Chapter-3

Torsion
Twist or torsion is caused in a member by the action of a torque.

The problem of transmitting a torque (a couple) from one plane to a parallel plane
is frequently encountered in the design of machinery

The simplest device for accomplishing this function is a circular shaft such as that
connecting an electric motor with a pump, compressor or other machine.

Other application of torsion are-

In a nut.
In a helical spring.
In two way slab.
Thin walled tubes

Torsion-

Consider a shaft rigidly clamped at one end and twisted at the other end by a
torque T=F.d applied in a plane perpendicular to the axis of shaft is said to be
torsion.

Effect of torsion-

The effect of torsion load applied to a bar is-

1. To impart an angular displacement of one end cross-section with

respect to the other end.
2. To set up shear stress on any cross-section of the bar perpendicular to
the axis.
When the member is subjected to torque, [the resisting torque developed in the
member is produced by of an infinitesimal forces acting on the cutting plane
perpendicular to the axis of the shaft].

[Every section of the shaft is subjected to a state of pure shear, the moment of
resistance developed by the shear stresses of being everywhere equal to the
magnitude and oppositein sense, to the applied torque.]

Assumption:

1. Cross-sectional area remains circular.

2. Cross-sectional area remains plane and do not warp.
3. Cross-section rotates as if rigid I.e. every diameter rotates through the same
angle.
4. Shaft is loaded by twisting couple in planes that are perpendicular to the axis
of the shaft.
5. Stresses do not exceed the proportional limit.

Here,

During torsion of a bar, axial lines drawn on the surface of a bar become helical
and circumferential lines remain circumferential. Therefore, as can be seen in the
figure, material elements are shared in the process. This shear strain must be
accompanied by a shear stress (from hooks law; =G).

Angle of twist:

If a shaft of length L is subjected to a constant twisting moment T along its

length, then the angle through which one end of the bar will twist relative to the
other is known as angle of twist.

Derivation of the torsion formula:

Consider the solid circular shaft of radius r subjected to a torque T at one end,
the other end being fixed. Under the action of this torque aradial line at the free end
of the shaft twists through an angle , point A moves to B, and AB subtends an
angle at the fixed end. This is the angle of distortion of the shaft I, e, shear strain.

Now consider any internal fiber located at a radial distance p from the axis of the
shaft. From assumption 3, the radius of such fiber also rotates through the angle ,
causing a total shearing deformation s equal to CD.

The angle in radians=(Arc CD, s )/(Radius), gives

Shearing deformation, s =p

Thus shearing strain (unit deformation) of this fiber,

=s/L

As a result shear strain is zero at the center and reaches maximum at the outer
radius.

Now, the shearing stress is related to the shearing strain according to the Hooks
law,

=G=( )e___________(2)

Here,

G/L is constant for definite . The conclusion is that, the shearing stress at
any internal fiber is determined by the product of constant and a variable radial
distance. The shear stress is zero at center and increases linearly to a maximum at
the outer surface.

Calculating the Torque from the shear stress:

The torque transmitted through the cross section of a far is the resultant of the
moments created by the shear stresses on the cross-section.

The differential shear force dv that results from shear stress () applied over the
differential area dA of cross-section is -
Shear force,

dv=

The moment created by such shear force is

Moment, dM= dv= ( )

The equivalent torque T on the cross-section is the resultant of all the moments
created by shear stress.

So that, T = = ( )

Recalling, the expression of shear stress ,

=( )

Thus, T=( )A2dA

Here J = A2dAis polar area moment of inertia of the cross-section

Therefore, T= .(2)

= , where is in radians

This is the expression for angle of twist.

Now, from the equation of stress, =( )

Gives =

Again, = gives,

This is called the torsion formula.

The maximum shearing stress is obtained by replacing by the radius r of the
shaft

Max = Tr/J

Now for solid shaft of radius (r) or dia (d), the polar moment of inertia , J= =

max = ( )= =
/

For hollow shaft:

max=
( )

=
( )

In many practical application shafts are used to transmit power.

The power (P) transmitted by a constant torque T rotating at a constant angular

speed ( ) is given by,

P =T

The shaft is rotating with a frequency of (f) revolutions per unit time, =2 ,
then power,

P=T2

Thus, T=

Where,

P=Watt

f=frequency
 =radians per time

Flanged Bolt Coupling :

Flanged bolt coupling are commonly used to connect two shafts. It consists of
flanges rigidly attached to the end of the shafts and bolted together. The torque is
transmitted by the shearing force P created in bolts.

The torque resistance of one bolt is PR, where R is the radius of the bolt circle.

For any number of bolts, n, the torque capacity of the coupling is expressed by

T= PRn=

If coupling has two concentric row of bolts, the torque capacity is

T=P1R11+P2R22

For rigid flanges, the shear deformations in the bolts are proportional to their radial
distance from the shaft axis .The shearing strains are related by

1/R1 = 2/R2

Using Hooks law for shear, =G we have

1/ G1 R1=2/G2 R2 or (P1 /A1 )/G 1R 1= (P2 /A 2)/G2

R2

If the bolts on the two circles have the same area, A1=A2, and if the bolts are made
of the same material G1=G2.

[The relation between P & P reduces to

P1/R1=P2/R2 ]

Problem -326,328

Longitudinal Shearing Stress:

A shearing stress acting on one face of an element is always accompanied by a

numerically equal shearing stress acting on a perpendicular face.
During torsion of a shaft, as like of shearing stress on transverse sections , a
longitudinal shearing stress is also induced that is perpendicular and numerically
equal to the transverse shearing stress .

Torsion of Thin Walled Tubes Shear flow :

The torsion of noncircular shafts can be readily analyzed to give a approximate

solution for the special case of thin walled tubes of variable wall thickness t.

A useful concept associated with the analysis of thin walled tubes is shears flow
(q).

Shear flow (q) is defined as the internal shearing force per unit length of the thin
section. In terms of stress, shear flow, q= t

Where is the average shearing stress across thickness t.

the shear flow on across section is constant even through the thickness of the
section wall varies.

A enlarge free body of a typical element of length L cut from this tube. The
longitudinal stress across thickness t1 is 1 . similarly across thickness t2 is 2, a
different torsional shearing stress 2 is induced.

The resultant of the torsional longitudinal shearing forces are,

F1=q1L and F2=q2L

Considering longitudinal equilibrium of the element,

q 1 L=q2 L gives q1 =q2

The equivalence of shear flow at two arbitrary position means that the shear flow
must be constant around the cross section of the tube.

Relation Between q & T:

The relation between the shear flow applied torque T can be obtained by
considering the tangential force (dP=qdL) acting through the differential length
(dL).
The resisting torque is the resultant of the moments of the tangential forces
(dP=qdL).

Therefore, T=(dF)=(qdL)=qdL

Here the quantity dL is twise the area of the shaded triangle whose base is dL and
whose altitude is .

Therefore, T=2Aq

The average shearing stress across any thickness t acting tangent to the perimeter
ios given by

=q/t=T/2AT

Springs:

When flexibility in a mechanical system is desired or it is required to absorb the

energy of suddenly applied loads , springs are employed .

Two types of helical springs -

1. Closed coiled helical springs:

The wires, with which they formed, are closely wound so
that each turn of the spring virtually lies in one plane.
2. Open coiled helical springs:
A spring is an elastic member, in which the material is
arranged in such a way that it can undergo a considerable change without
getting permanently distorted.

Spring:

A spring may be defined as an elastic member whose primary function is to deflect

or distort under the action of load without getting permanently distorted. It
recovers its original shape when load is released.

Main Types of Springs:

1) Helical Spring (Torsional spring)

2) Leaf spring (Bending spring)
 3) Flat spiral Spring (Bending spring)

Application of springs:

I. To apply forces and to control motions as in brakes and clutches.

II. To measure forces as in spring balance and engine indicator.
III. To store energy as in clocks, toys etc.
IV. To reduce the effect of shock or impact loading as in carriage springs.
V. To change vibrating characteristics of a member as inflexible of
motors.

When the spring is being subjected to an axial load to the wire of the spring gets be
twisted like a shaft.

Consider a closed coiled helical spring is elongated by an axial load P.The spring is
composed of a wire of diameter d wound into a helix of mean coil radius R. The
helix angle is small, so that any one coil will be assumed to be lie in a plane which
is nearly perpendicular to the axis of the spring.

With this limitations , to determine the stresses produced by P , an exploratory

cutting plane m-n through a section is taken because the spring rod becomes nearly
vertical.

To determine equilibrium of the upper half of the spring , a shearing force Pr

exposed shaded cross-section required to set up to balance the applied axial load
P.The resisting shearing force Pr makes equilibrium as far as a vertical and
horizontal summation of forces are connected.

To complete equilibrium, a moment summation must be equal , opposite , and

parallel, create a couple of magnitude PR which can be balanced only by an
opposite resisting couple.

Therefore to maintain complete equilibrium of a segment of the spring, only a

shearing force V=P and a torque T=P.R are required.

Now two types of shearing stresses are produced:

 1.Direct shearing stress (1) , uniformly distributed over the section and
creating resisting load Pr that passes through the centroid of the section.

2. Variable torsional shearing stresses(2) caused by the twisting couple

T=PR. 2 vary in magnitude with their radial distance from the centroid are
directed to perpendicular to the radious.The resulting shearing stress is the vector
sum of direct and torsional shearing stress.

At B , the stresses are oppositely directed , and the resulted stress is the difference
between 2 & 1.

At the inside fiber C, stresses are collinear, their sum produces the maximum stress
in the section. .

Therefore, maximum shearing stress always occurs at the element of the spring
wire.

So, = + = + = +

4 16
= +

= (1 + )

The term (1 + ) is called stress concentration factor. For a spring of small wire
diameter relative to large radius[ The ratio d/4R is small that indicates maximum
stress caused by torsion]

Thus, Stress Concentration Factor, K=(1 + ) =(1+ )

Where, m=D/d is called spring index.

The proceeding discussion contains an error because the torsion formula derived
for use with straight bars was applied to a curved bar.
A.M. Wahl has developed the formula that account of the coil curvature and
defines stress concentration factor,
.
Kw= +
.
Max, = ( + )) [used for heavy spring]

Spring Deflection:
Practically, all the spring elongation under axial load, measured along its
axis, is caused by torsional deformation of the spring.

Consider, a spring subjected to an axial load P, the wire of the spring gets
twisted like a shaft.

Consider, one half turn of a closed coil helical spring.

If is the total angle of twist along the wire and is the deflection of spring
under the action of load P along the axis of the coil, so that from triangle

Tan = [Since is small]

Length of spring wire of n terns, =2 .

Now, using the torsion formula, =

Substitution yields,

.
= = & =

.
=
 =

The above expression of spring deflection neglects the deformation caused by

direct shear (axial load) which is,
( )
= = =
( )

Spring Stiffness:

Spring quality is measured by stiffness and defined as the load per unit
deflection.

Therefore, S= = =

Spring in series:

If two springs of different stiffness are joined end on and carry a common
load, they are said to be connected in series and combined stiffness is given by,

= =

Spring in Parallel:

If the two springs are joined in such a way that they have a common
deflection, they are said to be connected in parallel and combined stiffness,

= +
 v EXAMPLE:

A closed coil helical spring is to carry a load of 5000N with a deflection of

50mm and a maximum shearing stress of 400 N/m . If the number of active
turns or active coil is 8. Estimate the followings:

1) Wire diameter
2) Mean coil diameter
3) Weight of spring

Assume G= 83,000 N/m ; = 7700 Kg/ .

Solution:

Assume, light spring of small . Neglect the contribution of direct shear,

= 40010
R = 15.7110 ..(1)

Again, deflection,

5010 =

= 1621.1
(15.71 10 ) = 1621.1
= 4.1910
 = 4.1910
= 0.01332 m (Ans:)

From e (1),

R = 0.03711 m = 37.11 mm (Ans:)

D = 74.21 mm (Ans:)

3. Mass/Weight = volume*density = (cross sectional area * length) * density

..Weight = /4d2 * 2Rn * = /4 (0.01332)2 * 2 * 0.03711 * 8* 7700 = 2 Kg

Weight = 2Kg (Ans.)

v Example

A wagon weighing 50 KN moving at a speed of 8 KmPh has to be brought to rest.

Springs made of wire of diameter 25mm with mean diameter of 250mm and with
24 turns are available. Find the number of springs required in the buffer to stop the
wagon at a compression of 180 mm. Use G=84 GPa.

Solution

V = 8 KmPh = 8000/3600 m/s = 2.22 m/s

K.E = mv2 = {50 * 103 * (2.22)2} / (2 * 9.81) = 12.6 * 106 N-mm

= 64PR3n/Gd4

180 = (64 * P * 1253 * 24) / (84 * 103 * 254) gives

The load taken by the spring, P= 1968.75 N

Work done by the spring = * P *

= * 1968.75 * 180

= 0.18 * 106 N-mm

 No. of springs= (12.6 * 106) / (0.18 * 106) = 70 (Ans.)

Example

It is required to design a close-coiled helical spring which will deflect 10 mm

under an axial pull of 100 N with a shear stress of 90 MPa . The spring is to be
made from circular wire and the mean diameter of the coil will be 10 times the
diameter of the wire. Find the diameter of the wire necessary to form the spring G
= 80 GPa

Solution

Given, D = 10 * d ---------------------------------------------------------- (1)

m = D /d = 10d / d = 10

= {16 PR * (1 + 1/2m)} / d3

90 = {16*100 * 5d * (1 + 1 / 20) / d3

.. d = 5.45 mm

From (1) D = 54.5 m

Again, = 64 PR3n / Gd4

10 = {64 * 100 * (27.25)3 * n} / {80 * 103 * (5.45)4}

.. n = 5.45 6

L = 2 R.n = 2 * 27.25 * 6

.. L = 1027.3 mm (Ans.)
 Example:

A solid shaft and a hollow shaft of same material have some length and outer
radius R. The inner radius of the hollow shaft is 0.7R.

(a)If both shafts are subjected to the same torque, compare their shear stresses,
angle of twist, and heights.

(b)Also find the strength of weight ratio for both the shafts.

Solution:

d0=d , di=0.7d ; ds=d

[ ( . ) ] .
Now, Jh= =

Js =

Since, = T & are same both for solid and hollow shaft.

Example:

A solid steel bar of diameter 30mm is enclosed by a steel of outer diameter 45mm
and inner dia. 36mm. Both bar and tube are held rigidly at end A and joined to a
rigid plate at B.

(a) Determine the maximum shear stresses in the bar and the tube.

(b) Determine the angle of rotation of the end plate G = 80GPa

Solution: