CHAPTER 11:

Sound Wave
(3 Hours)

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 Learning Outcome:
11.1 Intensity and beats
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Define sound intensity.

Illustrate and use the dependence of intensity on:
 amplitude : I A
1
 distance from a point source : I
r2

Use the principle of superposition to explain beats.

Solve beat frequency,

f b = f1 f 2
 11.1.1 Intensity

is defined as the rate of sound energy flow across unit area perpendicular
to the direction of the sound propagation.
propagation
OR
where I : sound intensity
E P
I= OR I= E : sound energy
tA A A : area perpendicular to the direction of
sound propagation
t : time
P : sound power

It is a scalar quantity.
quantity

W m2).
Its unit is watt per squared metre (W

The factors influence the value of sound intensity are
 the amplitude of the sound i.e.

I A2 where A : amplitude of the sound wave

 the distance from the source of sound i.e.
1
I where r : distance from the sound source
r2
A2
Therefore, I 2 3
r

A sound wave flows out from the source in all directions,
directions hence it is a
three-dimensional wave and is said to be a spherical wave as shown in
Figure 11.1.

Consider two points at distances r1 and r2 from the
source (power, P is constant),
constant then
P P
I1 = and I 2 =
4r12
4r22
I2 r12 1
So = 2 therefore A
I1 r2 r
Figure 11.1

Graphs in Figure 11.2 show the variation of sound intensity.

(a) I (b) I I (d) I
(c)

1
0 0 0
r 2 r2 A 0 4 A2
Figure 11.2
Example 11.1 :

A loudspeaker radiates sound waves uniformly in all directions. At a distance 3 m

the intensity of the sound is 0.85 W m2. Calculate
a. the power of loudspeaker,
b. the sound intensity at distance 6 m from the source.

Ans : 96.1 W; 0.212 W m2

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11.1.2 Properties of sound wave
Pitch

is defined as the property of sound that characterizes highness or
lowness of the tone to an observer.
observer

It varies with the frequency of the sound wave by using the following
relationship:
Pitch frequency

The speed of sound (wave) is constant i.e. 340 m s1 in the same medium.

If the pitch hence the frequency also but the wavelength will .
a. Lowest pitch can be heard by the human ears ( f = 20 Hz).
Hz
b. Highest pitch can be heard by the human ears. (ff = 20,000 Hz).
Hz
Loudness

is defined as a sensation of sound perceived by a listener.
listener

The factors effect the loudness of sound are
 sensitivity of the ears.
ears  sound intensity.
intensity  sound pitch.
pitch

Fundamental frequency (f0)

is defined as the lowest frequency emits by the musical instruments at
particular tone.
tone

The tone with fundamental frequency is called fundamental tone (mode).
(mode)
 Overtones

is defined as the other tones upper than the fundamental tone (mode) emits
by the musical instruments.
instruments

The overtone after the fundamental tone (mode) is called first overtone.
overtone

Harmonics

is defined as the frequencies, which are multiples of fundamental frequency
of a vibrating system
OR where n : real number = 1,2,3,...
f = nf 0 f : overtone frequency

It exists in two types i.e all harmonics and odd harmonics.
 All harmonics  Odd harmonics

Harmonic Frequency Overtone Harmonic Frequency Overtone

First (n=1) f = f0 Fundamental

First (n=1) f = f0 Fundamental
mode mode
Second (n=2) f = 2 f0 1st overtone Third (n=3) f = 3 f0 1st overtone
Third (n=3) f = 3 f0 2nd overtone Fifth (n=5) f = 5 f0 2nd overtone
Fourth (n=4) f = 4 f0 3rd overtone Seventh (n=7) f = 7 f0 3rd overtone
 11.1.3 Beats

is defined as the periodic variation in amplitude of sound at a given point
due to superposition of two sound waves having slightly different
frequencies.
frequencies

This phenomenon occurs because

 the frequencies of both sound waves slightly different.
different
 the phase difference change over time.
time

When the beats are occurred, a listener will hear a periodic rises and falls in
loudness (intensity) of the sound wave.

The phenomenon of beats can be used

 to measure the unknown frequency of a note.
note
 to tune an instrument to a given note.
note

8

Consider two sound waves of equal amplitude travelling through a medium
with slightly different frequencies f1 and f2. The wave functions for these two
waves at a point x = 0 are given below:
y1 (0, t ) = A sin (1t k (0 )) = A sin (2f1t )
y2 (0, t ) = A sin (2t k (0 )) = A sin (2f 2t )
Thus the phase difference is = (2f 2t ) (2f1t )
= 2t ( f 2 f1 ) and f 2 f1
= not constant over time

To see how beat arise, consider two equal amplitude sound waves of
frequency f1 and f2, respectively as shown in Figure 11.3.
y
(a) A,C : Constructive
0 t
y interference
(b)
0 t B,D : Destructive
y Beat period (T) interference
A C

(c) 0 Figure 11.3

B D t

9
Beat period (T)
Explanation of the Figure 11.2

At point A and C, the two waves are shown to be in phase and interfere
constructively where the amplitude of the resultant wave is maximum
(increases in loudness of the sound).

At point B and D, the two waves are shown to be anti-phase and interfere
destructively where the amplitude of the resultant wave is minimum
(decreases in loudness of the sound).

Therefore the phenomenon of the increases and decreases in loudness are
periodic and is called beat.

The equation of the beat frequency is given by

1 1 where
f b = f1 f 2 OR fb = f b : Beat frequency
T2 T1 f1 : frequency of the first source
f 2 : frequency of the second source

If the beat frequency, fb = 3 Hz means that a listener would hear 3 beats in one
second.

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Example 11.2 :
A fundamental tone of a sound has a frequency of 500 Hz. Determine the
frequency of
i. the first harmonic,
ii. the second harmonic,
iii. the first overtone and
iv. the second overtone.
For a. all harmonics exist.
b. odd harmonics exist.

Ans: 500 Hz, 1000 Hz, 1000 Hz, 1500 Hz; 500 Hz, u-
u-think, 1500 Hz, 2500 Hz

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Example 11.3 :
Two sound waves with wavelengths 66 cm and 44 cm undergo superposition. If
both of the waves have the same speed of 330 m s1. Calculate a number of
beats is produced in one second.

Ans: 250

Example 11.4 :
Two tuning forks A and B make 3 beats per second when sounded together. If
the frequency of tuning fork A is 305 Hz, Determine the possible values of the
frequency for tuning fork B.

Ans.: 308 Hz or 302 Hz

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 Learning Outcome:
11.2 Application of stationary waves
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Use diagram to explain the formation of stationary waves
along
 stretched string
 air columns (open and closed end)
and use the equations to determine the fundamental and
overtone frequencies.

Explain qualitatively the formation of resonance in air
column.

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 11.2.1 Wave on a stretched string
Wave speed on the string

The equation of the wave speed on the string is given by

T Where, v : wave speed on the string

v= T : tension in the string
: mass per unit length of the string

Its value depends on
 the tension in the string, T

 the mass per unit length of the string,

The S.I. unit for

 T : newton (N
(N)
 : kg m1

The value of is obtained by using two method:
m
 If the length of the string is l and its mass, m thus =
l
 If the radius of the string is r and its density, thus

= A OR = r 2 Where, A : cross sectional area = r

2
Vibrational modes on a string fixed at both ends

Incident wave

Reflected wave
Figure 11.4

When a string is plucked, a progressive transverse wave is produced on the
string.

This wave is travelling to the both fixed ends (incident wave) and reflected
(reflected wave) as shown in Figure 11.4.

The superposition of both waves making stationary transverse wave and
the simplest pattern of the stationary wave on the string is shown in Figure 11.5.

N A N
Figure 11.5 15

From the Figure 11.5, both ends of the string as a node (N) and the middle of
the string as an antinode (A).

The string forms one segment (loop) and the pattern of this vibration is
called fundamental mode (first harmonic mode).
mode)

The frequency of fundamental mode is called fundamental frequency (f0).

The stationary wave on the string forced the air vibrates and produces a
sound wave in the air.

If the string vibrating in the fundamental mode hence the sound wave
produced in the fundamental tone. tone Therefore

f 0 (sound wave) = f 0 (string vibration)

This phenomenon is called resonance.

Table 11.1 shows the harmonic series on a string fixed at both ends.

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 Mode Figure Wavelength Frequency
v
N A N v = f f0 =
l=
2 T
Fundamental and v=
(1st harmonic) = 2l
l 1 T
f0 =
2l
v
N A N A N f1 =

1st overtone 1 T
(2nd harmonic) =l f1 =
l
l f1 = 2 f 0
N A N A N A N v
3 f2 =
l=
2nd overtone 2 3 T
(3rd harmonic) 2l f2 =
= 2l
l 3 f2 = 3 f0
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Table 11.1

In General,
n T
f = OR f = nf0
2l

where n = 1,2,3,... (refer to a number of segment or harmonic)

All harmonics are allowed in vibrational mode of a string fixed at both
ends.
ends

The expression above valid if the length of the string is constant
constant.

If the string is plucked in the middle,
middle the first harmonic mode, third harmonic
mode, fifth harmonic mode and odd harmonic mode of stationary wave will
appear.
appear

If the string is plucked one-
one-quarter of the way along it from fixed end, the
second harmonic mode of stationary wave will appearappear.

If the string is plucked one-
one-eighth of the way from a fixed end, the fourth
harmonic mode of stationary wave will appear
appear.

Examples of vibrational modes in a string fixed at both ends for musical
instruments are piano, violin and guitar.

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Example 11.5 :
A stretched wire of length 80.0 cm and mass 15.0 g vibrates transversely. Waves
travel along the wire at speed 220 m s1. Two antinodes can be found in the
stationary waves formed in between the two fixed ends of the wire.
a. Sketch and label the waveform of the stationary wave.
b. Determine
i. the wavelength of the progressive wave which move along the wire,
ii. the frequency of the vibration of the wire,
iii. the tension in the wire.

Ans.: 0.80 m, 275 Hz, 910 N

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 11.2.2 Wave in an air column
Closed Pipe (air column with one end closed)

Reflected wave Incident wave

Figure 11.6

If the air in a pipe that is closed at one end is disturbed by a source of sound
(e.g. tuning fork), a progressive longitudinal wave travels along the air column
and is reflected at its end to form a stationary longitudinal wave is shown in
Figure 11.6.

The simplest pattern of the stationary wave was produced have the node at
the closed end while the antinode is at the open end as shown in Figure 11.7.
N A
Figure 11.7 where l : length of the air column

l

When the frequency of the tuning fork coincides with the fundamental frequency,
f0 of the air column, resonance takes place.

A sound of high intensity is produced at this frequency.

Table 11.2 shows the harmonic series in an air column with one end closed
(closed pipe). 20
 Mode Figure Wavelength Frequency
N A v
v = f f0 =
l= where
Fundamental 4
v : speed of sound
(1st harmonic) = 4l f0 =
v
l 4l
3 v
N A N A l= f1 =
4
1st overtone
4l 3v
(3rd harmonic) = f1 = f1 = 3 f 0
l 3 4l
N A N A N A 5 f2 =
v
l=
2nd overtone 4
(5th harmonic) 4l 5v
= f2 = f2 = 5 f0
Table 11.2 l 5 4l
In General, nv
f = nf0


f = OR where n = 1,3,5,... (odd numbers)
4l

Only odd harmonics are allowed in vibrational modes of an air column in closed
pipe.
pipe

Examples of vibrational modes an air column in closed pipe for musical
instruments are flute and recorder.
Open Pipe (air column with both ends open)

Figure 11.8

If the air in a open pipe (both ends are open) is disturbed by a source of
sound (e.g. tuning fork) as shown in Figure 11.8, a progressive longitudinal
wave travels along the air column.

This wave will superposition with another progressive longitudinal wave
produced by the air outside the pipe and form a stationary longitudinal wave.

The simplest pattern of the stationary wave was produced have the antinode
at the both open ends while the node is at the middle of the pipe as shown in
Figure 11.9.
A N A

Figure 11.9

l

Table 11.3 shows the harmonic series in an air column with both ends open
(open pipe).

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 Mode Figure Wavelength Frequency
A N A v = f v
l= f0 =
Fundamental 2 where
(1st harmonic) v : speed of sound
= 2l v
f0 =
l 2l
A N A N A v
f1 =
1st overtone =l
v v
(2nd harmonic) f1 = = 2
l 2l
l f1 = 2 f 0
A N A N A N A 3 v
l= f2 =
2nd overtone 2
(3rd harmonic) 2l 3v
= f2 = f 2 = 3 f0
Table 11.3 l 3 2l

In General, nv
f = OR f = nf0 where n = 1,2,3,... (real numbers)
2l

All harmonics are allowed in vibrational modes of an air column in open pipe.

Example of vibrational modes an air column in open pipe for musical
instruments is clarinet. 23
 End correction, c

is defined as the distance from the antinode in stationary wave to the
open end of a pipe.
pipe

It occurs because the antinode does not form exactly at the open end of
the pipe.
pipe
 Closed pipe  Open pipe

N A A N A
l +c =
4
= 4(l + c ) l
l
c c c
v
f0 = l + 2c = = 2(l + 2c )
4(l + c ) 2 v
f0 =

After considering c, the 2(l + 2c )
general equation of the f for
After considering c, the general
closed pipe is given by
equation of the f for open pipe is
given by
nv where
f = nv where
4 (l + c ) n = 1,3,5,... f = n = 1,2,3,...
2(l + 2c )
Example 11.6 :
A tube 80 cm long is closed at one end. Resonance occurs and the vibrating air
column in the tube produces sound of frequency 1134 Hz. The fifth overtone
mode is found in the air column. (ignore the end correction)
a. Sketch and label the waveform of the air column.
b. Calculate
i. the speed of sound in air,
ii. the fundamental frequency.

Ans.: 330 m s1, 103 Hz

Example 11.7 :
A 3.00 m long air column is open at both ends. The frequency of a certain
harmonic is 500 Hz and the frequency of the next higher harmonic is 557 Hz.
Determine the speed of sound in the air column. The end correction may be
neglected.

Ans.: 342 m s1

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Example 11.8 :
A uniform tube of length 60.0 cm stands vertically with its lower end dipping into
water. When the length above water is 14.8 cm and again when it is 48.0 cm, the
tube resounds to a vibrating tuning fork of frequency 512 Hz. Calculate
a. the speed of sound,
b. the lowest frequency to which the tube will resound when it is open at both end.

Ans. : 340 m s1, 267 Hz

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 Learning Outcome:
11.3 Doppler effect
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:

Explain Doppler Effect for sound waves.

Apply Doppler Effect equation for relative motion
between source and observer.

Sketch and explain graph of apparent frequency against
distance travelled.

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 11.3 Doppler effect

is defined as the change in the apparent (observed ) frequency of a wave
as a result of relative motion between the source and the observer.
observer

11.3.1 Stationary source and observer

Any source of sound emits sound waves to all direction with the same
speed and produces spherical wavefront as shown in Figure 11.10.

where S : source of sound
O : observer
v fS v v : speed of sound
S O : wavelength of the sound wave
f S : source (true) frequency
Figure 11.10 f O : apparent (observed) frequency

Wavefront is defined as a line or surface, in the path of a wave motion, on
which the disturbances at every point have the same phase.
phase

The distance between two adjacent wavefronts equals the wavelength of
the sound waves, .
v

Because the source and the observer are stationary hence O f = f =

S

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11.3.2 Moving source and stationary observer

Figure 11.11 shows the wavefronts if the source moves while the observer is
stationary.
where vS : speed of source
B F
F : wavelength in front a moving source
v B : wavelength behind a moving source
v t = 0 vS
OA
t : time
OB S

From the Figure 11.11, the wavefronts
get squeezed (crowded) together in
(vt vSt ) = (v vS )t front of the source and spread
vSt (stretched) out behind it. Thus F < B
vt vt Figure 11.11

The wavelength in front the moving source, F is given by

Distance between S and O A (v vS )t v vS
F = = F =
Number of between S and O A fSt fS

The wavelength behind the moving source, B is given by

B =
Distance between S and O B
=
(v + vS )t B =
v + vS
Number of between S and O B f St fS
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11.3.3 Equation of Doppler effect

In general,
where v : speed of sound
v vO
f O = f S vS : speed of source
v m vS vO : speed of observer
f O : apparent (observed) frequency
f S : source (true) frequency
Moving source and stationary observer (vO= 0)
a. A source moves toward the stationary observer.
v vS vS in the same direction with v , thus
O S v use minus sign (-)
(vO = 0) ( fS ) f O = fS
v vS
f O > fS
b. A source moves away from the stationary observer.
v vS vS in opposite direction with v , thus
S v use plus sign (+ )
O
( fS ) f O = fS
(vO = 0) v + v S

f O < fS 30
Moving observer and stationary source (vS = 0)
a. An observer moves toward the stationary source.

vO v
( fS ) vO in opposite direction with v , thus
v + v use plus sign (+)
S
O
(vS = 0) fO = O
fS
v
f O > fS
b. An observer moves away from the stationary source

vO v ( fS ) vO in the same direction with v, thus

v vO use minus sign (-)
O S fO = fS
(vS = 0) v
f O < fS
c. The rules of using the general equation for Doppler effect.
RULES

vS OR vO in the same direction with v
(speed of sound)

+
vS OR vO opposite direction with v
(speed of sound) 31
 11.3.4 The variation of apparent frequency and sound intensity
when a source moves towards, passes through and moves
away from the stationary observer.
Apparent frequency
fO
where f t : frequency when moves toward
f a : frequency when moves away
Moves toward f S : source (true) frequency
ft
Moves away fS
fa Figure 11.12
r + r
Stationary Observer

From the Figure 11.12:

 When the source moves towards the observer, the apparent frequency
heard by the observer is greater than the source (true) frequency and
its value is constant.
 This value is change when the source passes through the observer where

the apparent frequency, fO is equal to the source frequency, fS.

 When the source moves away from the observer, the apparent
frequency is less than the source frequency and its value is constant.
32
Sound intensity

From the relationship between intensity, I and the distance of source from the
observer, r
1
I
r2

When the source moves towards the observer :
 r is decreasing but I will increase hence the loudness is increasing.
increasing

When the source moves away from the observer :
 r is increasing but I will decrease hence the loudness is decreasing.
decreasing

33
Example 11.9 :
vS
Wall T
S O(stationary)
Figure 11.9
Figure 11.9 shows O is a stationary observer. Source S moves toward the
observer O at a speed of 20 m s1 and away from the wall T. The frequency of
the source is 1000 Hz. Determine
a. the wavelength in front and behind the source if there is no wall T,
b. the apparent frequency heard by the observer O directly from the source,
c. the apparent frequency heard by the observer O caused by the reflection on
the wall T,
d. the beat frequency detected by the observer O due to the sound heard directly
from the source S and the sound reflected on the wall T,
(Given the speed of sound is 330 m s-1)
Ans.: 0.35 m, 0.35 m; 1065 Hz; 943 Hz; 122 Hz

34