Chapter 05

Lecture Outline

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 5.1 The Flow of Energy in Living
Things-1
Energy is the ability to do work.

Energy is considered to exist in two states.

Kinetic energy- the energy of motion
Potential energy- stored energy that can be used for
motion

All the work carried out by living organisms

involves the transformation of potential energy to
kinetic energy.

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Figure 5.1 Potential and kinetic energy

A: Nice One Productions/Corbis RF

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 5.1 The Flow of Energy in Living
Things-2
There are many forms of energy but all of
them can be converted to heat.

Heat energy is the most convenient form of

energy to measure.

Thermodynamics is the study of energy

or heat changes.

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 5.1 The Flow of Energy in Living
Things-3
Energy from the sun is captured by some
organisms and used to make molecules.
These molecules then contain potential
energy due to the arrangement of their
atoms.
The potential energy in molecules is a form
of chemical energy that can be used to do
work in cells.
Chemical reactions involve making and
breaking bonds between atoms.

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 5.2 The Laws of Thermodynamics
Laws of thermodynamics govern the energy changes of
the universe, including those involved with any activity of
an organism.
1st Law of Thermodynamics
The total amount of energy in the universe remains
constant.
Energy can change from one state to another but it
can never be created nor destroyed.
During the energy conversions, some of the energy is
lost as heat energy.
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
The amount of disorder, or entropy, in the universe is
increasing.

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Figure 5.3 Entropy in action

Keith Eng, 2008 RF

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 5.3 Chemical Reactions-1
The starting molecules of a chemical reaction are called
the reactants or, sometimes substrates.
The molecules at the end of the reaction are called
products.
There are two kinds of chemical reactions.
Endergonic reactions have products with more
energy than the reactants
These reactions require an input of energy.
Exergonic reactions have products with less energy
than the reactants.
These reactions tend to occur spontaneously.

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 5.3 Chemical Reactions-2
All chemical reactions require an initial input of
energy called activation energy.
The activation energy initiates a chemical reaction by
destabilizing existing chemical bonds.

Reactions become more likely to happen if their

activation energy is lowered.
This process is called catalysis.
Catalyzed reactions proceed much faster than non-
catalyzed reactions.

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Figure 5.4
Chemical
reactions and
catalysis

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 5.4 How Enzymes Work-1
Enzymes are the catalysts used by cells to
perform particular reactions.
Enzymes bind specifically to a molecule and
stress the bonds to make the reaction more
likely to proceed.
The active site is the site on the enzyme that
binds to a reactant.
The site on the reactant where the enzyme
binds is called the binding site.

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 5.4 How Enzymes Work-2
The binding of a reactant to an enzyme
causes the enzymes shape to change
slightly.
This leads to an induced fit where the
enzyme and substrate fit tightly together as a
complex.
The enzyme lowers the activation energy for
the reaction.
The enzyme is unaffected by the chemical
reaction and can be re-used.

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Figure 5.5 An enzymes shape
determines its activity

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Essential Biological Process 5A:
How Enzymes Work

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 5.4 How Enzymes Work-3

Catalyzed reactions Figure 5.6 A biochemical pathway

may occur together in
sequence.
The product of one
reaction is the substrate
for the next reaction until
a final product is made.
The series of reactions
is called a biochemical
pathway.

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 5.4 How Enzymes Work-4
Temperature and pH affect enzyme activity.
Enzymes function within an optimum temperature
range.
When temperatures increase, the shape of enzymes
change due to denaturing of protein chains.
Enzymes function within an optimal pH range.
The shape of enzymes is also affected by pH.
Most human enzymes work best within a pH range
of 6 8.
Exceptions are stomach enzymes that function in
acidic ranges.

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Figure 5.7 Enzymes are sensitive to
their environment

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5.5 How Cells Regulate Enzymes-1
Cells can control enzymes by altering their
shape.
Allosteric enzymes are affected by the
binding of signal molecules.
Some signals act as repressors.
Inhibit the enzyme when bound
Other signals act as activators.
Change the shape of the enzyme so that it can
bind substrate

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Essential Biological Process 5B:
Regulating Enzyme Activity

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5.5 How Cells Regulate Enzymes-2
Feedback inhibition is a form of enzyme
inhibition where the product of a reaction acts as
a repressor.
Competitive inhibition
The inhibitor competes with the substrate for the
active site.
The inhibitor can block the active site so that it
cannot bind the substrate.
Non-competitive inhibition
The inhibitor binds to the allosteric site and
changes the shape of the active site so that no
substrate can bind.
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Figure 5.8 How enzymes can be
inhibited

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 5.6 ATP: The Energy Currency of the
Cell-1

The energy from the sun or from food

sources must be converted to a form that
cells can use.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the energy
currency of the cell.

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 5.6 ATP: The Energy Currency of the
Cell-2
The structure of ATP serves the cell as an
energy carrier.
Each ATP molecule has three parts.
1. A sugar
2. An adenine nucleotide
3. A chain of three phosphate groups
The phosphates are negatively charged and it
takes a lot of chemical energy to hold them
together.
The phosphates are poised to come apart.

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Figure 5.9 The parts of an ATP
molecule

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 5.6 ATP: The Energy Currency of the
Cell-3
When the endmost phosphate group is
broken off an ATP molecule, energy is
released.

ATP ADP + Pi + energy

The Pi represents inorganic phosphate.

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 5.6 ATP: The Energy Currency of the
Cell-4
Coupled reactions
Usually endergonic reactions are coupled with the
breakdown of ATP.
More energy than is needed is released by the breakdown of
ATP so heat is given off.
ATP cycles in the cell with respect to its energy
needs.

Figure 5.10
The ATP-ADP Cycle
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 5.6 ATP: The Energy Currency of the
Cell-5
ATP powers many key cell activities.
Cells use two processes to convert energy from the
sun and from food molecules into ATP.
Photosynthesis
Some cells convert energy from the sun into
ATP and then use it to make sugars that store
potential energy.
Cellular respiration
Cells break down the potential energy in sugars
and convert it ATP.

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Table 5.1
How Cells
Use ATP
Energy to
Power
Cellular
Work

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 Inquiry & Analysis
As S increases, does Do Enzymes Physically
V increase? Is there a Attach to Their Substrates?
maximum reaction
rate?

Does this result

provide support for the
hypothesis that an
enzyme binds
physically to its
substrate?

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Appendix: Long Description for Visuals

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Long Description for Table 5.1 How
Cells Use ATP Energy to Power
Cellular Work
Biosynthesis. Cells use the energy released from the exergonic hydrolysis of ATP to drive endergonic reactions
like those of protein synthesis, an approach called energy coupling. Contraction. In muscle cells, filaments of
protein repeatedly slide past each other to achieve contraction of the cell. An input of ATP is required for the
filaments to reset and slide again. Chemical Activation. Proteins can become activated when a high-energy
phosphate from ATP attaches to the protein, activating it. Other types of molecules can also become
phosphorylated by transfer of a phosphate from ATP. Importing metabolites. Metabolite molecules such as amino
acids and sugars can be transported into cells against their concentration gradients by coupling the intake of the
metabolite to the inward movement of an ion moving down its concentration gradient, this ion gradient being
established using ATP. Active Transport: Na+-K+ Pump. Most animal cells maintain a low internal concentration of
Na+ relative to their surroundings, and a high internal concentration of K+. This is achieved using a protein called
the sodium-potassium pump, which actively pumps Na+ out of the cell and K+ in, using energy from ATP.
Cytoplasmic Transport. Within a cells cytoplasm, vesicles or organelles can be dragged along microtubular tracks
using molecular motor proteins, which are attached to the vesicle or organelle with connector proteins. The motor
proteins use ATP to power their movement. Flagellar Movement. Microtubules within flagella slide past each other
to produce flagellar movements. ATP powers the sliding of the microtubules. Cell Crawling. Actin filaments in a
cells cytoskeleton continually assemble and disassemble to achieve changes in cell shape and to allow cells to
crawl over substrates or engulf materials. The dynamic character of actin is controlled by ATP molecules bound to
actin filaments. Heat Production. The hydrolysis of the ATP molecule releases heat. Reactions that hydrolyze ATP
often take place in mitochondria or in contracting muscle cells and may be coupled to other reactions. The heat
generated by these reactions can be used to maintain an organisms temperature.

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