Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
MATHEMATICS
2017
CHAPTER
5
NETWORKS
AND
DECISION
MATHEMATICS
Key
knowledge
The
conventions,
terminology,
properties
and
types
of
graphs;
edge,
face,
loop,
vertex,
the
degree
of
a
vertex,
Isomorphic
and
connected
graphs,
and
the
adjacency
matrix,
and
Eulers
formula
for
planar
graphs
and
its
application
The
exploring
and
travelling
problem,
walks,
trails,
paths,
Eulerian
trails
and
circuits,
and
Hamiltonian
cycles
The
minimum
connector
problem,
trees,
spanning
trees
and
minimum
spanning
trees
Key
skills
construct
graphs,
digraphs
and
networks
and
their
matrix
equivalents
to
model
and
analyse
practical
situations
recognise
that
a
problem
is
an
example
of
the
exploring
and
travelling
problem
and
to
solve
it
by
utilising
the
concepts
of
walks,
trails,
paths,
Eulerian
trails
and
circuits,
and
Hamiltonian
paths
and
cycles
recognise
that
a
problem
is
an
example
of
the
minimum
connector
problem
and
solve
it
by
utilising
the
properties
of
trees,
spanning
trees
and
by
determining
a
minimum
spanning
tree
by
inspection
or
using
Prims
algorithm
for
larger
scale
problems
Chapter
Sections Questions
to
be
completed
5.2
Definitions
and
Terms
1,
2,
4,
5bd,
6b,
7ac,
8ac,
9bc,
10,
12,
14cd,
15ac,
16,
17,
18,
19
5.3
Planar
Graphs
1,
3,
5,
6bd,
7b,
8,
10,
11bc,
12,
13,
14,
15
5.4
Connected
Graphs
2,
3,
4,
5,
6,
7,
8,
9,
11,
13,
16
5.5
Weighted
Graphs
and
Trees
1,
2,
3,
4,
6,
7,
8,
9,
11,
13,
14,
15,
16
5.6
Flow
Problems
1,
2,
3,
4,
5
(all
printed
in
these
notes)
More
resources
available
at
http://drweiser.weebly.com
Page 1 of 25
Table
of
Contents
5.2
Definitions
and
Terms
.................................................................................................................................
3
Simple
graphs
............................................................................................................................................................
3
Complete
graphs
.......................................................................................................................................................
3
Connected
Graphs
.....................................................................................................................................................
4
Example
1:
.........................................................................................................................................................................................
5
The
degree
of
a
vertex
..............................................................................................................................................
5
Example
2:
.........................................................................................................................................................................................
5
Isomorphic
graphs
.....................................................................................................................................................
6
Example
3:
.........................................................................................................................................................................................
6
The
Adjacency
Matrix
................................................................................................................................................
7
Example
4:
.........................................................................................................................................................................................
8
Page 2 of 25
5.2
Definitions
and
Terms
A
graph
is
a
series
of
points
and
lines
that
can
be
used
to
represent
the
connections
that
exist
in
various
settings.
In
a
graph,
the
lines
are
called
edges
or
arcs
and
the
points
are
called
vertices
or
nodes,
with
each
edge
joining
a
pair
of
vertices.
When
vertices
are
joined
by
an
edge,
they
are
known
as
adjacent
vertices.
Note
that
the
edges
of
a
graph
can
intersect
without
there
being
a
vertex.
Simple
graphs
A
simple
graph
is
one
in
which
pairs
of
vertices
are
connected
by
one
edge
at
most.
Complete
graphs
A
complete
graph
is
one
where
an
edge
connecting
each
vertex
to
all
other
vertices.
The
number
of
edges
of
any
complete
graph
can
be
determined
by
the
use
of
the
formula:
#(#%&)
=
Where
V
is
the
vertices
and
E
is
the
edges
(
Page 3 of 25
Connected
Graphs
A
connected
graph
is
one
where
it
is
possible
to
reach
every
vertex
of
the
graph
by
moving
along
the
edges.
The
graph
below
is
not
a
connected
graph,
because
not
all
vertices
are
connected
as
one
or
more
vertex/vertices
are
not
connected,
sometimes
referred
as
an
isolated
vertex.
This
graph
is
also
known
as
a
disconnected
graph.
If
there
are
more
than
one
route
connecting
two
vertices,
than
there
are
multiple
edges.
A
route
that
connect
itself
to
just
the
one
vertex
is
called
a
loop.
If
it
is
only
possible
to
move
along
the
edges
of
a
graph
in
one
direction,
the
graph
is
called
a
directed
graph
and
the
edges
are
represented
by
arrows.
Otherwise
it
is
an
undirected
graph.
Directed Graph Undirected
Page 4 of 25
Example
1:
The
diagram
represents
a
system
of
paths
and
gates
in
a
large
park.
Draw
a
graph
to
represent
the
possible
ways
of
travelling
to
each
gate
in
the
park.
The
degree
of
a
vertex
The
degree
of
a
vertex
is
the
number
of
edges
that
are
directly
connected
to
that
vertex.
Example
2:
For
the
graph
in
the
following
diagram,
show
that
the
number
of
edges
is
equal
to
the
half
the
sum
of
the
degree
of
the
vertices.
Page 5 of 25
Isomorphic
graphs
Isomorphic
graphs
have
the
same
number
of
vertices
and
edges,
with
corresponding
vertices
having
identical
degrees
and
connections.
Note,
both
graphs
have
an
equal
number
of
edges
with
corresponding
vertex
having
the
same
number
of
degree.
Example
3:
Confirm
whether
the
following
two
graphs
are
isomorphic.
Identify
the
degree
and
edges
of
the
vertices
for
each
graph
Graph
A
B
C
D
E
No.
of
Edges
1
2
Identify
the
vertex
connections
for
each
graph
Vertex Connections
A
B
C
D
E
Page 6 of 25
The
Adjacency
Matrix
Adjacency
matrix
is
a
matrix
that
represents
the
number
of
edges
that
connect
the
vertices
of
a
graph.
It
is
a
square
matrix
with
equal
number
of
rows
and
columns.
The
adjacency
matrix
would
always
be
symmetrical
around
the
leading
diagonal
line.
TO
FROM
Any
non-zero
value
in
the
leading
diagonal
indicates
the
existence
of
a
loop.
A
row/column
consisting
of
all
zeros
indicates
an
isolated
vertex
(a
vertex
that
is
not
connected
to
any
other
vertex).
Page 7 of 25
Example
4:
Construct
the
adjacency
matrix
for
the
given
graph.
TO
A
B
C
D
E
F
A
F
B
R
C
O
D
M
E
F
Page 8 of 25
5.3
planar
graphs
Planar
Graphs
Planar
graph
is
a
graph
that
can
be
redrawn
with
no
crossing
edges.
Example
5:
Redraw
the
graph
so
that
it
has
no
intersecting/crossing
edges.
Eulers
Formula
In
all
planar
graphs,
the
edges
and
vertices
create
distinct
areas
referred
to
as
faces
or
regions.
The
planar
graph
shown
in
the
diagram
at
above
has
five
faces
including
the
area
around
the
outside.
Page 9 of 25
Eulers
Formula
Consider
the
following
group
of
planar
graphs.
The
number
of
vertices,
edges
and
faces
for
each
graph
is
summarised
in
the
following
table.
Graph
Vertices
Edges
Faces
1
2
3
For
each
of
these
graphs,
we
can
obtain
a
result
that
is
well
known
for
any
planar
graph.
The
difference
between
the
vertices
and
edges
added
to
the
number
of
faces
will
always
equal
2.
Graph
V
E
+
F
=
2
1
+
=
2
+
=
3
+
=
The
Eulers
formula
for
any
connected
planar
graphs
is
therefore:
+
=
Eulers
formula
can
be
rearranged
in
the
following
ways:
V
=
E
F
+
2
or
E
=
V
+
F
2
or
F
=
E
V
+
2
Example
6:
How
many
faces
will
there
be
for
a
connected
planar
graph
of
7
vertices
and
10
edges?
Page 10 of 25
5.4
Connected
Graphs
Traversing
connected
graphs
Traversing
refers
to
the
movement
across
the
network
with
a
starting
and
finishing
vertices.
The
definitions
of
the
main
terms
used
when
describing
movement
across
a
network
are
as
follows:
A
Walk
A
Trail
Walk:
Any
route
taken
through
a
network,
Trail:
A
walk
in
which
no
edges
are
repeated
including
routes
that
repeat
edges
and
vertices
A
Path
A
Cycle
Path:
A
walk
in
which
no
vertices
are
repeated,
Cycle:
A
path
beginning
and
ending
at
the
same
except
possibly
the
start
and
finish
vertex
A
Circuit
Circuit:
A
trail
beginning
and
ending
at
the
same
vertex.
Page 11 of 25
Example 7:
In
the
following
network,
identify
two
different
routes:
one
cycle
and
one
circuit.
For
a
cycle,
identify
a
route
that
doesnt
repeat
a
vertex
apart
from
the
start/finish.
Cycle:
_____________________________________________________________________
For
a
circuit,
identify
a
route
that
doesnt
repeat
an
edge
and
ends
at
the
same
vertex.
Circuit:
___________________________________________________________________
Euler
trails
and
circuits
In
some
practical
situations,
it
is
most
efficient
if
a
route
travels
along
each
edge
only
once.
Examples
include
parcel
deliveries
and
council
garbage
collections.
If
it
is
possible
to
travel
a
network
using
each
edge
only
once,
the
route
is
known
as
an
Euler
trail
or
Euler
circuit.
Euler
Trail
Euler
Circuit
A
Euler
trail
is
a
trail
in
which
every
edge
is
used
A
Euler
circuit
is
a
circuit
in
which
every
edge
is
once.
used
once.
If
the
degree
of
all
the
vertices
of
a
connected
graph
are
even,
then
a
Euler
circuit
exists.
If
there
are
exactly
2
vertices
of
odd
degree
of
a
connected
graph,
then
a
Euler
trail
exists.
Page 12 of 25
Hamiltonian
paths
and
cycles
Hamiltonian
Cycle
Hamiltonian
Path
A
Hamiltonian
cycle
is
a
cycle
that
reaches
all
A
Hamiltonian
path
is
a
path
that
reaches
all
vertices
of
a
network
without
necessarily
using
vertices
of
a
network
without
necessarily
using
all
of
the
available
edges.
all
of
the
available
edges.
Example
8:
Identify
an
Euler
trail
and
a
Hamiltonian
path
in
the
following
graph.
Deg
(A)
=
Deg
(C)
=
Deg
(E)
=
Deg
(G)
=
Euler trial involves identifying a route that uses each edge once.
Hamiltonian path involves identifying a route that uses each vertex once.
Page 13 of 25
Terminologies
Summary
Walk
a
route
through
a
network.
Trail walk through the network with no edges repeated.
A trail will form when exactly 2 vertices with odd degree.
Eulerian
(Edge)
Circuit walk that starts and Finishes at the same vertex with no edges repeated.
A circuit will form when all vertices have even degree.
Path walk through the network with no vertices repeated.
Hamiltonian
(Vertex)
Cycle walk that Starts and Finishes at the same vertices with no
vertices repeated.
Page 14 of 25
5.5
Weighted
graphs
and
trees
Weighted
graphs
In
many
applications
using
graphs,
it
is
useful
to
attach
a
value
to
the
edges.
These
values
could
represent
the
length
of
the
edge
in
terms
of
time
or
distance,
or
the
costs
involved
with
moving
along
that
section
of
the
path.
Such
graphs
are
known
as
weighted
graphs.
Weighted
graphs
can
be
particularly
useful
as
analysis
tools.
For
example,
they
can
help
determine
how
to
travel
through
a
network
in
the
shortest
possible
time.
Example
9:
The
graph
represents
the
distances
in
kilometres
between
eight
locations.
Identify
the
shortest
distance
to
travel
from
A
to
D
that
goes
to
all
vertices.
Possible
paths
Distance
Therefore
the
shortest
distance
from
A
to
D
that
travels
to
all
vertices
is
_______________
Page 15 of 25
Trees
A
tree
is
a
simple
connected
graph
with
no
circuits,
no
loops
or
multiple
edges.
A
tree
is
therefore
must
contain
only
one
face.
The
number
of
edges
in
a
tree
is
always
1
less
than
the
number
of
vertices.
Spanning
Trees
Spanning
trees
are
sub-graphs
(graphs
that
are
formed
from
part
of
a
larger
graph)
that
include
all
of
the
vertices
of
the
original
graph.
In
practical
settings,
they
can
be
very
useful
in
analysing
network
connections.
For
example
a
minimum
spanning
tree
for
a
weighted
graph
can
identify
the
lowest-cost
connections.
Spanning
trees
can
be
obtained
by
systematically
removing
any
edges
that
form
a
circuit,
one
at
a
time.
Prims
algorithm
Prims
algorithm
is
a
set
of
logical
steps
that
can
be
used
to
identify
the
minimum
spanning
tree
for
a
weighted
connected
graph.
Steps
for
Prims
algorithm:
Step
1:
Begin
at
a
vertex
with
low
weighted
edges.
Step
2:
Progressively
select
edges
with
the
lowest
weighting,
unless
they
form
a
circuit.
Step
3:
Continue
until
all
vertices
are
connected.
Page 16 of 25
Example
10:
Use
Prims
algorithm
to
identify
the
minimum
spanning
tree
of
the
graph
shown.
Page 17 of 25
5.6
Flow
Problems
Directed
Graphs
In
the
previous
sections,
graphs
were
used
to
represent
connections
between
people,
places
or
objects.
The
vertices
of
a
graph
represented
objects,
such
as
towns,
and
edges
represented
the
conditions
between
them,
such
as
roads.
Weighted
graphs
included
extra
numerical
information
about
the
connections,
such
as
distance,
time
or
cost.
When
a
graph
has
this
numerical
information
we
call
it
a
network.
A
directed
graph,
or
digraph,
records
directional
information
on
networks
using
arrows
on
the
edges.
The
network
on
the
right
shows
roads
around
a
city.
The
vertices
are
the
intersections
of
the
roads
and
the
edges
are
the
possible
road
connections
between
the
intersections.
The
arrows
show
that
some
of
the
roads
only
allow
traffic
in
one
direction,
while
others
allow
traffic
in
both
directions.
Understanding
minimum
flow
One
of
the
applications
of
directed
graphs
to
real-life
situations
is
flow
problems.
Flow
problems
involve
the
transfer
or
flow
of
material
from
one
point,
called
the
source,
to
another
point
called
the
sink.
Examples
of
this
include
water
flowing
through
pipes,
or
traffic
flowing
along
roads.
SOURCE
FLOW
THROUGH
NETWORK
SINK
Water
flows
through
pipes
in
only
one
direction.
In
a
digraph
representing
water
flow,
the
vertices
are
the
origin
and
destination
of
the
water
and
the
edges
represent
the
pipes
connecting
them.
The
weights
on
the
edges
would
be
the
amount
of
water
that
can
flow
through
the
pipe
in
a
given
time.
The
weights
of
flow
problem
directed
graphs
are
called
capacities.
The
diagram
on
the
right
shows
two
pipes
that
are
joined
together,
connecting
the
source
of
water
to
the
sink.
There
is
a
small
pipe
with
capacity
25
litres
per
minute
joined
to
a
large
pipe
with
capacity
58
litres
per
minute.
Even
though
the
large
pipe
has
a
capacity
greater
than
25
litres
per
minute,
the
small
pipe
will
only
allow
25
litres
of
water
through
each
minute.
The
flow
through
the
large
pipe
will
never
be
more
than
25
litres
per
minute.
The
large
pipe
will
experience
flow
below
its
capacity.
If
we
reverse
the
connection
and
direct
water
through
the
large
capacity
pipe
into
the
smaller
capacity
pipe,
there
will
be
a
bottleneck
of
flow
at
the
junction.
The
large
capacity
pipe
is
delivering
58
litres
of
water
every
minute
to
the
small
pipe,
but
the
small
pipe
will
only
allow
25
litres
per
minute
to
pass.
In
both
of
these
situations,
the
flow
through
the
entire
pipe
system
(both
pipes
from
source
to
sink)
is
restricted
to
a
maximum
of
25
litres
per
minute.
This
is
the
capacity
of
the
smallest
pipe
in
the
connection.
If
we
connect
more
pipes
together,
one
after
the
other,
we
can
calculate
the
overall
capacity
or
maximum
flowof
the
pipe
system
by
looking
for
the
smallest
capacity
pipe
in
that
system.
Maximum
flow
If
pipes
of
different
capacities
are
connected
one
after
the
other,
the
maximum
flow
through
the
pipes
is
equal
to
the
minimum
capacity
of
the
individual
pipes.
Page 18 of 25
Example
11
-
Calculating
the
maximum
flow
In
the
digraph
shown
on
the
right,
the
vertices
A,
B,
C,
D
and
E
represent
towns.
The
edges
of
the
graph
represent
roads
and
the
weights
of
those
edges
are
the
maximum
number
of
cars
that
can
travel
on
the
road
each
hour.
The
roads
allow
only
one-way
travel.
Page 19 of 25
Cuts
It
is
difficult
to
determine
the
maximum
flow
by
inspection
for
directed
networks
that
involve
many
vertices
and
edges.
We
can
simplify
the
search
for
maximum
flow
by
searching
for
cuts
within
the
digraph.
A
cut
divides
the
network
into
two
parts,
completely
separating
the
source
from
thesink.
It
is
helpful
to
think
of
cuts
as
imaginary
breaks
within
the
network
that
completelyblock
the
flow
through
that
network.
For
the
network
or
water
pipes
shown
in
this
diagram,the
dotted
line
is
a
cut.
This
cut
completelyblocks
the
flow
of
water
from
the
source
(S)to
the
sink
(A).
The
dotted
line
on
the
graph
above
is
a
cut
The
dotted
line
on
the
graph
above
isnot
a
cut
because
it
separates
the
source
and
the
sink
because
material
can
still
flow
from
the
source
to
completely.
No
material
can
flow
from
the
the
sink.
Not
all
of
the
pathways
from
source
to
source
to
the
sink.
sink
have
been
blocked
by
the
cut.
Capacity
of
a
cut
The
cut
capacity
is
the
sum
of
all
the
capacities
of
the
edges
that
the
cut
passes
through,
taking
into
account
the
direction
of
flow.
The
capacity
of
an
edge
is
only
counted
if
it
flows
from
the
source
side
to
the
sink
side
of
the
cut.
Page 20 of 25
The
capacity
of
a
cut
is
important
to
help
determine
the
maximum
flow
through
any
digraph.
Look
for
the
smallest,
or
minimum,
cut
capacity
that
exists
in
the
graph.
This
will
bethe
same
as
the
maximum
flow
that
is
possible
through
that
graph.
This
is
known
as
the
maximum-flow
minimum-cut
theorem.
Cut,
cut
capacity
and
minimum
cut
capacity
A cut is an imaginary line across a directed graph that completely separates the source (start of the flow)
from the sink (destination of the flow).
The cut capacity is the sum of the capacities of the edges that are cut. Only edges that flow from the
source side of the cut to the sink side of the cut are included in a cut capacity calculation.
The minimum cut capacity possible for a graph equals the maximum flow through the graph.
Example
13
Calculating
maximum
flow
Determine
the
maximum
flow
from
S
to
T
for
the
digraph
shown.
Page 21 of 25
Exercise
5.6
Flow
Problems
Page 22 of 25
Page 23 of 25
Page 24 of 25
Page 25 of 25