Sedra/Smith

Microelectronic Circuits 6/E

Chapter 1: Introduction to Electronics

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 1

Outline
1-1 Signals
1.2 Frequency Spectrum of Signal
1.3 Analog and Digital Signals
1.4 Amplifiers
1.5 Circuit Models for Amplifier
1.6 Frequency Response of Amplifiers
1.7 Intrinsic Semiconductors
1.8 Doped Semiconductors
1.9 Current Flow in Semiconductors
1.10 The P-N Junction with open-circuit Terminals
1.11 The PN Junction with Applied voltage
1.12 Capacitive Effects in the PN Junction

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 2

1-1 Signals

RTh

vTh (t ) + iN (t ) RN

(a) the Thvenin form (b) the Norton form.

vTh (t ) = iN (t ) RN vTh (t )
iN (t ) =
RTh
RTh = RN
RN = RTh

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 3

Example: Find the source transformation for the circuits shown in
below Figures
14

28V + iN (t ) RN

vTh (t ) 28
iN (t ) = = = 2A,
RTh 14
RN = RTh = 14
RTh

3A 5 vTh (t ) +

vTh (t ) = iN (t ) RN = 3A 5 = 15V
RTh = RN = 5
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 4
1.2 Frequency Spectrum of Signal

Sinusoid:
v(t ) v(t ) = Va sin ( t + 1 )
v(t ) = Va sin ( t 2 )
v(t ) = Va sin t
Va

1 2

1
f = , = 2f rad / sec
T

1 = 90o v(t ) = va sin(t + 90o ) = va cos t

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 5

 v
T
+V

Figure 1.5 A symmetrical square-wave signal of amplitude V.

The symmetrical square-wave signal in Fig.1.5 can be expressed as:

4V 1 1
v(t ) = sin ot + sin 3ot + sin 5ot + "
3 5

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 6

 4V 1 1
v(t ) = sin ot + sin 3ot + sin 5ot + "
3 5
4V

4V
3
4V
4V
5
7
...
o 3o 5o 7o (rad/s)

Figure 1.6 The frequency spectrum (also known as the line spectrum)
of the periodic square wave of Fig. 1.5.

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 7

 Frequency Spectrum Va ( ) in volts

(rad/s)

Figure 1.7 The frequency spectrum of an arbitrary waveform such as

that in Fig. 1.3.

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 8

1.3 Analog and Digital Signals
v(t )

t0 t 2 t 4 t6 t

v(t )

t0 t 2 t 4 t6
t

Figure 1.8 Sampling the continuous-time analog signal in (a)

results in the discrete-time signal in (b).
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 9
 v(t )

+5V

Figure 1.9 Variation of a particular binary digital signal with time.

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 10

 }
b0
b1
+
vA
bn 1

Figure 1.10 Block-diagram representation of the

analog-to-digital converter (ADC).

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 11

Example: Dual-Slop Analog-to-Digital Converter

Analog input
signal (Vin ) C
C
Counter
sw R Completer CLK R
n
OPA Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7
OPA
VREF
D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7
Latch
Q0 Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7
Control Logic

Binary output

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 12

1.4 amplifiers

Voltage gain

Input Output

vo
Av =
vi

Input Output

Figure 1.11 (a) Circuit symbol for amplifier. (b) An amplifier with a
common terminal (ground) between the input and output ports.

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 13

1.4.3 Voltage Gain
vo

ii io Av
+ 1
vI (t ) RL vo (t ) vi

(b)
(a)

Figure 1.12 (a) A voltage amplifier fed with a signal vI (t) and
connected to a load resistance RL.
(b) Transfer characteristic of a linear voltage amplifier
with voltage gain Av.

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 14

 io
. Current gain Ai
ii

Power gain Load power PL vo io

Ap = = .........(1.7)
Input power PI vi ii

P2
1.4.5 Expressing Gain in Decibels Ap log10 (Bel)
P1
log 2 = 0.3 P2
= 10 log10 (dB)
log 3 = 0.477 P1
log 4 = 0.6
log 5 = 0.7

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 15

 P2
. AdB = 10 log10 (dBm )
m
1mw R = 600

P2 V22 / R2 V2 R1
AdB = 10 log10 = 10 log10 2 = 20log + 10log
P1 V1 / R1 V1 R2

P2 I 22 R2 I2 R2
AdB = 10 log10 = 10 log10 2 = 20log + 10log
P1 I1 R1 I1 R1

For the series system the total gain as

AVT = AV1 AV2 AV3 " AVn

AVdB = 20 log AVT = 20 log AV1 + 20 log AV2 + " + 20 log AVn
AdBT = AdB1 + AdB2 + " + AdBn (dB)

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 16

 1.4.6 The Amplifier Power Supplies

I CC VCC
I CC
V+ V+
ii ii
VCC
+ +
vI (t ) v (t ) RL
o
V vI (t ) RL
I EE V v (t )
o
I EE
VEE VEE

Figure 1.13 An amplifier that requires two dc supplies (shown as

batteries) for operation.

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 17

 Example1.2: Consider an amplifier operating from power supplies
10V.It is fed with a sinusoidal voltage having 1V peak and delivers
a sinusoidal voltage output of 9V peak to a 1k load. The amplifier
draws a current of 9.5mA from each of its two power supplies.
The input current of the amplifier is found to be sinusoidal with 0.1mA
peak.(a) Find the voltage gain, (b) the current gain, (c) the power gain,
(d) the power drawn from the dc supplies,(e) the power dissipated in
the amplifier, and (f) the amplifier efficiency
9
V1 (a ) A = = 9 V/V
1
I1 +
AvdB = 20log 9 19.1 dB
V
ii 9V
(b) lI o = = 9mA
+ 1k
vI (t ) I
2 V v (t ) RL I o 9mA
o Ai = = = 90 A/A
I i 0.1mA
V2
AidB = 20log 90 = 39.1 dB

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 18

(c )
9 9
PL = vo ( rms ) io ( rms ) = = 40.5mW
2 2 PL
Ap = = 810 W/W
1 0.1 PI
PI = vi ( rms ) ii ( rms ) = = 0.05mW
2 2
Ap dB = 10log810 = 29.1 dB

(d ) Pdc = 10 9.5 + 10 9.5 = 190mW

(e) Pdissipated = Pdc + PI PL = 190 + 0.05 40.5 = 149.6mW

PL
(f) = 100% = 21.3%
Pdc

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 19

1.4.7 Amplifier saturation Output peaks clipped
o
due to saturation
L+

n
L L+
AV AV

L n

L L+ o
vI Figure 1.14 An amplifier transfer
Av Av
characteristic that is linear except
for output saturation.

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 20

1.4.8 Symbol Convention

iC

iC (t ) = I C + ic (t ), ic (t ) = I c sin t

ic Ic

IC

0 t

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 21

1.5 Circuit Models for Amplifier
.

AV
Vi Vo
Gm

Rm
Ii Io
AI

Av :Voltage Amplifier Rm :Transresistance Amplifier

AI :Current Amplifier Gm :Transconductance Amplifier

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 22

1.5.1 Voltage Amplifier
.
Rs ii Ro io
+ + +
vs vi Ri Avo vi vo RL vL

Ri vi Ri
vi = vs =
Rs + Ri vs Rs + Ri
RL vL RL
vL = Avo vi = Avo
RL + Ro vi RL + Ro
vL vL vi RL Ri Ideal characteristic
Av = = = Avo Ri = , Ro = 0
vs vi vs RL + Ro Rs + Ri

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 23

 (b) Current Amplifier
.
ii io iL
+ + +
is Rs vi Ri Aisii Ro vo RL vL

Rs ii Rs
ii = is =
Rs + Ri is Rs + Ri
Ro iL Ro
iL = Aisii = Ais
RL + Ro ii RL + Ro
Ideal characteristic
iL iL ii Ro Rs
= = Ais Ri = 0, Ro =
is ii is RL + Ro Rs + Ri
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 24
.(c) Transconductance Amplifier
Rs ii io iL
+ + +
vs vi Ri Gmvi Ro vo RL vL

Ri vi Ri
vi = vs =
Rs + Ri vs Rs + Ri
Ro iL Ro
iL = Gm vi = Gm
RL + Ro vi RL + Ro Ideal characteristic
iL vi iL Ro Ri
= = Gm Ri = , Ro =
vs vs vi RL + Ro Rs + Ri

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 25

(d) Transresistance Amplifier .
ii Ro io
+ + +
is Rs vi Ri Rmii vo RL vL

Rs i Rs
ii = is i =
Rs + Ri is Rs + Ri
RL v RL
vL = Rmii L = Rm
RL + Ro ii RL + Ro
vL vL ii RL Rs Ideal characteristic
= = Rm
is ii is RL + Ro Rs + Ri Ri = 0, Ro = 0

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 26

1.5.5. Determining Ri and Ro
vi
n Input resistance Ri
ii
where vi is the input voltage and ii is the input current.

o The output resistance found by eliminating the input signal

source (then ii and vi will be zero ) and applying a voltage
signal vx to the output of the amplifier, we have a current ix ,
vx
then Ro ix
ix

+ vx

vx
Ro
ix
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 27
 ib
+ +
vbe r g mvbe ro vbe r ib ro

(a) Small-signal circuit model for a (c) An alternative small-signal circuit

bipolar junction transistor (BJT). model for the BJT.

Rs
+ +
vs vbe r ro RL vo
g mvbe

(b) The BJT connected as an amplifier with the emitter as a common

terminal between input and output (called a common-emitter amplifier).
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 28
1.6 Frequency response of amplifiers
Linear Amplifier
ii
+
vi = Vi sin t vo (t ) = Vo sin(t + )

Figure 1.20 Measuring the frequency response of a linear amplifier.

At the test frequency f, the amplifier gain is characterized by its
magnitude (Vo/Vi) and phase .

vo
T () = , T () =
vi
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 29
 20log T ( )

Bandwidth

1 2

Figure 1.21 Measuring the frequency response of a linear amplifier.

At the test frequency f, the amplifier gain is characterized
by its magnitude (Vo/Vi).

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 30

1.6.4 Single-time constant networks
(a) a low-pass network

R2 1/ jC2
+
vo = vi
R2 + (1/ jC2 )
vi (t ) + C2 vo


vo 1
=
vi 1 + jR2C2

Let R2C2 be given time constant,hence 2 = 1/ R2C2

1 1
T () = = tan 1 ( / 2 )
1 + j / 2 1 + ( / 2 ) 2  

T ( )
 

T ()

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 31

 << 2 T () 1
1
T () = = 2 T () 1/ 2 = 0.707
1 + ( / 2 ) 2 >> T () 0
2

T ( j )
20log (dB)
K

3dB

6dB/Octave
or
20dB/decade

(log scale)
2

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 32

 << 2 T () 0o
1
T () = tan = 2 T ( ) 45 o

2 >> T () 90o
2
( )

5.7 O
(log scale)
2

45o

45o /decade
90 o 5.7 O

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 33

(b) A High-Pass Network.

C1 R1
vo = vi
+ R1 + (1/ jC1 )
vi (t ) + R1 vo
vo 1
=
vi 1 + (1/ jR1C1 )

Let R1C1 be given time constant,hence 1 = 1/ R1C1

1 1 1
T () = = tan (1 / )
1 j1 / 1 + (1 / ) 2  
T ( )

T ()

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 34

 . << 1 T () 0
1
T () = = 1 T () 1/ 2 = 0.707
1 + (1 / ) 2 >> T () 1
1

T ( j )
20log (dB)
K

+6dB/Octave 3dB
or
+20dB/decade

(log scale)
1

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 35

 << 1 T () 90o

T () = tan (1 / ) = 1 T () = 45o
1

>> T () 0o
1

( )

90o
5.7 O

45o /decade
45o

5.7 O
0o

(log scale)
1
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 36
 Transfer Function K K Ks
=
T (s) 1 + ( s / 2 ) 1 + (1 / s ) s + 1
Transfer Function K K
(for physical frequencies)
T ( j ) 1 + j ( / 2 ) 1 j (1 / )
Megnitude Response K K
T ( j ) 1 + ( / 2 )
2
1 + (1 / )
2

Phase ResponseT ( j ) tan 1 ( / 2 ) tan 1 (1 / )

Transmission at = 0 (dc) K 0

Transmission at = 0 K
0 = 1/ time constant
3-dB frequency
= RC or = L / R

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 37

Example 1.5 Below figure shows a voltage amplifier. Let Rs = 20k,
Ri = 100k, Ro = 200, RL = 1k, Ci = 60pF, = 144. Find vo (t ) for each of
the following inputs: (a)Vs = 0.1sin102 t (V), (b)Vs = 0.1sin106 t (V),
(c) Vs = 0.1sin108 t (V).
Rs ii Ro io
+ + +
vs Ri vi Ci vi vo RL vL

RS // Ri ii Ro io
+ + +
Ri
vs Ci vi vo RL vL
Rs + Ri vi

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 38

Sol:
Ri 1/ jCi Ri 1
vi = vs = vs
Rs + Ri ( Rs // Ri ) + (1/ jCi ) Rs + Ri 1 + jCi ( Rs // Ri )
Ri 1
= vs tan 1 ( /106 )
Rs + Ri 1 + ( /106 ) 2

RL RL Ri 1
vo = vi = vs tan 1 ( /106 )
Ro + RL Ro + RL Rs + Ri 1 + ( /106 ) 2

1k 100k vs
= 144 tan 1 ( /106 )
1k + 0.2k
  100k + 20k

 1 + ( /106 ) 2
100

100 vs
vo = tan 1 ( /106 )
1 + ( /106 ) 2
1
AV = 100 , AV = tan 1 ( /106
1 + ( /106 ) 2
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 39
(a)Vs = 0.1sin102 t (V ) (c) Vs = 0.1sin108 t (V )
1 100
AV = 100 AV = 1
1 + (10 /10 )
2 6 2
1 + (10 /10 )
8 6 2

100 1 = 100 AV = tan 1 (108 /106 ) 89.4o

AV = tan 1 (102 / 106 ) 0o Vo (t ) = 0.1sin108 t (V )
Vo (t ) = 10sin102 t (V) 0.1sin(108 t 89.4o )(V)

(b)Vs = 0.1sin106 t (V )
1
AV = 100 70.7
1 + (10 /10 )
6 6 2

AV = tan 1 (106 /106 ) 45o

Vo (t ) = 7.07 sin(106 t 45o ) (V)
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 40
 dB

40 20dB/decade

20

5 7

0 1
10 10 2
10 3
10 4
10 10 6
10 10 8
10 9

( )
101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109

45o / decade

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 41

Example : Sketch Bode plots for the magnitude and phase of the
transfer function
106 s 100 s
(1) T ( s ) = =
( s + 10)( S + 10 ) (1 + s /10)(1 + s /103 )
3

20log T ( s ) = 20log100 + 20log s + 20log(1 + s /10) + 20log 1 + s /10 1

( )
3 1

100

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 109

(1 + ( s /10) )
1

(1 + ( S /10 ) )
3 1

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 42

 s

100

1 + ( s /103 )
1
1
1 + ( s /10 )

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 43

 104 (1 + s /105 )
(2) T ( s ) =
(1 + s /103 )(1 + s /104 )
4
(
20log T ( s ) = 20log10 + 20log 1 + s /10 + 20log 1 + s /10 5
) ( )
3 1

(
+ 20log 1 + s /10 )
4 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 44

 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 45

The Structure of Nucleus

7s
7p
7d
7f

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 46



S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 47
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 48

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 49
(In)49

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 50

1.7 Intrinsic Semiconductors

Eg (Si) = 1.21 3.6 104 T (ev)

Eg (Ge) = 0.785 2.23 104 T (ev)

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 51

 p : concentration of hole

p = n = ni n : concentration of free electrons
n : Intrinsic concentration
i

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 52

 Eg / kT
ni2 = BT 3e (1.26)
where B is a meterial-depend parameter = 5.4 1031 (Si)
k is Boltzmann's constant = 8.62 10-5 eV/K
T is an absolute temperature = 273+oC
At T = 300o K ni = 1.5 1010 carriers/cm3 .(P.73, Table 1.3)

pn nn = ni2
ni2 ni2
pn =  (1.29)
nn ND
ni2 ni2
np =  (1.31)
pp NA

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 53

1.8 Doped Semiconductors --- N-type:

P, As, sb
( , , )

Figure 1.30 A silicon crystal doped by a pentavalent element. Each

dopant atom donates a free electron and is thus called a donor. The
doped semiconductor becomes n type.
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 54
 P-type:

B,Al,In
( , , )

Figure 1.31 A silicon crystal doped with a trivalent impurity. Each

dopant atom gives rise to a hole, and the semiconductor becomes p type.

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 55

1.9 Current Flow in Semiconductors
1.9.1 Drift current

+ Holes
Electrons

x
+
V

Potential gradient Drift current

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 56

The holes acquire a velocity v p drift given by
v p drift = p E (1.32)
The holes component of the drift current flowing
through the bar. I p = Aqpv p drift = Aqp p E
Ip
The current density: J P = = qp p E (1.35)
A
The free electrons acquire a velocity vn drift given by
vn drift = n E (1.33)
The free electrons component of the drift current flowing
through the bar. I n = Aqnvn drift = Aqpn E
In
Similar: The current density : J n = = qnn E (1.36)
A
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 57
The total drift current density:
J = J P + J n = q ( p p + n n ) E (1.37)
Hence the current density J is given by
J =E
= q(nn + p p ) conductivity (1.40)
1 E
= (resistivity) = (1.42)
J

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 58

1.9.2 Diffusion and drift

+ + +++ +
+ + ++
++ + ++ +
+ + + ++ +
+ + + + + x
++

0 x
Concentration gradient Diffusion current

Electron-current density J p ( J n )
dp ( x) q = 1.6 1019 C
J p = qD p
dx 2
D
p : hole's diffusion constant are 12cm /s
dn( x)
J n = qDn Dn : electrons diffusion constant are 34cm 2 /s
dx
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 59
The total current in semiconductor
(1) The net hole current density
dp
J p = q p pE qD p (A/m 2 )

  dx


drift
diffusion

(2) The net electrons current density

dn
J n = qn nE qDn (A/m 2 )

dx


drift
diffusion

(3)The total current density in semiconductor

dp dn
J total = J p + J n = qE ( p p + n n) q ( D p + Dn ) (A/m 2 )
 
 dx  dx

drift
diffusion

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 60

1.9.3 Relationship Between D and

Einstein relationship equation:

Dp Dn
= = VT
p n
KT
VT = 25mV(300o K )
q

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 61

Example 1.9 Consider a bar of silicon in which a hole concentration
x / Lp
profile described by p ( x ) = p0 e is estabilished. Find the hole-current
density at x = 0. Let p0 = 1016 / cm3 and LP = 1 m. If the cross-sectional
area of the bar is 100m 2 , find the current I p .

Solution:

J p = qD p
dp( x)
dx
= qD p
d
dx
( x/ L
p ( x) = p0 e p )
Dp 19 12cm 2
/s
J p (0) = q p0 = 1.6 10 10 16
/ cm 3
= 192A/cm 2

Lp 1104 cm
I p = J p A = 192A/cm 2 100 108 cm 2 = 192A

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 62

Example A: An intrinsic silicon bar is 3mm long and has a rectangular
cross section 50m 100m at 300o K determine the electric field intensity
in the bar, and the voltage across the bar When a steady current of 1A
is measured. ( =2.3 105-cm)
3mm
Sol:
50m
J 1 I I
(1) = = = 100m
A A
106 A 5
= 4 4
2.3 10 -cm
50 10 cm 100 10 cm
= 4.60 103 V/cm

(2) Vbar = L = 4.60 103 V/cm 0.3cm

= 1380V

The result obtained that an extremely large voltage is needed

to produce a small current 1A
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 63
Example B: An N-type silicon bar is 3mm long and has a rectangular cross
section 50m 100m. The donor concentration at 300o K is 5 1014 cm -3 and
corresponding to impurity atom for 108 silicon atoms, a stead current of 1A
exists in the bar, determine the electric and hole concentrations the condctivity,
and the voltage across the bar. (in 300o K the ni = 1.45 1010 , n = 1500)
Sol: (1)n N D = 5 1014 cm 3
ni 2 (1.45 1010 ) 2 3
p= = = 4.2 10 5
cm
n 5 10 14

(2) = q (nn + p p ) qnn (n >> p)

= 1.6 1019 5 1014 1.5 103 = 0.12( cm) 1
J I L
(3)Vbar = L =
A
106 (A) 0.3(cm)
= 3 2 1
= 0.05V
5 10 (cm) 10 (cm) 0.12(cm)
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 64
1-10 The P-N junction with open-circuit Terminals
1.10.1 Physical structure

p type n type
silicon silicon

Figure 1.35 Simplified physical structure of the junction diode.

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 65

 1.10.2 Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals

I = 0A I = 0A

Barrier
voltage Vo

Figure 1.36 (a) The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).
(b) The potential distribution along an axis perpendicular to the junction.

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 66

The Junction Built-In Voltage (Barrier Voltage)Vo
With no external voltage applied, the total current density
J = 0. ( J n , J p = 0)
dp
For J p ( net ) = 0 pq p q D p =0
dx
dp
p q p q p VT =0
dx
VT dp dVo VT dp
= (V / m ) =
p dx dx p dx
x dp
Vo = x VT
n
= VT ln p x x n
p
p p

p( x = x p ) pp
Vo = VT ln = VT ln 0

p ( x = xn ) pn 0

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 67

where p p : Thermal-equilibrium holes concentration in p side
0

pn : Thermal-equilibrium holes concentration in n side

0

n p : Thermal-equilibrium electrons concentration in p side

0

nn : Thermal-equilibrium electrons concentration in n side

0

p p : N A (3 46),
0

pn : ni2 / N D N D = ni2 / p (3 45)

0

N AND
Vo = VT ln 2 (1.46)
ni

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 68

Width of the depletion region

xp xn x
qN D+
Q+ = qAxn N D
(+)
xp
xn x
()

Q = qAx p N A
qN A

W
xp x
xn
d 1 (0) d 1
= ( qN A ) = (qN D )
dx dx
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 69
Since the net charge must be zero
then
N A xn
q A N A xP = q A N D xn =
 
 
N D xP
Q Q+

V : charge density.
G
By Gauss's law = V s : electrical permittivity of silicon.
s 12
= = 11.7 = 1.04 10 F/cm.
G s 0 r 0

d V q
= = (ND N A + N
p n)
dx s s neglect

For 0 < x < xn

JJJJG
d ( x) q 0 JJJJG q xn
= N D d ( x) = N D dx
dx s ( 0 ) s 0

q
( 0) = N D xn
s
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 70
For x p 0 < x < 0
JJJJG
d ( x) q ( 0 ) JJJJG q 0
= N A d ( x) = N A dx
dx s 0 s xp

q NA NA
(0) = N Axp xn = xp = (W xn )
s ND ND
q q NA NA
(0) = N D xn = N A x p xn 1 + = W
s s ND ND
xn 1 N AW
Vo = ( x ) dx Vo = (0)W xn = (1.51)
xp 2 ND + N A
1q 1 q ND N A
Vo = N D xnW = W2
2 s 2 s N D + N A
2 s 1 1 Typically, W is in the rang
W= + Vo (1.50) of 0.11 m
q N A ND
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 71
Example 1.10 Consider a pn junction in equilibrium at room temperature
for which the doping concentrations are N A = 1018 cm 3 and N D = 1016 cm 3
and the cross-sectional area A = 104 cm 2 .Calculate p p , n p 0 , nn , pn 0 , V0 , W ,
xn , x p , and QJ . Use ni = 1.5 1010 cm 3 , s = 11.7 0 = 1.04 1012 F/cm.

Solution
p p N A = 1018 cm 3

np =
ni2

(1.5 10 10
cm )
3 2

= 2.25 102 cm 3
0
pp 1018 cm 3
nn = N D = 1016 cm 3

pn =
ni2
=
(1.5 10 10
cm )
3 2

= 2.25 104 cm 3
0
nn 1016 cm 3
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 72
 18 3
N AND 10 cm 1016
cm 3
Vo = VT ln 2 = 26mV ln = 0.814V

n
i 10
1.5 10 cm (
3 2
)
2s 1 1 2 1.04 1012 1 1
W= + V
o = 19 18 3 + 16 3
0.814
q N A ND 1.6 10 10 cm 10 cm
= 3.27 105 = 0.327m
N AW 1018
xn = = 0.327m 18 = 0.324m
ND + N A 10 + 1016

N DW 1016
xp = = 0.327m 18 = 0.00324m
ND + N A 10 + 1016

N AND 19 10 10
18 16
4 4
QJ = Aq W = 10 1.6 10 18 16
0.327 10
N
D + N A 10 + 10
= 5.18 1012 C = 5.18pC

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 73

1.11 The PN junction in the breakdown region
Reverse breakdown can be occur by two mechanisms.
(1) Zener effect : operating at low voltage (Vz < 5V) ,
(2) Avalanche effect: operating at higher voltage (Vz >7V) ,
For junction that breakdown between 5V and 7V the breakdown
mechanism can be either the zener or the avalanche effect or a
combination of the two.

Zener breakdown
When a heavily doped junction is reverse biased the energy bands
become crossed at relatively low voltages. The it can break
covalent bands. generate electron-hole pairs. the electrons will
be swept into the N side and the holes swept into the P side, thus the
electron-hole pairs constitute a reverse current. ( 106 V/cm)
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 74
Avalanche breakdown

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 75

 I

V
0

The pn junction I-V characteristic with the breakdown region

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 76

1.11 The PN junction under forward-bias conditions
ID
Is

p n

VR +
I

Figure 1.38 The pn junction excited by a constant-current source I in

the reverse direction. To avoid breakdown, I is kept smaller than IS.
Note that the depletion layer widens and the barrier voltage increases
by VR volts, which appears between the terminals as a reverse voltage.

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 77

Minority-carrier distribution in a forward-biased pn junction. It is
assumed that the p region is more heavily doped than the n region;
NA >> ND.
pn n p
p region Depletion n region
region
pn ( xn )

pn ( x)
n p ( x p )
n p ( x) pn 0

np0
x
xp 0 xn
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 78
1.11.2 The Current-Voltage Relationship of the Junction

The concentration of minority carriers at the edge of the

depletion region. denoted by Pn ( xn ) in Fig.1.39
for forward voltage V

Pn ( xn ) = Pn 0 eV / VT (1.57) (The low of the junction)

The distribution of excess hole concentration in the

N region is an exponentially decaying function of distance
we can expressed as

Pn ( x) = Pn 0 + [ Pn ( xn ) Pn 0 ] e
( x xn ) / L p

( x xn ) / L p
= Pn 0 + Pn 0 (eV / VT 1) e (1.59)

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 79

where L p is a constant, It is called the diffusion lenth
of holes in the N-type silicon.

D p : diffusion constant for holes in

the N-type silicon
Lp = Dp p
 
p : excess-minority-carrier lifetime
1 m 100 m
(1ns 10000ns )

The hole current density(the holes diffusion in the N-region)
dp
J p = qD p
dx
d
= qD p Pn 0 ( eV / VT 1) e ( x xn ) / L p
dx
Dp
Pn 0 ( eV / VT 1) e
( x xn ) / L p
=q
Lp
S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 80
That J p is largest at the edge of the depletion region (x = xn )
and decays exponentially with distance at x = xn ,
the current density due to hole injected is given by
Dp
Jp = q Pn 0 ( eV / VT 1) (1.61)
Lp

Similar,the current density due to electrons injected is

given b y
Dn
Jn = q n p 0 ( eV / VT 1) (1. 62)
Ln

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 81

The total current
I = ( J p + J n ) A (since J p and J n are in the same direction )
qD p Pn 0 qDn n p 0 V / V
I = A + ( e T 1)
L p Ln
ni2 ni2
Substituting for Pn 0 = (1.29), N p0 = (1.31)
ND NA
Dp Dn V / VT
I = Aqni + (e 1)
2
(1.63)
L p N D Ln N A
 

Is

Dp Dn
I s = Aqn
2
i + (1.65)
L p N D Ln N A

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 82

 I

V
Is 0

Figure 1.40 The pn junction I-V characteristic

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 83

S. C. Lin, EE National Chin-Yi University of Technology 84