THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF MEDICINE AND PHARMACY

NICOLAE TESTEMITANU

Sense Organs

DEPARTAMENT OF HISTOLOGY, CYTOLOGY AND EMBRIOLOGY

GLOBA TATIANA
Analyzers are complex systems that provide
the communication between nervous system
and external or internal environment.

Each analyzer is composed of:

1. Peripheral part sense organs
2. Intermediate the chain of interneurons
3. Central brain (cortex)
 Environmental sensation is limited to those forms
of energy that sensory receptors are designed to
detect.
Sensory receptors may convey information to the
cortex with awareness or perception and may lead
to cerebrally controlled responses.
Sensory receptors also serve as afferent pathways
for reflex action with or without conscious
sensation.
 Classification of sense organs

I group eye & olfactory organ are developed

from the neural plate. Their receptors are
specialized neurosensitive cells, that transform
mechanical impulse into the neural.
II group organ of hearing & equilibrium, taste
organ. Their receptors are specialized epithelial
cells.
III group receptor nerve endings.
Chemical Senses Taste and Smell

Both senses use chemoreceptors

Stimulated by chemicals in solution
Taste has four types of receptors
Smell can differentiate a large range of
chemicals
Both senses complement each other and
respond to many of the same stimuli
 Smell
Receptors in olfactory epithelium.
Located in roof of nasal cavity.
Axons through cribriform plate to brain.
Neurons with long cillia
 Olfactory epithelium

Pseudostratified
columnar ciliated
(PSCC)
Olfactory receptor
cells
Bipolar neurons
Supporting cells
Basal cells
http://asb.aecom.yu.edu/histology/labs/images/slides/A74_OlfactoryEpith_40X.jpg
Chemicals must be dissolved in mucus for detection
 Taste buds
These are small barrel-shaped intra- epithelial structures,
associated with tongue papillae except filiform type.
Each taste bud is surrounded by thin connective tissue capsule.
Taste bud has 2 openings: the taste pore, in the contact with
outer surface of the tongue, and the basal pore.
The elongated cells that form the taste bud can functionally be
divided into three groups:
sensory (neuroepithelial) cells - are the receptors of the
taste stimuli. These cells are thin, dark staining with
microvilli at their distal ends. Sensory cells extend microvilli
into the taste pore.
supporting (or sustentacular) cells. There are 2 types: dark
and light supporting cells.
basal cells - regenerate the two other cell types.
 Microvilli of the sensory cells contain the receptors for the
different basic taste modalities (sweet, salty, bitter and acid).
Each taste bud has an extensive nerve plexus in its underlying
lamina propria with axons extending in the epithelium and ending in
contact with the neuroepithelial cells.
 Eye

Is composed of :
Eye globe
Accessory structures: muscles, eyelids,
lacrimal apparatus, conjunctiva
 Walls of eyeball
Cornea
Fibrous tunic
Sclera

Iris
Vascular tunic (uvea) Cilliary body
Choroid

Pars iridica retinae

Pars caeca retinae
Retina Pars ciliaris retinae
Pars optica retinae
Fibrous layer: cornea, sclera Vascular coat, uvea

Retina
Iris, Ciliary body,
 Functional apparatus of the eye
Dioptric (refractive):
Cornea
Fluid of the anterior and posterior chambers
Lens
Vitreous humor
Accommodation of eye:
Iris
Ciliary body
Lens
Photoreceptor:
Retina
 Fibrous tunic

Sclera (1) 1

Cornea (2) 1
3
Limbus (3)

3
1
1
 Sclera
White of eye
It covers the posterior five-
sixth (5/6) of the eye globe
Consists of dense regular
CT
Contains sinus venosus
sclerae which lies beneath
the junction of cornea and
sclera
Functions:
Support
Protection
 Cornea
Is the principal light refracting structure of the eye (because
it is curved, helps focus light).
Is the Transparent portion (anterior 1/6)
Is avascular (the lack of blood vessels means the cornea is
isolated from the immune system, and corneal transplants
hence are not subjected to the normal process of graft rejection
seen with other organs).
Has much pain
receptor nerve endings.
 Cornea
Consists of:
Anterior corneal epithelium (stratified squamous
nonkeratinized epithelium)
Note: the typical epithelial property of rapid proliferation permits damage of cornea to
be rapidly repaired. (It also makes the cornea sensitive to irradiation, and one
symptom of overexposure to radioactivityor other insults that affect proliferative
cellsis corneal opacification.)

Bowmans membrane provides strength to the cornea &

as a barrier to the spread of infections
Corneal stroma (substantia propria) is composed of
parallel bundles of collagen fibrils, fibrocytes, fibroblasts,
& ground substance (about 90% of the cornea's thickness.)
Decemets membrane
Posterior corneal epithelium (endothelium)
Vascular tunic

Middle layer:
Choroid (1)

Ciliary body (2)

Iris (3)
3

1
 Choroid
Between sclera and retina
Thin, highly vascular in
posterior 2/3 of eye
Loose CT
Highly vascular
Supplies retina
Pigmented
Absorbs light
Has 4 layers:
Brunchs membrane
Choriocapillary
Choriovascular
Suprachoroidal
lamina
Cilliary body
Body a ring-shaped
thickening anterior to
equator, containing
smooth muscle fibers
called ciliary muscle

Ciliary processes: a
series of some 60~80
projections producing
aqueous humor

Ciliary ring
 Ciliary body
Suspensory ligament of the lens
Controls lens shape
Focusing on close objects
 Iris
Colored part of eye
The iris is pigmented to greater or lesser degree in its inner
surface. This pigmentation is melanin; it's part of the
complex mix of materials that define eye color. There are
also a few strands of smooth muscle and some fibroblast
cells in the loose CT that forms the core of the iris.
 Iris
Is located between cornea & lens
Cornea and iris meet to form the iridocorneal angle
Is attached to ciliary body
Pupil central opening
Controls amount of light
The iris' function is to control light input to the
retina, exactly the way the iris diaphragm of a
camera does. It's capable of closing or opening
the hole in itthe pupilby contraction of
smooth muscles that form two groups: radial
dilators and peripheral sphincters.
 Iris
Contraction of a set of dilator muscles (Dilator MM) disposed fibers
running radially away from the pupil opens it when light levels are
low. An apposed sphincter muscle, forming a ring around the opening
(Sphincter MM) does exactly the opposite: it contracts to close the
pupil in bright light.

The contraction of these muscles in response to light is mediated

through the autonomic nervous system.
 Iris
Though complete adjustment
of vision to low levels of
light is physiologic and takes
a few minutes, the pupillary
reflex is almost
instantaneous.

Note: If you've been through an ophthalmologic

examination (or if you've done one) you will know that
when the doctor examines the retina, he uses a bright
light to illuminate it. Naturally this would trigger
closure of the pupil; so he prevents it. Flooding the
eye with an agent that blocks neurotransmitter
receptor sites on the muscle prevents contraction of
the sphincter.
 Sinus venosus sclerae

Ciliary Muscle Iridocorneal angle

Dilator Pupillae
Sphincter Pupillae

Lens

Suspensory ligament
Ciliary Processes
Ciliary ring
 Lens
Is a transparent, avascular, biconvex structure.
Located between iris and vitreous body, and
suspended behind pupil by suspensory ligament
Has 3 principal components:
1. Lens capsule
2. Subcapsular epithelium
that is present only on the
anterior surface
3. Lens fibers that are filled
with crystallins
Loss of transparency of the
lens - cataract.
 Refractive media of eye
Bend entering light waves and
focus them on the retina
Cornea
Aqueous humor
Lens
Vitreous body

Shape changed by the ciliary muscle: for near vision, the ciliary muscle contracts
and the lens rounds up, while for distant vision the lens flattens out, so that the
eye may be focused on distant objects.
 Vitreous humor

Jelly-like
Inert
Transparent
Helps maintain globe
shape
Helps maintain
intraocular pressure
(IOP)
 Chambers of the eye
There are 2 chambers: anterior and posterior
Anterior chamber is located between cornea & iris, and
is bounded by the cornea on one side and the iris on the
other; behind it sits the lens.
The lens separates the posterior chamber (between iris
and lens) from
the much larger
vitreous chamber.
Aqueous humor
A clear watery fluid that Refracts light
slightly
fills chamber of eye
Similar to blood plasma
Helps maintain
intraocular pressure
Provides nutrients for the
lens and cornea
Reabsorbed into venous
blood through the canal
of Schlemm
Production and circulation of aqueous humor
Pupil
Ciliary body Posterior chamber Anterior chamber

Iridocorneal angle Sinus venosus sclera Anterior ciliary vein

Ophthalmic vein

Functions
Helps focus light
Helps maintain constant pressure in eyeball
Helps nourish the lens and cornea
 Retina
is a complex array of neural and glial elements. It's structurally
an extension of the brain, at least in part. Its innermost surface
is overlain by the vitreous body; its outermost portion is right
up against the uveal tunic.

Cell types of retina

Photoreceptor cells with rods & cones
Conducting neurons (bipolar & ganglion neurons)
Associative neurons (horizontal & amacrine)
Supporting cells (Mullers cells & neuroglial cells)
Horizontal cell Amacrine cell
 Retina has 10 layers:

1. Pigment epithelium
2. Layer of rods & cones
3. Outer limiting membrane
4. Outer nuclear layer
5. Outer plexiform layer
6. Inner nuclear layer
7. Inner plexiform layer
8. Ganglion cell layer
9. Layer of optic nerve fibers
10. Inner limiting membrane
choroid

1
2
4
5
6

7
8

9
 Outer pigmented layer
Is a Single layer of melanocytes
Functions:
Absorbs light
Prevents light scatter
Supports neural retina
Phagocytosis of the used-up rod and cone material
(which is replaced) and participations in the cycle
by which visual pigments are formed.
 Layer of rods and cones
contains the dendrites of the rod and cone cells.

Photoreceptor cells with rods

Are the most numerous (120 million) cells
More sensitive to light
Responsible for dark adaptation
Have a low resolution & form images without clear
details
Provide Gray & fuzzy vision
Discs of the outer segments of the dendrites contain
pigment - rhodopsin
Make the synapse with bipolar neurons.
 Structure of the photoreceptor cell
with rod
1 cell body
2 dendrite
a outer segment
b inner segment
c connecting stalk
3- axon
d cell membrane
 Photoreceptor cells with cones
Has higher threshold (form images with clear details)
Responsible for color sensitive
Provides acute vision
High concentration of cones is in the fovea (site with
high level of vision)
Hemidiscs of the outer segment of dendrites contain
pigment iodopsin
The inner segment of dendrite contains ellipsoid a
complex formed by mitochondria and droplets of lipid
Make the synapse with bipolar neurons.
 Structure of the photoreceptor
cell with cone
c
1 cell body
2 dendrite
a outer segment
b inner segment
c connecting stalk
3- axon
d cell membrane
Wiring: each
cone has its
own bipolar
and ganglion
cell while
several rods
share one
bipolar and
ganglion cell
 Cone Sensitivity
There are three types
of cones
Different cones are
sensitive to different
wavelengths
red- long
green- medium
blue- short
Color blindness is the
result of lack of one or
more cone type
 How do we see colors?
To see any color, the brain must compare the input from
different kinds of cone cellsand then make many other
comparisons as well.
The lightning-fast work of judging a color begins in the
retina, which has three layers of cells. Signals from the
red and green cones in the first layer are compared by
specialized red-green "opponent" cells in the second
layer.
These opponent cells compute the balance between red
and green light coming from a particular part of the
visual field.
Other opponent cells then compare signals from blue
cones with the combined signals from red and green
cones.
 COLORBLINDNESS
- An inherited trait that is
transferred on the sex
chromosomes (23rd pair)
- sex-linked trait
- Occurs more often in
males
- Can not be cured or
corrected
Comes from a lack of one or
more types of color
receptors.
Most are green or red or both
and that is due to a lack of
red receptors.
Another possibility is to have
the color receptors missing
entirely, which would result
in black and white vision.
 COLORBLINDNESS TEST PLATES

http://www.geocities.com/Heartland/8833/coloreye.html
 The outer limiting membrane

isn't a membrane
it's a region of occluding junctions, between Mller cells
and the "waists" of the rod and cone cells.
 The outer nuclear layer (ONL) reside the somata of the rods
and cones.
The outer plexiform layer (OPL) contains the dendrites of the
bipolar cells, and their synapses with the axons of rod and cone
cells.
The inner nuclear layer (INL) comprise cell bodies of the
bipolar neurons. Integrator neurons (the horizontal and amacrine
cells) also have their bodies in the inner nuclear layer.
The inner plexiform layer (IPL) contains the dendrites of the
ganglion cells and their synapses with the axons of bipolar cells.
The ganglion cell layer (GCL) is formed by the cell bodies of .
ganglion cells. The ganglion cells are the multipolar neurons and
are the final neuron in the chain that sends information to the
visual nucleus.
The nerve fiber layer (NFL) is formed by the axons of ganglion
cells. All fiber nerves together form the optic nerve.
The inner limiting membrane (ILM) is innermost limit of the
retina This isn't a membrane. It's the fused feet of the Mller cells,
the retina's glial element.
Photoreceptor cells Bipolar cells Ganglion cells
Direction of light
Direction of electrical responses
 (16.7a)

Optic disc

The point at which the optic

nerve perforates through the
retina.
All the bundles of nerve fibers
from the ganglion cells are
converging on this locality.
Naturally there is no
sensitivity at this point. The
retinal structure comes to an
abrupt end on either side of
this blind spot. Actually, of
course, this is a "hole" in the
light sensitive portion.
 Accessory organs of eye

Eyelids
Conjunctiva
Lacrimal apparatus
Ocular muscles

Connective tissue in the orbit

 Eyelid
The inner surface is lined with conjunctival epithelium,
specifically the tarsal conjunctiva.
The outer surface is thin integument, with typical
integumental adnexa, such as hairs and sebaceous glands.
There's also a very large sebaceous gland on the inside,
the so-called tarsal gland. If you've ever awakened the morning
after a wild party with your eyes sort of glued shut by a crusty material,
that's the secretion of this gland.

The conjunctival surface is moist. The secretions of its

goblet cells, and tears prevent the surface of the cornea
from drying out. They also control bacterial proliferation.
Eyelid function: to protect, open, and close eye
 Conjunctiva
Three parts
Palpebral conjunctiva:
lining inner surface of
eyelids
Bulbar conjunctiva: lining
anterior part of sclera, up to
corneal margin
Conjuntival fornix
(superior and inferior): line
of reflection of bulbar and
palpebral conjunctiva
Conjunctival sac
 Lacrimal apparatus
Lacrimal gland
Oval 2-cm, occupies fossa for
lacrimal gland
are classified structurally as
compound tubuloacinar, and
in terms of their secretion, they
are serous
Ducts (6~10 in number): empty
into anterior region of superior
fornix of conjunctiva
Secrets tears, which move across
eyeball to medial angle, protect
and moisten eye
 Lacrimal passages
Lacrimal puncta opening to
lacrimal ductules, one on
each eyelid margin near
medial angle
Lacrimal ductules: one in
each lid, pass medially, join
and enter lacrimal sac
Lacrimal sac within fossa
for lacrimal sac, opening into
nasolacrimal duct
Nasolacrimal duct courses 2
cm inferiorly and opens into
inferior nasal meatus
 Lachrymal Glands
Their secretiontearslubricates the surface of the
eyeball and the conjunctival pocket.
Tears are produced continuously, to keep the surface of
the eye from drying out, and also to trap dust particles and
other airborne material on a film of liquid. The
"windshield wiper" action of the eyelids during a blink
then can sweep the surface clean every few seconds.
Tears also have an antibacterial action, one of their
components being lysozyme.
 Connective tissue in the orbit

Sheath of eyeball: a thin

membrane, which
surrounds the eyeball
from optic nerve to a
corneoscleral junction,
permits the eyeball to
move in the orbit without
friction
Adipose body of orbit:
lies between sheath of
eyeball and the orbit acts
as a protective cushion
and shock sober for the
eyeball
 The ear

is an extraordinarily
complex organ with two
functions:
sound reception and
maintenance of
positional
equilibrium.
 Regions of The Ear
The ear has three distinct parts:
the outer ear (the pinna and external auditory
meatus);
the middle ear (the tympanic cavity, the auditory
ossicles, and the Eustachian tube);
the inner ear (the sealed, fluid filled chambers
responsible for transduction of sound into nervous
impulses and for providing information about body
position).
 Outer ear
Auricle / pinna collects
sound waves that are
conducted across the external
acoustic meatus to the
tympanic membrane.
The auricle consists of a core
of elastic cartilage surrounded
by skin with hair follicles and
sebaceous glands.
External auditory canal the outer 1/3 is cartilage, the inner 2/3 is
part of the temporal bone. Is lined by skin that has apocrine glands
secreting a brown product called cerumen.
Tympanic membrane (Eardrum) - thin membrane that vibrates in
response to sound, and transfers sound energy to bones of the middle
ear
 Middle ear

Air-filled cavity
Within petrous temporal bone
Middle ear ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes)
Oval window
to inner ear
Round window
Pharyngotympanic tube (auditory/Eustachian tube)
From middle ear to pharynx
The walls of the Eustachian tube are usually collapsed, but
they are separated during the process of swallowing, thus
balancing the pressure of the air in the middle ear with the
atmospheric pressure
Middle ear
Walls
Roof

Medial wall
lateral wall
Posterior
wall
Anterior wall

Floor
 Middle ear ossicles
Malleus
Attached to tympanic membrane
Incus
Joined to other two ossicles
Stapes
Footplate attached to oval window
Function
Transmit sound vibrations from tympanic
membrane to inner ear
Amplify vibrations
 Inner ear has 2 labyrinths

Bony labyrinth
Cavity in petrous
temporal bone
Perilymph
Membranous
labyrinth
Within bony
labyrinth
Endolymph

It's necessary to remember that the one labyrinth is inside the other.
 Bony labyrinth
Is divisible into
several regions:
the vestibule,
the semicircular
canals
the cochlea.

The first two contain those parts of the membranous labyrinth that
are involved in the balance sense.
The last part contains the portion of the membranous labyrinth that
is involved in hearing perception.
The vestibule, cochlea, and semicircular ducts all are connected.
 Membranous labyrinth

Utricle & saccule

In vestibule
Semicircular ducts
In semicircular
canals
Cochlear duct
In cochlea
 Cochlea
Is a spiral canal that winds
more than 2.5 times around a
central bony axis, the
MODIOLUS.
The cochlea has three spiraling
chambers:
The cochlear duct (scala
media) represents the
central chamber and
contain endolymph
The scala vestibuli,
starting at the oval window
The scala tympani, ending
at the round window.
 The scalea vestibuli and
tympani are filled with
PERILYMPH and
communicate at the apex, the
HELICOTREMA
 Cochlear duct
Vestibular membrane
Basilar membrane with basement lamina
Stria vascularis that is attached to the spiral ligament
Endolymph
Organ of Corti
 Organ of Corti
Is the sensory epithelium
of the cochlea. It is
formed by:
Hair cells (inner & outer)
with steriocilia
Supporting cells: inner
& outer (phalangeal cells)
Inner tunnel limited by
the pillar cells: outer &
inner
Tectorial membrane
V
 Path of sound
Oval window
Scala vestibuli
Vestibular
membrane
Cochlear duct
Helicotrema
Scala tympani (cochlea uncurled)
Basilar membrane
Organ of Corti
Round window
Hearing Reception

Sound vibrations
Bend stereocilia
Stimulate electrical
response
Fire synapses
Auditory fibers carry
signal
 Semicircular ducts
The semicircular ducts (and the semicircular canals through
which they run) are oriented in three planes of movement:
vertical,
horizontal,
anterior-posterior.
Inside the semicircular ducts are elevated areas of epithelium -
crista ampullaris.
 Semicircular Duct

This is a cross section through a semicircular duct (membranous

labyrinth) inside the semicircular canal (bony labyrinth).
 Crista ampullaris
Resides in the end of each of the semicircular ducts
They're bathed in endolymph, and possess 2 types of cell:
Supporting cells
Hair cells have on the apical
pole:
Stereocilia

One Kinocilium

Cupula is a dome-shaped
gelatinous protein-polysaccharide
mass. It swings from side to side
in response to currents in the
endolymph that bathes it.
Nerve endings surround the cell
bodies of hair cells.
 Crista ampullaris

They are structures for the detection of head and body rotational
movements (angular accelerations).
Mechanism:
Rotation of head Bending of cupula Stereocilia bend
Receptor cell fires Synapse activated Stimulation of
nerve endings Dynamic equilibrium sense.
 Vestibule: Utricle & saccule
The utricle is membranous
labyrinth, filled with endolymph.
The vestibule in which it's
suspended is bony labyrinth,
filled with perilymph. The
utricle and saccule display a
sensory epithelium called a
macula.
Macula is a receptor area
designed to detect Static
equilibrium:
Gravity
Linear acceleration
 Macula has:
Supporting cells
Hair cells
Stereocilia (are nonmotile)
Kinocilium (is motile)
Nerve endings around of cell
bodies of hair cells.
Otolithic membrane
(glycoproteins) that contains
numerous small crystalline
bodies:
Otoliths (from the Greek
"ear stones") contain
calcium carbonate.
 Macula

Function:
Mass of otoliths
affected by
gravity / linear
movement
Bending of hair
cells
Stimulation of
nerve endings (16.21b)
 Spiral Ganglion
Is housed in the modiolus.
Is a craniospinal ganglion by virtue of its being located on the
VIIIth cranial nerve, the vestibulocochlear nerve.
The neurons in it are structurally classified as bipolar in structure
and sensory in
nature.
The afferent fibers
from these bipolar
neurons make up
the cochlear branch
of the nerve.
 Innervation of the cochlea and vestibule
The innervation of the cochlea and vestibule is as follows:
The cell bodies of the cochlear neurons occupy a canal (the
spiral canal) that spirals up the modiolus. This spiral aggregate
of nerve cells is called the spiral (or cochlear) ganglion. Keep in
mind that these are bipolar sensory neurons: their dendrites
synapse with the hair cells in the organ of Corti and their axons
come together in the cochlear nerve, which occupies a central
canal in the modiolus and exits at the base of the cochlea.
In the sensory regions of the vestibule, hair cells of the maculae
and cristae synapse with dendrites of a corresponding
aggregation of sensory neurons in the vestibular (or Scarpas)
ganglion, which then send their axons through the vestibular
nerve.
The processes of the vestibular nerve join with those of the
cochlear nerve to form the vestibulocochlear nerve .