2016 - 2017 CAPE Pure Mathematics Unit 1 Module 3: CALCULUS I

(I) LIMITS - Handout # 19

The basis of the study of calculus is the concept of the limit of a function.
Consider the function f(x) = x2 2.

x 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.01

f (x) 1 1.75 1.96 1.99 1.9999

x 1 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.01

f (x) 1 1.75 1.96 1.99 1.9999

The table shows that as the values of x approaches zero, from either above or below, the value of
f (x) approaches 2. Thus 2 is called the limit of f (x) as x approaches zero. The symbol is
used to denote the phrase tends to and written
as x 0, f (x) 2. It is read as: As x tends to 0, f of x tends to 2.

The notation x a is used to represent x tends to a from the left and x a + to represent x
tends to a from the right. In general, whenever values of x get closer
and close to x = a, the values of the function f (x) approach a finite value, L; we call L the limit
of f (x) at x = a. In notation, we write lim f ( x) L or as x a, f (x) L.
xa
Example 1

Find the limit of h3 h2 + h 6 as h 0.

SOLN
As h 0, h3 h2 + h 6 03 02 + 0 6 = 6. Hence, the limit is 6.

Example 2
x 5
Find lim .
x 6 x 5

SOLN
x 5 65
lim = 11
x 6 x 5
65
x 5
Hence, lim = 11.
x 6 x 5

Example 3

When f(x) is undefined at x = a.

x2 x 2
Find lim .
x 2
x2
SOLN
When x 2, the limit expression of f(x) can be written as:

1
 x2 x 2 ( x 2)( x 1)
lim = lim lim( x 1) (2 1) 3.
x 2
x 2 x 2 x2 x2
x2 x 2
Hence, lim = 3.
x 2
x 2
By taking values of x closer and closer to 2, we can obtain values of f(x) as close as we like to 3,
even though f(x) is not defined at x = 2. The value 3 is the limit of f(x) at
x =2.

Note: There are two special cases of functions where limits exist at every point.
(a) If f is the identity function f(x) = x, then for any value of a, we have lim f ( x) lim x =
xa xa
a.
(b) If f is the constant function f(x) = k, then for any value of a, we have lim f ( x) lim k =
xa xa
k.

Example 4

By using a diagram, describe the behavior of the following functions as x 0.

1
0, < 0 , 0
(a) f(x) = { (b) g(x) = {
1, 0 0, = 0

SOLN
(a) For negative values of x arbitrarily close to zero, f(x) = 0. For positive values of
x arbitrarily close to zero, f(x) = 1. The function jumps at x = 0.
Hence, f(x) does not approach any single value L as x 0.
y

x
0

(b) The function g(x) becomes arbitrarily large in absolute value as x 0 (from above
or below) and is not close to any finite number. Hence, g(x) has no limit as x 0.
y

We may describe the behavior of g(x) as follows. As x 0, g(x) , where denotes the
positive and negative infinity. We do not state that the limit of g(x) is infinity because infinity is

2
not a real number. We would say that g(x) gets arbitrarily large or the limit of g(x) is undefined.
It is INCORRECT to write g (0) = .

Example 5
Interestingly, the concept of limit may be extended to a function f(x) for increasingly large values
of x.
5x
Find the limit of f(x) = as x .
x5
SOLN
Divide both the numerator & denominator by the highest power of x .IN THE
DENOMINATOR.
5x 5
So, f(x) = = .
x5 5
1
x
5
As x , 0.
x
5 5
As x , f(x) 5.
5 1 0
1

Hence, lim f ( x) = 5.
x

LIMIT THEOREMS (Properties of Limits)

Suppose that the limits of the functions f(x) and g(x) exist at x = a. Then
1) lim c = c, where c is a constant
xa

2) lim [ f(x) + g(x)] = lim f(x) + lim g(x)

xa xa xa

3) lim [ f(x) g(x)] = lim f(x) lim g(x)

xa xa xa

4) lim [c f(x)] = c lim f(x)

xa xa

5) lim [ f(x) g(x)] = lim f(x) lim g(x)

xa xa xa

f ( x) xa lim f ( x)
6) lim = , where lim g(x) 0
xa g ( x) lim g ( x) xa
xa
7) lim [ f(x)] = [ lim f(x)]n
n
xa xa

8) lim [ n f ( x) ] = n lim f ( x)
xa xa

Practise Problems 1
x2 1 x2 1 t2 9 3
Evaluate (i) lim (x2 x) (ii) lim (iii) lim (iv) lim
x 2 x1 x 1 x1 x 1 t 0 t2
1
Ans. 2; 1; 2;
6

3
Limits of Trigonometrical Functions

There are two important limits that will be needed in finding the derivatives of trigonometrical
functions later:
sin cos 1
(a) lim = 1 and (b) lim =0
0 0

Proof of (a)

Consider a sector OAC with angle (for 0 < < ) of a unit circle and two right-angled
2
triangles OBC and OAD.

x
O B A

1 2
(i) Note that, Area of sector OAC = (1) =
2 2

OB BC
(ii) Now cos = and sin =
1 1
1 1
Area of triangle OBC = (OB)(BC) = cos sin
2 2

AD
(iii) Now tan =
1
1 1 1
Area of triangle OAD = (OA)(AD) = (1) tan = tan
2 2 2

Since area of OBC < area of sector OAC < area of OAD, we have
1 1 1
sin cos < < tan
2 2 2
2
Multiplying both sides of each inequality by , we get
sin

4
 1
cos < <
sin cos
1 sin
OR > > cos .
cos
1
Note that sin > 0 as 0 < < . Now, cos and approach 1 as tends to 0.
2 cos
sin
Thus we see that is squeezed between two quantities which tend to 1.

sin
Hence, lim = 1.

0

sin
Thus, lim = 1and lim = 1.
0 0 sin

Proof of (b)
cos 1
Notice that

(cos 1)(cos 1)
=
(cos 1)
cos2 1
=
(cos 1)
1 sin 2 1
=
(cos 1)
sin 2
=
(cos 1)
sin sin 1
=
1 cos 1
1 sin 1
As tends to 0, the limit of sin , and are 0, and 1 respectively.
cos 1 2
cos 1 1
So, lim = (1)(0) = 0
0 2
cos 1
Hence, lim =0
0

Practise Problems 2
tan x sin 5 x
Find the value of (i) lim (ii) lim
x 0 x x0 x
Ans. 1; 5

5
Infinite Limits

Examining the behavior of functions whose function values get increasingly large

1 1
1) Find, if it exists, (a) lim (b) lim
x0 x2 x 0 x3
SOLN
1 1
(a) Approaching 0 from the left i.e. the left-sided limit; lim = = +
x 0 x
2
(0.000001) 2
1 1
Approaching 0 from the right i.e. the right-sided limit; lim 2 = = +
x 0 x (0.000001) 2
1 1
As x approaches 0, 2 becomes very large. Hence, lim 2 = +. This does not mean that the
x x 0 x
1
limit exists. It simply expresses the fact that 2 can be made as large as we like by taking x
x
sufficiently close to 0.

1 1
(b) Approaching 0 from the left i.e. the left-sided limit; lim = = +
x 0 x
3
(0.000001) 3
1 1
Approaching 0 from the right i.e. the right-sided limit; lim 3 = = .
x 0 x (0.000001) 3
1
This shows that limits on either side need not be the same. In this case, lim 3 does not exist.
x 0 x

Practise Problems 3

x6 x2 9
1) Find (a) lim (b) lim . Ans. , 6
x3 x3 x 3 x 3

1 1 3x 2x2
2) Evaluate (a) lim (b) lim 2 (c) lim (d) lim 2 . Ans. 0, 0, 3, 2
x x 1 x x x x 2 x x 1

3) Find the limits (if they exist)

x5 2x2 x 3 x3 8 sin x
(a) lim 2 (b) lim (c) lim (d) lim
x5 x 25 x1 x 1 x2 x 2 x 0 5x
3(1 cos x) cos x tan x (1 cos x) 2 tan 2 x
(e) lim (f) lim (g) lim (h) lim
x0 x x 0 x x0 x x 0 x
sin 3 x 1 1 3
(i) lim . Ans. , 5, 12, , 0, 1, 0, 2,
x 0 sin 2 x 10 5 2

4) Given lim( a x x ) = 9. Find the value of a. [2]

x4

6
 x2 a2
5) Determine in terms of a, lim
xa xa
x2
6) Find lim [4]
x2 2 x3 8x
x 2
7) By expressing x 4 as ( x +2) ( x 2), find lim .
x4 x4
x 2
Hence, find lim [5]
x4 x 5x 4
2

8) Given that lim[ f ( x) 3x] = 1, evaluate lim[9 f ( x)]

x3 x3

x 9 2
9) Find lim [3]
x 3 3 x 2 9 x

10) Use the result that ( x h x )( x h x ) = h to show that

xh x 1
lim = [5]
h0 h 2 x

Sample Examination Questions

2 x 2 5x 3
1) lim is
x3 x 2 2 x 3

7
(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) (D)
4
sin x
2) lim is
x0 x
2
1
(A) 0 (B) (C) 1 (D) 2
2
3) Given that lim [3f(x) + 2] = 11, where f(x) is real and continuous the lim [2f(x) + 5x]is
x1 x1
(A) 11 (B) 1 (C) 4 (D) 13

h
4) Show that lim 2 x. [6]
h0 xh x
x3 8
5) Find lim 2 . [5]
x 2 x 6 x 8

x2 x 2
6) Find lim . [3]
x 2 x 2 5 x 6

x2 2x 3
7) Evaluate lim . [4]
x3 x2 4x 3

7
 x2 x 2
8) Find lim . [3]
x1 x 2 3x 2
x 3 27
9) Find lim . [4]
x 3 x 2 x 12
x3 8
10) Determine lim 3 . [4]
x2 x 4 x

x 2 5x 6
11) Find lim 2 . [4]
x 2 x x 6

12) Find
x2 9 tan x 5 x tan x 6 x
(i) lim (ii) lim (iii) lim [15]
x 3 x 3 27 x 0 sin 2 x 4 x x0 sin 3 x 5 x

[5]
13) Given that lim {4f(x)} = 5, evaluate lim {f(x) + 2x} [5]
x2 x2

sin u
14) (i) State the value of lim . [1]
u 0 u
sin 3x
(ii) By means of the substitution u = 3x, show that lim 3. [4]
x0 x
sin 3x
(iii) Hence, evaluate lim . [4]
x 0 sin 5 x
x2 9
15) Find lim [3]
x 3 3 x 2 9 x

x2 2
16) Let g(x) = . Given that lim 2 g ( x) = lim g ( x) , find the value of b. [5](2014)
bx 2 x 4 x1 x0

End of Handout # 19

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2016 - 2017 CAPE Pure Mathematics Unit 1 Module 3: CALCULUS I
(II) CONTINUITY & DISCONTINUITY - Handout # 20

1) Motivation for the Definitions of Continuity

We perceive the path of a moving object as a single, unbroken curve without gaps, jumps or
holes. Such curves are described as continuous.

Referring to Fig. 1.1, the graph of f is unbroken at a; it is continuous there. It has a hole at b; it is
broken, or discontinuous there (i.e. not continuous). We notice that f(b) does not exist. The graph
jumps abruptly at c; it is discontinuous there. We notice that f(c) exists but lim f ( x) does not
xc

exist, as both lim f ( x) and lim f ( x) exist but are not equal. The graph has a hole at d; it is
xc xc

discontinuous there. We notice that f(d) exists, and lim f ( x) exists, but they are not equal.
xd

Returning to a where the graph is continuous, we notice that the graph of f contains the point
(a, f(a)) and a piece of it touches that point from both sides. For comparison, the graph
contains the point (c, f(c)) but a piece of it touches that
point from only one side. For the point (d, f(d )), no piece of the graph touches that point). All
these facts mean that: lim f ( x) exists and equals f (a).
xa

All that's just been examined forms the basis for the definition of continuity.

Fig. 1.1

f is: continuous at a; discontinuous at b, c, and d.

9
2) Continuity

Definition 1: Continuity at a Point

A function f is said to be continuous at a point a if:

(i) f(a) is defined i.e. f(a) exists

(ii) lim f ( x) exists
xa

(iii) lim f ( x) = f(a)

xa

These three (3) conditions must be met for the function f to be continuous at point a. If one of the
conditions fails, then f is said to be discontinuous at a, and a is called a point of discontinuity of
f. If f is continuous at all points of an open interval (a, b), then f is said to be continuous on (a, b).

In Summary: There are different types of discontinuity, as illustrated below

(1.2) (1.3)

a a

(1.4) (1.5)
.
.

a a

In Fig. (1.2), the curve has a hole at the point a, therefore f(x) is undefined there.
In Fig. (1.3), the curve illustrates a jump discontinuity because the function jumps from one
value to another. f(a) is defined but lim f ( x) does not exist.
xa

In Fig. (1.4), although f(a) is defined but lim f ( x) f(a), the discontinuity at x = a is a
xa

removable discontinuity.
In Fig. (1.5), the curve illustrates an infinite discontinuity.
f(a) is defined but lim f ( x) = .
xa

10
Definition 2: One-Sided Continuity

A function f is right-continuous at a point a if f(a) exists, and lim f ( x) = f(a).

xa

A function f is left-continuous at a point b if f(b) exists, and lim f ( x) = f(b).

xb

In Fig. 1.1, f is left-continuous at c but not right-continuous there.

Note then: A function f is continuous at a point a if and only if it is right- and left-continuous
there. This property follows from the property that f has the limit at a if and only if it has
equal right-hand and left-hand limits there.

3) Continuity of Some Functions

Theorem
i. The constant function f(x) = k is continuous everywhere on R.
ii. The function f(x) = x is continuous everywhere on R.
iii. If f and g are continuous at x = a, and k is a constant: then f + g; f g; fg and kf are
f
continuous at x = a; and if g(a) 0, then is also continuous at x = a.
g

4) Recall: Polynomials and Rational Functions

An example of a polynomial of degree 2 is 4 2x + 3x2. A polynomial is a function P(x) that

is the sum of a finite number of terms each of which is a constant multiple of a non-negative
integer power of x, i.e.: P(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + ... + anxn,
where a0, a1, a2,..., an are constants and an 0. The degree of P is n.

P( x)
A rational function is a function of the form R(x) = , where P(x) and Q(x) are
Q( x)
polynomials.

Corollary (i.e. consequence/result/effect/outcome)

i. Every polynomial is continuous everywhere on R.

ii. Every rational function is continuous on R except where its denominator is 0.

Example 1
x3
Let f ( x) . Find where (a) f is continuous (b) f is discontinuous.
x2 1

11
Solution
f is continuous everywhere on R except at x2 1 =0 i.e. x = 1 and x = 1 where it is undefined
and thus discontinuous.

Example 2
x2
Let f ( x) 3
. Find where (a) f is continuous (b) f is discontinuous.
x 7x 6

Solution

One root of x3 7x + 6 = 0 is x = 1. Let's do long division of x3 7x + 6 by x 1:

x2 x 6
x 1 x3 0 x2 7 x 6
x3 x2
x2 7 x 6
x2 x
6x 6
6x 6
0

So:
x3 7x + 6 = (x 1)(x2 + x 6) = (x 1)(x + 3)(x 2) = (x + 3)(x 1)(x 2).

Thus f is continuous everywhere except at x = 3, 1, and 2 where it is discontinuous.

Example 3
x2 1
Let f be defined by f(x) = .
| x2 1 |
(i) Find where (a) f is discontinuous (b) f is continuous.
(ii) At points of discontinuity if any, explain why it is discontinuous.

Solution

(i) (a) f is discontinuous for |x2 1| = 0.

+( x 2 1) 2 = 0
(x2 1)2 = 0
x2 1 = 0
x=1
(b) Therefore, f is continuous everywhere except at x = 1 and x = 1.

(ii) f is discontinuous at these two points because it is not defined at any of them.

12
Example 4
Let g be defined by:

x2 x 2
if x 1
g ( x) x 1
3 if x 1.

(i) Find where (a) g is continuous (b) g is discontinuous.

(ii) At points of discontinuity if any, explain why it is discontinuous.

Solution

2 2
The rational function is continuous for all x 1. So g is continuous for all
+1
x2 x 2 ( x 1)( x 2)
x 1. At x = 1, we have lim g ( x) lim = lim
x 1
x 1 x 1 x1 x 1
= lim ( x 2)
x1
= 3
= g (1).

Thus, g is also continuous at x = 1.

Hence, g is continuous everywhere on the real line.
The graph of g is the same as the line y = x 2.

Practise Problems 1

Find the x-values (if any) at which f is not continuous.

Which of the discontinuities are removable?
1 1
1) f(x) = x2 2x + 1 2) f(x) = x + sin x 3) f(x) = 2 4) f(x) =
x 1 x 1
x x4 x2 , < 1
5) f(x) = 2 6) f(x) = 2 7) f(x) = 2 8) f(x) = { 2
x 1 x 16 x 3 x 10 , 1

9) Find the constants a and b so that the function is continuous on the entire real line.
2, 1
3, 2
(a) f(x) = { 2 (b) f(x) = { + , 1 < < 3
, > 2 2, 3

1
11) The function f is defined by f(x) = and is continuous for all values
( x 2)( x 1)
of x except a and b, where a < b. Find the value of a and of b. [2]

x
12) For what values of x is the function f continuous, if f(x) = .
x 1
2

13
 2x 1
13) Determine the real values of x for which the function f(x) = is
x x2
2

continuous. [2]
x
14) Find the real values of x for which the function f(x) = 2 is continuous. [3]
x 2x 8
x
15) Find the real values of x for which the function f(x) =
x 9
2

is continuous. [2]

Answers
Quest. 1 3 are continuous on R; 4) Discontinuous at x = 1; 5) Discontinuous at x = 1;
6) Discontinuous at x = 4, x = 4 is a removable discontinuity;
7) Discontinuous at x = 2 & x = 5, x = 2 is a removable discontinuity;
8) Continuous on R; 9) a = 2; 10) a = 1, b = 1; 11) a = 2, b = 1;
12){x R, x 1, x 1}; 13) {x R, x 2, x 1}; 14){x R, x 4, x 2};
15){x R, x 3, x 3}

Practise Problems 2

Find the value(s) of x R for which the functions in Questions 1 11 are continuous.
2 x3 2 3
1) f(x) = 2) f(x) = 3) f(x) = 3 4) f(x) = 2
x 1 2x 1 x x x
4x 2 5 2x 1
5) f(x) = 6) f(x) = 2 7) f(x) =
2x x 2
x x6 2x 5x 2
2

1 1 1
8) f(x) = 3 9) f(x) = 3 10) f(x) =
x x 12x
2
x 2x x 2
2
| 2 x 1 | 1
2
11) f(x) = 2
| x 5 x | 6

Answers
1
1) {x R, x 1} 2) {x R, x } 3) {x R, x 0} 4) {x R, x 0, x 1}
2
1
5) {x R, x 0, x 2} 6) {x R, x 2, x 3} 7) {x R, x , x 2}
2
8) {x R, x 0, x 4, x 3} 9) {x R, x 1, x 1, x 2}
10) {x R, x 0, x 1} 11) {x R, x 1, x 2, x 3, x 6}

Practise Problems 3

1) Find the value(s) of a for which the following functions are continuous.
2 + , 0 < 3 5 3, 1 3
(a) f(x) = { (b) f(x) = {
2, > 3 2 , > 3
2 + , 1 2
(c) f(x) = {
3 6, > 2

14
2) Find the value of a and of b if the following functions are continuous.

2x a x 1 3x 1 x 1
(a) f(x) = x b
2
1 x 2 (b) f(x) = 5x a 1 x 0
4x x2 5x b
2
x0
Answers
5 5
1) (a) 3 (b) (c) 2) (a) 2.3, 4 (b) 3.9, 9
3 2

Sample Examination Questions

3 , if 1
1) The function f on R is defined by f(x) = {
1 + , if < 1
(i) Sketch the graph of f(x) for the domain 1 x 2. [2]
(ii) Find
(a) lim f(x) (b) lim f(x) [4]
x1 x1
(iii) Deduce that f(x) is continuous at x = 1. [3]

2 + 1, if 2
2) The function f on R is defined by f(x) = {
+ 1, if < 2
Determine
(i) f(2) (ii) lim f(x) [4]
x 2

(iii) lim f(x) in terms of the constant b [2]

x 2
(iv) the value of b such that f(x) is continuous at x = 2. [4]

3 7, if > 4
3) The function f on R is defined by f(x) = {
1 + 2, if 4
(i) Find
a) lim f(x) b) lim f(x) [4]
x 4 x 4
(ii) Deduce that f(x) is discontinuous at x = 4. [2]

x2
4) Determine the values of x R for which the function is NOT continuous. [3]
x( x 1)
x2 1
5) Obtain the real values of x such that the function f(x) = is continuous.[4]
(| 2 x 3 | 9)
9 x2
6) Find the values of x R such that the function f(x) =
( x 2 3)(| x | 3)
is discontinuous. [4]
x 8
3
7) Find the values of x for which is discontinuous. [2]
x2 4

15
 x
8) Determine the real values of x for which the function f(x) =
(5 x 1) 2 9
is continuous. [2]
2x 1
9) Determine the real values of x for which the function f(x) =
x x2
2

is continuous. [2]
x
10) Determine the real values of x for which the function f(x) = is continuous.[3]
| 2 x | 7
+ 2, < 2
11) A function f(x) is defined as f(x) = { 2
, > 2
(i) Find lim f(x) [4]
x2
(ii) Determine whether f(x) is continuous at x = 2.
Give a reason for your answer. [2] (2013)

+ 2, < 3
12) Let f(x) be a function defined as f(x) = {
2 , 3
Find the value of a if f(x) is continuous at x = 3. [4] (2014)

sin(ax)
if 0, 0
13) Let f be a function defined as f(x) = { x
4 = 0

If f is continuous at x = 0, determine the value of a. [4] (2015)

End of Handout # 20

16