let us take some charges and current configuration at instant t, and theyproduce fields

E and B respectively. In an infinitesimal instant dt , the charges move around a little.

According to Lorentz force, the work done on a charge q can be given by

dW =
F . d l =q (
E + v
B ) . v dt =q
E . v dt .

Now, in terms of charge and charge densities, we can write, q dV and

v J , so the rate of doing work on all the charges in a given volume V is

E . J
()dV
dW
=
dt V

14

We observe that, E . J is the work done per unit time, per unit volume, which
means it is the power delivered per unit volume. We can,therefore, express this quantity in

terms of the fields alone, using the Ampere-Maxwell law to eliminate current density J :

1
E
E . J = E ( B ) 0
E.
0 t

. (
E
B ) =
B . (
E )
E .(
B)

Using Faradays Law,

B
E . (
B ) =
B. .( E B)
t

Again, we have,

B 1 2
B. = (B )
t 2 t

E 1

E. = (E2 )
t 2 t

So,

1 1 1

E . J =
2 t (
0 E 2+ B2
0 0 )
.( E B )

Putting this in the equation of time derivative of work, and, applying the divergence theorem
to the second term, we have,

E

( B ). d a
dW d 1
dt
= E2 + 1 B2 dV 1
dt V 2 0 ( )
0 0 S

where S is the surface bounding V. This is basically the Poynting Theorem; it is the work-
energy theorem in case of electrodynamics. The first integral on the right is the total energy
stored in the fields. The second term obviously represents the rate at which energy is
transported out of V, across its surface, by the action of electromagnetic fields. Poyntings
theorem says, then, that the work done on the charges by the electromagnetic force is equal to
the decrease in energy remaining in the fields, minus the energy that flowed out through the

15
surface, which is in agreement with the energy conservation law in physics. The energy per
unit time, per unit area, transported by the fields is the Poynting vector

S 1 (
E
B)
0

S . d a
Specifically, is the energy per unit time crossing the infinitesimal surface
d a the energy flux.

In simple words, the Poynting theorem is an energy balance statement stated as the
rate of energy transfer per unit volume from a region of space equals the rate of work done on
a charge distribution plus the energy flux leaving that region of space mentioned. A second
statement can also explain the theorem The Poynting Theorem states that the decrease in
the electromagnetic energy per unit time in a certain volume is equal to the sum of work done
by the electric and magnetic field forces and the net outward flux per unit time.

Any space that contains electric currents is regarded as an electromagnetic field where
the energy is transformed to different points into the electric and magnetic kinds by means of
batteries, dynamos, thermoelectric actions, etc. while in the other parts of the field the energy
can again be converted into heat, work done by electromagnetic forces, or any form of energy
as a result of this current. In early days, a current was regarded to be travelling along a
conductor body, where the chief attention is mainly directed to the conductor bulk, and the
energy which appeared at any part of the network, if considered at all, was supposed to be
bore through the conductor by the current. But, later, after the proofs of the existence of
induced currents and of electromagnetic actions at a distance from a circuit from which they
draw their energy, it has led us, from Faradays and Maxwells works, to look upon the
medium which surrounds the conductor to play as important role as the conductor itself, in
the development of the phenomena. If continuity of the motion of energy is assumed to be
true, that is, if we take that when energy disappears at one point and reappears at another it
must have passed through the prevailing space, as such we are forced to conclude that the
surrounding medium contains at least a part of the energy, and that it is capable of
transferring energy from one part to another.

On this principle, it was investigated what energy is contained in the medium by

Maxwell, and he has given expressions which assign to each part of the field a share of
energy depending on the electromotive and magnetic intensities at that part and on the nature
of the matter, in regard to its specific inductive capacity and magnetic permeability. These
expressions interpret for the whole energy. According to Maxwells theory, currents consist
essentially in a certain distribution of energy in and around a conductor, basic notion of field
theory, companied by transformation and movement of energy through the field from one
point to another. Starting with Maxwells theory, we are, as such, led to consider the problem:
How energy about an electric current pass from one point to another? What is the path?
Which law is responsible for it to travel from the part of the circuit where it is first observed
as electric and magnetic to the parts where it is changed into other forms of energy?

16
 Poyntings aim was to prove that there exist a universal law for energy transfer, which
says that energy moves at any point perpendicular to the plane containing electric field lines
and magnetic field lines, and as such the amount of energy crossing unit surface area per
second of that plane equals the product of the intensities of the force fields, times the sine of
the angle between them, while the energy flow direction is that in which a right-handed screw
would move as if turned rotund from the positive direction of the electromotive to the
positive direction of the magnetic intensity. Following the examination of this general law
several importantuses may be given to show how the energy moves in the vicinity of circuits
carrying current.

The given expression is a general account of the technique by which this law is
derived. Let us denote the electric field at a point, which is the exerted force per unit of
positive electrification that act upon a small charged element placed at the point by S, and the
specific inductive capacity of the medium at the very point by K, the magnetic intensity,
which is the force exerted per unit magnetic pole which act on a small north-seeking pole at
the point by H and the magnetic permeability by , the expression for the electric and
magnetic energies per unit volume of the field can be given by

K S2 H 2
+ (1)
8 8

In case any change going on in the energysupply or distribution, the change in this expression
per second will be

dS dH
KS H
dt dt
+ (2)
4 4

As stated by Maxwell, electric current, in general, is made up of two components, one

the conduction current, due to flow of electrons through the conductor, and the other, the
displacement current, which is because of change of electric displacement in the dielectric.
Now, the electric displacement is related to the electric field and is given by,

KS
4

such that whenever change of electric displacement takes place, due to this change in the
electric field, which follows from above expression, the rate of change, which is, the
displacement current, is given by,

dS
K
dt
4

17
and this is equal to the difference between the true current, S and the conduction current, R.

K dS
=SR
4 dt

Multiplying the above equation by the electric field, S,

KS dS
=SSRS(3)
4 dt

which is the first term of the equation (2).

Similarly, the first term of the RHS of (3) may be converted by substituting the values
in terms of the components of the magnetic intensityfor the components of the total current,
whereas in the next term, the product of the conduction current and the electric field becomes
R2
C , where C is the specific conductivity (Ohms law states that R=CS). But, from Joules

Law, this is the energy that appears as heat in the circuit per unit volume. Now, if we sum up
the quantity in (3) thus altered, considering all the space within a closed surface, we see that,
the integral of the first term can be integrated by parts, and we find out that it involves of two
terms one an expression that depends on the surface alone, to which each part of the
surface contributes a share that depends on the values of the electromotive and magnetic
intensities at that particular part, the another term being the change per unit time in the
magnetic energy with a negative sign. The integral of the second term of (3) gives the amount
of heat developed in the conductors within the surface per unit time.

The change per unit time in the electric energy within a surface is equal to a quantity
that depends on the surface

The change per unit time in the magnetic energy

The heat developed in the circuit.

Arranging this, the change per unit time is the sum of the electric and magnetic
energies within a surface together with the heat developed by currents is equal to a quantity to
which each element of the given surface contributes a share depending on the values of the
electric and magnetic intensities at that element. To summarise, the total change in the energy
is assumed for by the supposition that the energy passes in through the surface as per the law
given by this expression. On interpretation of this expression, it is found that it implies that
the energy flowsperpendicularly to the plane containing electric and magnetic field lines and
the amount crossing unit area per second of this plane is equal to the product

electromotive intensity magnetic intensity sine included angle

4

18
while the flow is directed along the direction given by electric field, magnetic intensity, flow
of energy, as per right hand corkscrew.

This follows at once from the law that the energy flows perpendicularly to the electric
field lines, and so along the equipotential. It also flows perpendicularly to the magnetic field
lines, and so along the magnetic equipotential surfaces also. So, lines of intersection of
magnetic & electric field lines are the lines of flow of energy.

Application of Poyntings Theorem:

A straight wire conveying a current:

In the case above, when very near the wire, and within it, the magnetic field lines are
circles around the axis of the wire. The electric field lines are along the wire, if it is taken as
granted that the flow across equal areas of the cross section is the same at every part of the
section. If AB, represents the wire, and the current is directed from A to B, then a tangent
plane to the surface at any point contains the directions of both E.M.I. and M.I. and energy is
therefore flowing in perpendicularly through the surface, that is, along the radius towards the
axis. Now, we take a portion of the wire bounded by two plane sections which are
perpendicular to the axis. Since, there is no energy flow across the ends; they contain no
component of the E.M.I. The whole of the energy then enters in through the external surface
of the wire, and by the general theorem the amount of energy entering in must just account
for the heat developed because of the resistance, since if the current is steady there is found to
be no change of energy. It is, perhaps, worthwhile to show independently in this case that the
energy moving in, as per the general law, will just account for the heat developed in the wire.

Let, r, be the radius of the wire, i, the current along it, , the magnetic intensity at
the surface, P, the electric field at any point within the wire, and V, the difference of potential
between the two ends. Then the area of a length l of the wire is 2 rl , and the energy
entering from the outside per second is

area E . M . I . M . I . 2 rl . P .
=
4 4

19
 2 r . P . l

4

4 iV

4

iV

for the line integral of the magnetic intensity 2 r round the wire is 4 current

through it, and Pl=V .

But by Ohms law,

V =iR

2
and iV =i R ,

or, the heat developed according to Joules law.

This seems then that no energy of a current travels along the wire, but that it comes in
from the non-conducting medium surrounding the wire, that as soon as it enters it begins to
be transformed into heat energy and the amount of energy crossing immediate layers of the
wire decreases by the time the centre is reached, where no magnetic force exist, and therefore
no energy passing, it has all been transformed into heat. A conduction current then may be
said to consist of this inward flow of energy with its accompanying magnetic and
electromotive forces, and the transformation of the energy into heat within the conductor.

Discharge of a condenser through a wire:

Let us first consider the very case of the slow discharge of a condenser that consist of
two charged parallel plates that are connected by a wire of high resistance, as in this case we
may, as such, form an idea regarding the actual path of energy flow.

We assume A and B, to be the two plates of the condenser, A being positively charged
and B negatively charged. Now, before discharging the sections of the equipotential surfaces,
it will be like what is shown in the figure. The major part of the energy exists in the part of
the dielectric in between the plates, but there will be some part of energy wherever there is
electric field. In between A and B the E.M.I. will be from A to B as shown, and everywhere it
is perpendicular to the equipotential surfaces. Now by connecting A and B by a thin wire as
shown in the figure of very high resistance, following a field line and with the resistance such
adjusted that it is same for the same fall of potential overall. This arrangement of the
resistance is supposed because the equipotental surfaces will not be disturbed by current flow.
The discharge takes place slowly, because the wire is assumed to fine.

20
 During the discharge, a current flows round the wire in the direction indicated by the
arrow, and there exist an equal displacement current from B to A as a result of the yielding of
the charge displacement there. The current will circled around magnetic field lines, which
will in common form be closed curves embracing the circuit. The direction of these encircling
the wire will be from right to left, and will be circling the space between A and B from left to
right in front. The E.M.I. is always directed from the higher potential surfaces ones near A, to
the lower ones near B, both near the wire and in the space between A and B.

We see that, since, the energy always moves perpendicularly to the hues of E.M.I., as
such it must travel along the equipotential surfaces. Again as it moves perpendicular to the
magnetic field lines it moves inwards on all sides to the wire, and is therefore, converted into
heat energy, if the discharge is so slow that the current is steady during the time considered.
But between A and B the E.M.I. is opposite to the current, being downwards, as such, while,
on the other hand, the M.I. bears the same relation to the current as in the wire. From
previous experiences, E.M.I., M.I., and direction of flow of energy are connected by the
right-handed corkscrew relation; we see that the energy moves outwards from the space
between A and B. Now, the strain of the dielectric between A and B is gradually released by
what can be called as a discharge current along the wire, the energy thus released travels
outwards through the dielectric, guided always along the equipotential surfaces, and

21
gradually converges again on the circuit where the surfaces are cut by the wire. Here, the
energy is transformed into heat. We can also notice that if the current is considered steady the
energy flows along at the same level.

Plane Parallel Capacitor:

In the plane parallel capacitor, the circular electrodes are perfectly conducting, while
the region between the electrodes is free space. The system is driven by a voltage source
distributed around the edges of the electrodes. Between the electrodes, the electric field is
simply the voltage divided by the plate spacing,

v
E= i z (11)
d

while the magnetic field that follows from the integral form of Ampre's law.

r d v

H= 0 ()
i (12)
2 dt d

Consider the application of the integral version of

W
. S =
t

to the surface S enclosing the region between the electrodes in the figure. First we determine
the power flowing into the volume through this surface by evaluating the left-hand side. The
density of power flow follows from (11) and (12).

22
 S = r 0 dv
E
H= v i(13)
2 d2 dt

The top and bottom surfaces have normal perpendicular to this vector, so the only
contribution comes from the surface at r = b. Because S is constant on that surface, the
integration amounts to a multiplication.

E
H . d a
S

b 0 dv
( 2 bd ) ( v
2 d 2 dt )
d 1

dt 2(C v2 (14) )
where
2
b 0
C
d

Here the expression has been written as the rate of change of the energy stored in the

capacitor. With E again given by (11), we double-check the expression for the time rate of
change of energy storage.

d 1
dt
E . E dv
V
2 0

[ ( )]
2
d 1 ( v
d b2 )
dt 2 0 d

d 1 2

dt 2(C v (15) )
From the field viewpoint, power flows into the volume through the surface at r = b
and is stored in the form of electrical energy in the volume between the plates. In the quasi-
static approximation used to evaluate the electric field, the magnetic energy storage is
neglected at the outset because it is small compared to the electric energy storage. As a check
on the implications of this approximation, consider the total magnetic energy storage.

From (12),

23
 1
2 0
H.
H dv
V

2 b
1 1 0 dv
0 [
2 2 d dt ( ) 0
2
] d r 2 rdr

2 2
0 0 b dv
C( ) (16)
16 dt

Comparison of this expression with the electric energy storage found in (15) shows
that the EQS approximation is valid provided that

0 0 b 2 dv 2
8 | |
dt
v 2 (17)

For a sinusoidal excitation of frequency , this gives

2
b
( ) 1(18)
8 c

where c is the free space velocity of light. The requirement that the propagation time b/c of an
1
electromagnetic wave be short compared to a period is equivalent to the requirement

that the magnetic energy storage be negligible compared to the electric energy storage.

Energy per unit time passing through the surface of a wire:

24
 When current flows down a wire, work is done, which shows up as Joule heating of
the wire. Though there are certainly easier ways to do it, the energy per unit time delivered to
the wire can be calculated using the Poynting vector. Assuming its uniform, the electric field
parallel to the wire is

V
E=
L

where V is the potential difference between the ends and L is the length of the wire. The
magnetic field is about the circumference at the surface (radius a) it has the value

0 I
B=
2 a

The magnitude of Poynting vector is

1 V 0 I VI
S= =
0 L 2 a 2 aL

and it points radially inward. The energy per unit time passing in through the surface of the
wire is therefore

S . d a=S ( 2 aL )=VI

Q: Calculate the power (energy per unit time) transported down the cable given in the
figure, assuming the two conductors are held at potential difference V, and carry
current I.

A:

The electric field is

E= s^
2 0 s

25
The magnetic field is

0 I

B= ^
2 s

S = 1 (
E
B)
0

I
^z
4 2 0 s 2

b b
I 1 I b
P= S d a= S 2 sds= ds= ln
a 2 0 a s 2 0 a

But,
b
E . d l
V =
a

b
1

2 0 a s
ds

b
ln
2 0 a

So, P=IV .

Alternating Forms of Poynting Theorem:

It is possible to derive alternative versions of Poyntings theorem. Instead of the flux

vector E B as above, it is possible to follow the same style of derivation, but instead

choose the Abraham form E H , the Minkowski form D H , or perhaps D H. Each

E
B
choice represents the response of the propagation medium in its own way: the form
above has the property that the response happens only due to electric currents, while the

D
H form uses only (fictitious) magnetic monopole currents. The other two forms

(Abraham and Minkowski) use complementary combinations of electric and magnetic

currents to represent the polarization and magnetization responses of the medium.

26
References:
1.Introduction to Electrodynamics, 4th Edition, Griffiths, D.J. (Pearson India Educational
Services Private Limited), 2015.

2. Electricity and Magnetism, Berkeley Physics Course, Volume 2, Purcell, E.M. (McGraw-
Hill), 1965.

3. Newtons Third Law in Electrodynamics, Keller, J.M., (Published by American

Association of Physics Teachers), 1942.

4. On the Transfer of Energy in the Electromagnetic Field, Poynting, J.H., (Communicated by

Lord Rayleigh), 1884.

27
Index
A
Angular momentum 2 5 6
Ampere-Maxwell law 9
C
Conduction current 12 14
Capacitor 16 17
Condenser 14
D
Displacement current 12 15
E
Equipotential surface 13 14 15 16
Electrostatic force 2
Electromagnetic field 3 6 9 10
Electromagnetic force 2 5 7 10
Electromotive intensity 11 12 13 14
G
Gaussian units 3
J
Joule heating 18
L
Lorentz force 9
M
Momentum 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Magnetic energy 10 12 17 18
Magnetic force 2 3 7 11 13
Momentum density 3 4 5
Magnetic permeability 11
Magnetic intensity 11 12 13 14
O
Ohms law 12 14
P
Poynting vector 10 18

28