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X(t) = x1 xn (3.4)
49
so that Y (t) = AY(t).
Lemma 3.2. Let the Wronskian W (t) of X(t) be the determinant of X(t).
Then Z t
W (t) = W (t0 ) exp tr (A(s)) ds . (3.6)
t0
so that
Now since
det (I + C) = 1 + tr (C) + O 2 ,
(3.12)
we have that
W (t) = W (t0 ) (1 + (t t0 ) tr (A(t0 ))) . (3.13)
Now by expanding W (t) in a Taylor series, we obtain that
2
W (t) = W (t0 ) + (t t0 ) W (t0 ) + O (t t0 ) (3.14)
so that
Since we have not made any assumptions about t0 , we can the write
50
Proof. Begin by showing that X(t + T ) is also a fundamental matrix. Let
Y(t) = X(t + T ). Then
Y (t) = X (t + T ) = A(t + T )X(t + T ) = A(t)X(t + T ) = A(t)Y(t) (3.18)
and so X(t + T ) is a fundamental matrix.
i. Let B(t) = X1 (t)Y(t). Then
Y(t) = X(t)X1 (t)Y(t) (3.19)
= X(t)B(t) (3.20)
Let B0 = B(t0 ). We know by lemma 3.1 that Y0 (t) = X(t)B0 is a fun-
damental matrix, where, by definition, Y0 (t0 ) = Y(t0 ). Since these are
both solutions to X = AX, by the uniqueness of the solution, we must
then have Y0 (t) = Y(t) for all time. As a result, B0 = B(t) and so B is
time-independent.
ii. From lemma 3.2, we have that
Z t
W (t) = W (t0 ) exp tr (A(s)) ds (3.21)
t0
!
Z t Z t+T
W (t + T ) = W (t0 ) exp tr (A(s)) ds + tr (A(s)) ds (3.22)
t0 t
!
Z t+T
W (t + T ) = W (t) exp tr (A(s)) ds (3.23)
t
!
Z T
W (t + T ) = W (t) exp tr (A(s)) ds . (3.24)
0
51
Properties.
i. The characteristic multipliers (eigenvalues) 1 , . . . , n of B = X(T ) with
X(0) = I satisfy
!
Z T
det (B) = 1 2 n = exp tr (A(s)) ds . (3.30)
0
tr (B) = 1 + 2 + + n . (3.31)
Proof. Suppose X(t) is another fundamental matrix. Then
+ T ) = X(t)
X(t B. (3.32)
We have showed in the proof of theorem 3.3 that since X(t) and X(t) are
fundamental matrices then there is a constant non-singular matrix C such
that
X(t) = X(t)C (3.33)
so that
+ T ) = X(t + T )C
X(t (3.34)
B
X(t) = (X(t)B) C (3.35)
= X(t)BC
X(t)CB (3.36)
= BC
CB (3.37)
1 = B
CBC (3.38)
52
Proof.
i. Let b be an eigenvector of B corresponding to eigenvalue . Let x(t) =
X(t)b. Then x = Ax and
where p(t)e2it/T is still periodic with period T . As a result, the fact that
is not unique does not alter our results.
ii. We have that
xj (t + T ) = j xj (t) (3.49)
xj (t + N T ) = N
j xj (t). (3.50)
53
iii. As for the general solution, suppose that b1 , . . . , bn are n linearly inde-
pendent eigenvectors of B corresponding to distinct eigenvalues 1 , . . . , n .
Then there are n linearly independent solutions to x = Ax, which by the
above theorem are given by
e1 t
1 0 0
D0 (t) =
.. ,
Y0 (t) =
.. ,
(3.53)
. .
n t
0 n 0 e
such that
X0 = P0 Y0 , Y0 = D0 Y0 . (3.54)
iv. Now consider what happens if < 0. Suppose < 0 real, so that we can
write
= e(+i/T )T (3.55)
where
= eT . (3.56)
Then we obtain
where q(t) has period T since p(t) has period T . Since we can choose x
to be real, without loss of generality, we can also choose q to be real. For
the general solution, if j < 0, we can replace pj with qj and j with j so
that
1 T
e 0
..
.
j T
P0 = p1 qj pn , Y0 = e (3.60)
. ..
n T
0 e
and
X0 (t) = P0 (t)Y0 (t). (3.61)
54
v. Suppose now that is complex. Then since is an eigenvalue of the real
matrix B, is as well. The characteristic exponents are and . Let
= + i, p(t) = q(t) + ir(t) (3.62)
where q(t) and r(t) must both have period T since p(t) does. Since x(t) =
et p(t) is a solution to x = A(t)x, then by taking the complex conjugate,
so is x(t) = et p(t). We can write these as
x(t) = e(+i)t (q(t) + ir(t)) (3.63)
t
= e [(q cos (t) r sin (t)) + i (r cos (t) + q sin (t))] (3.64)
and
x(t) = e(i)t (q(t) ir(t)) (3.65)
t
= e [(q cos (t) r sin (t)) i (r cos (t) + q sin (t))] . (3.66)
We can alternately write the linearly independent real solutions
xR = Re et p(t) = et [cos (t) q(t) sin (t) r(t)] ,
(3.67)
xI = Im et p(t) = et [sin (t) q(t) + cos (t) r(t)] ,
(3.68)
so that
X0 = x1 xR xI xn , (3.69)
P0 = p1 qr pn , (3.70)
e1 T
0
..
.
et cos (t) et sin (t)
Y0 = (3.71)
et sin (t) et cos (t)
..
.
0 en T
and
X0 (t) = P0 (t)Y0 (t). (3.72)
3.1.1 Example
For example, consider
cos (t)
x1 = 1+ x1 (3.73)
2 + sin (t)
x2 = x1 x2 . (3.74)
55
Here, we know that the solution is in general
et (2 + sin (t))
0
X(t) = (3.78)
et 2 + 21 sin (t) 12 cos (t) et
so that
B = X1 (0)X(2) (3.79)
1
2e2
2 0 0
= 3 3 2 (3.80)
1 e e2
2 2 2
1 1 0 2e 0
= (3.81)
2 3 2 3 2
e e2
2 2 2
e 0
= (3.82)
0 e2
where p1 (t) and p2 (t) are periodic with period 2. We know that in fact
2 + sin (t) 0
p1 (t) = , p2 (t) = . (3.84)
2 + 21 sin (t) 12 cos (t) 1
56
Now by definition,
(t) = f ((t)) (3.86)
so
fi
(t) = (t) (3.87)
xj (t)
(t) = A(t) (t) (3.88)
If we let v = , then
v (t) = A(t)v(t) (3.89)
where, since (t) has period T by assumption, v(t) must also, and so the corre-
sponding characteristic multiplier is 1. As a result, for a nonlinear system with
a periodic solution, one characteristic multiplier is always = 1.
From remark (ii) on page 53, we know that for the perturbation to be bounded
and hence for the solution to be stable, we must have 1 1 and 2 1 and
so, since we know 1 = 1 and we wish 1 and 2 to be distinct, we must have
Z T
0> tr (A(s)) ds (3.92)
0
Z T !
fi
0> tr ds (3.93)
0 xj (s)
Z T
f1 f2
0> + ds (3.94)
0 x1 x2 (s)
Z T
0> f |x= ds. (3.95)
0
57
3.2.2 Example
Consider
x = x y x x2 + y 2
(3.97)
2 2
y =x+yy x +y . (3.98)
Let
sin () (r r ) = cos () r r3 r
(3.101)
3
cos () (r r ) = sin () r r r . (3.102)
so we can write
a = r r (3.104)
3
sa = r r r (3.105)
r r = r r3 r = 0. (3.113)
58
We have that
r = r 1 r3
(3.114)
and so we have a solution of constant radius when r = 0 (the trivial case) and
r = 1. Without loss of generality, choose r = 1. Then since
r = r, (3.115)
so that
!
Z T
2 = exp tr (A(s)) ds (3.120)
0
Z 2
= exp 2 ds (3.121)
0
= e4 (3.122)
< 1. (3.123)
x + a(t)x = 0 (3.124)
59
Likewise by choosing the initial condition
x1 (0) 0
= (3.128)
x2 (0) 1
we obtain a solution of the form
" #
(2)
x1 (t)
(2) . (3.129)
x1 (t)
As a result, we have chosen X(0) = I so that
" #
(1) (2)
x1 (T ) x1 (T )
B = X(T ) = (1) (2) . (3.130)
x1 (T ) x1 (T )
Now we have from property (i) on page 52 that
Z T !
1 2 = exp tr (A(s)) ds (3.131)
0
!
Z T
= exp 0 ds (3.132)
0
=1 (3.133)
and from property (ii) that
1 + 2 = tr (B) (3.134)
(1) (2)
= x1 (T ) + x1 (T ). (3.135)
Let = tr (B) /2 so that
1 2 = 1 (3.136)
1 + 2 = 2. (3.137)
Solving these, we obtain that
p
= 2 1. (3.138)
We can rewrite i as exp(i T ), so that
1 + 2 = 0 (3.139)
and so
e1 T + e2 T = 2 (3.140)
e1 T + e1 T = 2 (3.141)
1 T 1 T
e +e
= (3.142)
2
cosh (1 T ) = . (3.143)
Consider the following cases.
60
I. Let 1 < < 1. We can then define by = cos (T ), where, without
loss of generality, 0 < T < , so that
p
= 2 1 (3.144)
= cos (T ) i sin (T ) (3.145)
iT
=e (3.146)
and since |1 | = 1 and |2 | = 1, then from remark (ii) on page 53, the
solution is stable and pseudo-periodic.
Now eit has period T = 2 . Now since 6= 1 and 6= 1, we must have
T =6 m (3.148)
2
T =6 m (3.149)
T
2T
6 T
= (3.150)
m
so that T 6= 2T, T, 23 T, . . .
Note that for T to equal nT , we must have
2
= (3.151)
nT
for n 6= 1, 2 from above.
p
II. Let > 1. Then since = 2 1, we must have 1 > 1 and since
1 2 = 1, we must have 1 > 1 > 2 > 0 and 2 = 11 means 2 = 1 .
Our solution must therefore be of the form
where p1 (t) and p2 (t) are both periodic with period T . As a result, the
solution is unstable.
61
with the Jordan block
1
. (3.154)
0
As a result, instead of our solution being of the form
1 0
X(t) = P(t) exp t (3.155)
0 2
t
e 1 0
= P(t) (3.156)
0 e2 t
P1 e1 t P2 e2 t
= , (3.157)
P3 e1 t P4 e2 t
See the papers by Akhmedov [1] and Wiesel and Pohlen [30].
p
IV. Let < 1. Since = 2 1, we must have 1 < 1 and since
1 2 = 1, we must have 1 < 1 < 2 < 0 and 2 = 11 means 2 = 1 .
Now we can write 1 = iT + so that our solution must be of the form
where p1 (t) and p2 (t) are both periodic with period T and so eit/T p1 (t)
and eit/T p2 (t) are both periodic with period 2T . As a result, the solution
is unstable.
62
1.5
0.5
Im()
0.5
1.5
4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4
Re()
>1
=1
1<<1
=1
<1
Figure 3.1: The range of 1 , 2 for different values of real. In the region > 1,
the sample point has = 1/3, 3; for = 1, we have = 1. In 1 < < 1, the
sample point shown is = 2/3 i 5/3; for = 1, we have = 1 and in the
region < 1, we show = 1/3, 3.
63
where b(t) has period T . If = 0, the solution is stable, however, there are some
values of for which the solution is only marginally stable, according to the
above criteria. As a result, we expect that for small but nonzero near those
values of , we will get the beginning of a region of instability. We wish to find
those values of .
For = 0, if X(0) = I, then
cos t 1 sin t
X(t) = (3.170)
sin t cos t
and so
cos T 1 sin T
B = X(T ) = . (3.171)
sin T cos T
As a result,
tr (B)
= = cos T . (3.172)
2
If = 1, then
T = 2m (3.173)
2
= 2m (3.174)
T
where m is a positive integer since > 0. If = 1, then
= (2m + 1) (3.175)
2
= (2m + 1) . (3.176)
T
Now we have from the previous section that = 1 corresponds to the existence
of a periodic solution of period T and = 1 corresponds to the existence of
a periodic solution of period 2T . As a result, we will have the border between
stability and instability breaking off from = 0 at
2
= 2m (3.177)
T
corresponding to solutions with period T and breaking off from = 0 at
2
= (2m + 1) (3.178)
T
corresponding to solutions with period 2T .
64
3.3 Stability Boundary of Mathieus Equation
3.3.1 Undamped Case
We have from 3.2.3 and 3.2.4 that on the edge of the region of stability, we
have either = 1 or = 1. The former corresponds to the existence of a
periodic solution with period T and the latter to a periodic solution with period
2T . In order to determine the region of stability of the Mathieu equation in
the - plane, we then need to determine the conditions on and required in
order to have a solution which is periodic with either period or 2. We follow
McLachlan [17] and Ward [28].
Functions of Period
We can write a general function of period as
X
X
x= an cos (2nt) + bn sin (2nt) . (3.179)
n=0 n=1
We then obtain
65
and so we must have
X
4n2 an cos (2nt)
0=
n=0
X
+ an (cos (2(n + 1)t) + cos (2(n 1)t)) (3.185)
2 n=0
0 = a0 + a1 cos (0) + ( 4) a1 + (2a0 + a2 ) cos (2t)
2 2
X
4n2 an + (an1 + an+1 ) cos (2nt)
+ (3.186)
n=2
2
and
X
4n2 bn sin (2nt)
0=
n=1
X
+ bn (sin (2(n + 1)t) + sin (2(n 1)t)) (3.187)
2 n=1
0 = ( 4) b1 + b2 sin (2t)
2
X
4n2 bn + (bn1 + bn+1 ) sin (2nt) .
+ (3.188)
n=2
2
66
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
5 0 1 4 5 9 10 1516 20
n=3
n=5
n = 20
Figure 3.2: The approximation to the border of the region of stability of the
Mathieu equation (determined by equations 3.189, 3.190, 3.198, 3.199) where
each infinite matrix is approximated by its n n counterpart.
67
Functions of Period 2
We now perform a similar analysis for functions of period 2. We can write a
general function of period 2 as
X
X
x= an cos (nt) + bn sin (nt) . (3.191)
n=0 n=1
We then remove from this all the terms which also have period since we have
already dealt with those. If we included them, we would obtain the lines in the
- plane where we obtain solutions that either have period or have period
2. As a result, we have
X
X
x= an cos (nt) + bn sin (nt) . (3.192)
n=1 n=1
n odd n odd
so that we obtain
68
and
X
0= ( 1) b1 + (b1 + b3 ) sin (t)
n=1
2
n odd
X
n2 bn + (bn2 + bn+2 ) sin (nt)
+ (3.197)
n=1
2
n odd
and
12 0
0 2 2 b1
32
0 2 2
b3
= (3.199)
0
52 b5
..
2 2
..
. .. .. .. .
0 . . .
and
2
= (2m + 1) . (3.201)
2
As a result, we seek periodic solutions near = n to the equation
Let
69
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
5 0 1 4 5 9 10 1516 20
x0 + n2 x0 = 0 (3.205)
2
x1 + n x1 = 1 x0 x0 cos (2t) (3.206)
x2 + n2 x2 = 1 x1 2 x0 x1 cos (2t) . (3.207)
1 a = 0, 1 b = 0. (3.212)
70
As a result, in order to avoid x0 being the zero solution, we must have 1 = 0.
We then have
a a
x1 + n2 x1 = cos ((n + 2) t) cos ((n 2) t)
2 2
b b
sin ((n + 2) t) sin ((n 2) t) . (3.213)
2 2
Letting
X
x1 = ci sin (it) + di cos (it) , (3.214)
i=0
this becomes
X
X
ci i2 sin (it) + di i2 cos (it) + ci n2 n2 sin (it) + di n2 cos (it)
i=1 i=0
a a
= cos ((n + 2) t) cos ((n 2) t)
2 2
b b
sin ((n + 2) t) sin ((n 2) t) . (3.215)
2 2
Equating coefficients of the sines and cosines, we obtain that
b a
cn2 = , dn2 = (3.216)
8 (n + 1) 8 (n + 1)
b a
cn+2 = , dn+2 = . (3.217)
8 (n + 1) 8 (n + 1)
We can assume that all the sin (nt) and cos (nt) component is already in x0 , so
we can choose cn = 0, dn = 0. All remaining ci and di are zero. As a result,
b b
x1 = sin ((n 2) t) + sin ((n + 2) t)
8 (n + 1) 8 (n + 1)
a a
+ cos ((n 2) t) + cos ((n + 2) t) . (3.218)
8 (n + 1) 8 (n + 1)
71
Under the assumption that n 6= 2, in order to eliminate the secular terms, we
must have
a a
0 = 2 a , (3.220)
16 (n + 1) 16 (n + 1)
b b
0 = 2 b , (3.221)
16 (n + 1) 16 (n + 1)
Case n = 2
In the case n = 2, eliminating the secular terms in equation 3.219 tells us that
a a
0 = 2 a + , (3.225)
8 48
b
0 = 2 b 0 , (3.226)
48
which become
5
0 = a 2 , (3.227)
48
1
0 = b 2 + . (3.228)
48
72
or
5
= 4 + 2 + O 3 .
(3.232)
48
We also have either
b
sin (4t) + O 2
x = b sin (2t) + (3.233)
24
or a a
cos (4t) + O 2 ,
x = a cos (2t) + + (3.234)
8 24
which both have period , as expected.
Case n = 1
In the case n = 1, eliminating the secular terms in equation 3.211 tells us that
a
0 = 1 a , (3.235)
2
b
0 = 1 b + (3.236)
2
and so we must either have
1
1 = , b=0 (3.237)
2
or
1
1 = , a = 0. (3.238)
2
In either of these cases, equation 3.211 becomes
a b
x1 + x1 = cos (3t) sin (3t) . (3.239)
2 2
As before, we let
X
x1 = ci sin (it) + di cos (it) (3.240)
i=1
73
Then equation 3.207 becomes
b a
x2 + x2 = 1 sin (3t) + cos (3t)
16 16
2 (a cos (t) + b sin (t))
b a
sin (3t) + cos (3t) cos (2t) (3.243)
16 16
b a
= 1 sin (3t) + cos (3t) 2 a cos (t) 2 b sin (t)
16 16
b b a a
sin (t) sin (5t) cos (t) cos (5t) . (3.244)
32 32 32 32
In order to eliminate the secular terms, we must have
1
0 = a 2 + (3.245)
32
1
0 = b 2 + . (3.246)
32
Case n = 0
In the case n = 0, we get
x0 = a + bt. (3.251)
Now we expect a periodic solution, so b = 0. As a result, equation 3.206 becomes
74
20
15
10
0
5 0 5 10 15 20
so that
a
x1 = cos (2t) (3.254)
4
and equation 3.207 becomes
a
x2 = 2 a cos (2t) cos (2t) (3.255)
4
a a
= 2 a cos (4t) (3.256)
8 8
so that we must have
1
0 = a 2 + . (3.257)
8
so that 2 = 1/8 and
1
= 0 2 (3.258)
8
with
a
x = a + cos (2t) + O 2 ,
(3.259)
4
which is again periodic with period , as expected.
These approximations to () for small are compared to the approximation
in the previous section (which is valid for both small and large ) in figure 3.4.
75
3.3.3 Damped Case
We follow Richards [24]. Our equation is
x + kx + ( + cos (2t)) x = 0. (3.260)
If we let
k
y(t) = e 2 t x(t), (3.261)
we obtain that
y + (a + cos (2t)) y = 0 (3.262)
where
k2
a= . (3.263)
4
Now equation 3.260 isnt of the form of equation 3.124 (3.2.3), but equation
3.262 is. As a result, we know that the solution to equation 3.262 is of the form
y(t) = e1 t p1 (t) + e2 t p2 (t) (3.264)
where 1 and 2 satisfy
p
e = = 2 1 (3.265)
where is half of the trace of B for y(t) above when we use the initial conditions
X(0) = I. As a result, the largest (the one most likely to cause instability)
satisfies p
e = = + 2 1 (3.266)
so that
p
= ln + 2 1 (3.267)
= cosh1 () (3.268)
1
cosh ()
= . (3.269)
Now in order for x(t) to be stable, we must have
k
0 Re (3.270)
2
k
Re () (3.271)
2
with as above. This can be used to numerically determine the stability of the
damped equation. The result for k = 0.2 is shown in figure 3.5.
76
20
k=0
k = 0.2
15
10
0
5 0 5 10 15 20
Figure 3.5: The border of the region of stability of the Mathieu equation, in the
damped case.
Near = 1
Suppose that k is of order . Then we can write k = k1 and expand near = 1,
= 1 + 1 + . . . (3.273)
x = x0 + x1 + . . . (3.274)
x0 + x0 = 0 (3.275)
x1 + x1 = k1 x0 cos (2t) x0 x0 . (3.276)
x1 + x1 = k1 (a sin (t) + b cos (t)) cos (2t) (a cos (t) + b sin (t))
1 (a cos (t) + b sin (t)) (3.278)
a
= k1 a sin (t) k1 b cos (t) (cos (t) + cos (3t))
2
b
( sin (t) + sin (3t)) 1 (a cos (t) + b sin (t)) (3.279)
2
77
In order to eliminate secular terms, we must have
b
1 b = 0
k1 a + (3.280)
2
a
k1 b 1 a = 0 (3.281)
2
which can be written as
1
k1 1
2 a 0
= . (3.282)
1
1 k1 b 0
2
In order for this to have a nonzero solution, the determinant of the matrix must
be zero, so we must have
1 1
0 = k12 + + 1 1 (3.283)
2 2
1
0 = k12 + 12 (3.284)
r 4
1
1 = k12 (3.285)
4
so that
= 1 + 1 + O 2
(3.286)
r
2
k 2 + O 2 .
=1 (3.287)
4
Near = 4
For larger values of , in order to still be small at the edge of stability, we
must have k quite a bit smaller. As a result, near = 4, we choose k to be of
order 2 . Then we can write k = 2 k1 and expand near = 4,
= 4 + 1 + 2 2 + . . . (3.288)
2
x = x0 + x1 + x2 + . . . (3.289)
x0 + 4x0 = 0 (3.290)
x1 + 4x1 = 1 x0 cos (2t) x0 (3.291)
x2 + 4x2 = k1 x0 1 x1 2 x0 cos (2t) x1 . (3.292)
78
so that
1 a = 0, 1 b = 0 (3.297)
79
20
15
10
0
5 0 5 10 15 20
Figure 3.6: The approximation to the boundary between stability and instability
of the Mathieu equation, in comparison with the numerical result from 3.3.3,
with k = 0.2.
In order to have a nonzero solution to this, we must have that the determinant
of the matrix is zero. As a result,
2 1 5
0 = 4k1 2 + 2 (3.306)
48 48
q
1 1 5 2
12 144 4 482 + 4k1
2 = . (3.307)
2
where
= 1 + 2 2 + O 3 .
(3.308)
These approximations are compared to the result from 3.3.3 in figure 3.6.
x + ( + b(t)) x = 0 (3.309)
80
and that we can expand b(t) as
X
b(t) = cn cos (2nt) + dn sin (2nt) . (3.311)
n=1
81
As a result, we must have
1 2
12 = cm + d2m
(3.323)
4
and so
p 2
= m2 cm + d2m . (3.324)
2
Case m = 0
Recall that we determined that in the m = 0 case, we must expand everything
to second order. As a result, we expand
= 1 + 2 2 + . . . (3.325)
2
x = x0 + x1 + x2 + . . . (3.326)
x2 = 1 x2 2 x0 b(t)x1 (3.330)
!
X
= 2 a ci cos (2it) + di sin (2it)
i=1
X cj a dj a
2
cos (2jt) + 2 sin (2jt) (3.331)
j=1
4j 4j
so that
2
21
X c + d2
i i
= . (3.334)
8 i=1
i2
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3.4 Applications of Mathieus Equation
3.4.1 Pendulum with Oscillating Pivot
Suppose we have a mass m attached at the end of a massless pendulum of length
L. Suppose the pivot point P oscillates in the vertical direction according to
some function p(t). Then the angle from the vertical to the pendulum obeys
g + p (t)
+ sin () = 0. (3.335)
L
We choose to measure the angle such that when the pendulum is vertical,
pointed upward (at what is usually the unstable stationary solution), = .
When the pendulum is near the top, . Let x = so that |x| 1.
Then our model is approximately
g + p (t)
x + (x) = 0. (3.336)
L
g + A 2 cos (t)
x + x = 0. (3.337)
L
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Derivation of Model
Suppose that there is some force F on the mass along the pendulum. Then the
forces on the mass at the end of the pendulum are given by
mx = F sin () (3.341)
my = F cos () mg, (3.342)
where
x = L sin () (3.343)
y = L cos () . (3.344)
z = 2L + L iL + iL2 ei
(3.345)
so that
m 2L + L + iL2 iL = iF imgei .
(3.346)
By equating real parts, we then obtain
2L + L + g sin () = 0. (3.347)
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Figure 3.7: The physical ion trap, for z0 = 1, r0 = 2.
+ 2 + 2 2 cos (t) = 0.
(3.355)
Letting
42 2
= t, = 2 , = 4 1 2 (3.356)
2
+ ( + cos (2 )) = 0. (3.357)
r2 = 2z 2 + r02 (3.358)
where r0 is the radius at the narrowest point. The end caps are described by
r2
z2 = + z02 (3.359)
2
85
where 2z0 is the shortest distance between the two end caps.
Now if we apply a potential difference A between the side walls and the end
caps, taking the end caps to be ground, we obtain a potential of
r2 2 z 2 z02
V (z, r) = A (3.360)
r02 + 2z02
where prime denotes differentiation with respect to t and we have let d20 =
r02 + 2z02 . If
A = U0 V0 cos (t) , (3.363)
as in the thesis of King [15], our problem then becomes
4Q
z (U0 V0 cos (t)) z. (3.364)
md20
16QU0 16QV0
= t, = , = (3.365)
2 md20 2 md20 2
so that our equation once more takes the familiar form of Mathieus equation:
z + ( + cos (2 )) z = 0. (3.366)
Stability for U0 = 0
In the case that U0 = 0, our equation becomes
4QV0
mz = cos (t) z. (3.367)
d20
We follow King [15]. We assume that the solution is composed of two parts:
one which has large amplitude and small acceleration, the other which has small
amplitude but large acceleration (something small but quickly oscillating). We
approximate z = zM + z so that we can approximate our equation by
4QV0
mz = cos (t) zM (3.368)
d20
86
so that
4QV0
z cos (t) zM . (3.369)
md20 2
As a result, we obtain
4QV0
mz = cos (t) z (3.370)
d20
4QV0
zM + z = cos (t) (zM + z ) (3.371)
md20
4QV0 4QV0 16Q2 V 2
zM 2 cos (t) zM = 2 cos (t) zM 2 4 02 cos2 (t) zM (3.372)
md0 md0 m d0
8Q2 V02
zM = zM , (3.373)
m2 d40 2
As a result, for U0 = 0, the ion trap acts like a harmonic oscillator, trapping
the ion at its centre.
See King [15] and Brewer et al. [4] for further reference.
A physical analogy to the trap is shown in figure 3.8. If one constantly
rotates the base at the correct frequency, the ball will be not roll down the base
[25, 27].
87
Figure 3.8: A physical analogy to the ion trap.
88