I- Heated Concrete Pavement/ Bridge Methods :

[Description + Operation]

1. Cress, M.D., 1995. Heated bridge deck construction and operation in Lincoln Nebraska. IABSE
Symposium, San Francisco, USA, pp. 449454. //

Cress , MD (1995) described the construction and operation of hydronic bridge/pavement deck
heating system. A natural gas boiler heats a propylene glycol and water solution that is pumped
on cue through hoses encased in deck and warms the concrete deck enough to melt the snow and
ice.

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[Numerical Model (FEM) + Experiment]

2. Hongming Zhao; Zhimin Wu; Songgen Wang; Jianjun Zheng; Guangjie (2010). Concrete pavement
deicing with carbon fiber heating wire. Cold Regions Science and Technology Volume 65 issue 3 2011

Hongming Zhao; Zhimin Wu; Songgen Wang; Jianjun Zheng; Guangjie (2010) presented a
numerical analysis and experimental study of method of deicing with carbon-fiber heating wires
(CFHWs) embedded inside concrete slabs. This deicing method has better electric-thermal
properties, i.e., lower resistivity and double maximum heating temperature and the cost of
CFHWs is only about one-tenth that of metallic wires.

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[Experiment]

3. Hui Li, Qiangqiang Zhang, Huigang Xiao (2013). Self-deicing road system with a CNFP high-
efficiency thermal source and MWCNT/cement-based high-thermal conductive composites - Cold Regions
Science and Technology 86 (2013) 2235

Hui Li, Qiangqiang Zhang, Huigang Xiao (2013) proposed a new self-deicing road system with
the carbon nano-fiber polymer (CNPF) based on its good electric and thermo-electric properties.
The efficiency, cost and feasibility of the self-deicing road system in both deicing and snow-
melting applications were analyzed.

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[Experiment]

4. Yong Lai, Yan Liu, Daoxun Ma (2014). Automatically melting snow on airport cement concrete
pavement with carbon-fiber grille - Cold Regions Science and Technology 103 (2014) 5762.

Yong Lai, Yan Liu, Daoxun Ma (2014) presented the method of melting snow with carbon-fiber
grille buried in airport pavement due to its good electric-thermal properties and tensile strength
which can reinforce the airport pavement. However, whether the temperature stresses are large
enough to induce a thermal expansion which widens existing cracks in the pavement and
accelerates corrosion of the reinforcing mesh is still a question that needs to be researched.

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[Theory]

5. Yoshitake, I., Yasumura, N., Syobuzako, M., and Scanlon, A. (2011). "Pipe Heating System with
Underground Water Tank for Snow Thawing and Ice Prevention on Roads and Bridge Decks." J. Cold
Reg. Eng., 10.1061/(ASCE)CR.1943-5495.0000023, 71-86.

Yong Yoshitake, I., Yasumura, N., Syobuzako, M., and Scanlon, A. (2011) developed a new pipe
heating system that uses only groundwater stored in a large underground tank providing
geothermal energy, i.e., groundwater of constant temperature, through heating pipes embedded in
concrete pavements with no electric heater or fuel boiler. The system always provided a safe
surface for the bridges by keeping the temperature > 0.5C during the winter and it was able to
remove snow on the bridge decks earlier than on the unheated road surface near the system,
because the road was heated before snow accumulation.

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[Numerical model + Simulation + Experiment]

6.1 Liu, X.B., Spitler, J.D.(2015) , A Simulation Tool for the Hydronic Bridge Snow Melting System -
Submitted to the 12th International Road Weather Conference.

6.2 Liu X, Ree SJ, Spitler JD(2007). Modeling snow melting on heated pavement surfaces part : model
development. Applied Thermal Engineering - Volume 27, Issues 56, April 2007, Pages 11151124

6.3 Liu X, Ree SJ, Spitler JD(2007). Modeling Modeling snow melting on heated pavement surfaces.
Part II: Experimental validation. Applied Thermal Engineering - Volume 27, Issues 56, April 2007,
Pages 11251131

Liu, X.B., Spitler described a numerical model of the hydronically-heated bridge deck which
circulates a heated fluid through a pipe network embedded in the slab to melt snow and ice on the
surface of the slab. A number of heat sources can be used for such systems, including boilers,
electrical heater, ground water, and ground source heat pump

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[Model + Experiments Validation]

7. Huining Xu, Yiqiu Tan - Modeling and operation strategy of pavement snow melting systems utilizing
low-temperature heating fluids - Energy , Volume 80, 1 February 2015, Pages 666676.

Huining Xu, Yiqiu Tan developed a snow melting model coupling the heat and mass transfer
process for hydronic snow melting systems for pavements to modify the snow melting algorithm
proposed by Liu ( the previous papers)

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[Theory + Experiment]

8. P.J. Tumidajski, P.Xie, M. Arnott, J.J. Beaudoin (2003) - Overlay current in a conductive concrete
snow melting system - Cement and Concrete Research Volume 33, Issue 11, November 2003, Pages 1807
1809.

P.J. Tumidajski, P.Xie, M. Arnott, J.J. Beaudoin (2003) described a composite concrete slab
(consisting of a base layer of electrically conductive concrete (ECC) and a Portland cement
concrete (PCC) overlay) using to electric to melt snow. The entire ECC layer behaves as a large
flat resistor and radiates energy to the PCC overlay by thermal conduction to melt snow.

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[Theory]

9. Ozsoy, Ahmet, Yildirim, Ragip (2016) - Prevention of icing with ground source heat pipe: A
theoretical analysis for turkeys climatic conditions,Cold Regions Science and Technology(2016), doi:
10.1016/j.coldregions.2016.02.003.

Ozsoy, Ahmet, Yildirim, Ragip described a method of prevent icing in places such as roads and
airfields with the use of the ground as a heat source in Turkey. The heat from the ground is
transferred to the surface through an elbow type heat pipe that has ammonia as the working
fluid

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[Theory + Numerical Model (Stochastic FEA)]

10. Guan, C., Su, T., Xia, K., Chen, X., Li, P., and Wang, Y. (2009)- Stochastic Finite Element Analysis
on Heat Conduction of Pavement Snow Melting Using Ground Source Heat Pump. International
Conference on Transportation Engineering 2009: pp. 117-122.

Guan, C., Su, T., Xia, K., Chen, X., Li, P., and Wang, Y. combined stochastic analysis with non-
steady-state heat transfer theory, and applying the FEM, the technology and theory of ground-
source heat pump (GSHP) for snow melting

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[Theoretical Model and Numerical Implementation (Finite Volume Method - FVM)]

11. Huajun Wang, Zhihao Chen - Study of critical free-area ratio during the snow-melting process on
pavement using low-temperature heating fluids - Energy Conversion and Management 50 (2009) 157
165.

Huajun Wang, Zhihao Chen explained the phenomenon of critical free-area ratio (CFR) using the
theoretical model and numerical model describing the heat and mass transfer process during the
snow melting on pavement. They also provided guides for the design optimization and energy-
saving operation of snow-melting systems.

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** * SUMMARY:

( Ozsoy, Ahmet, Yildirim, Ragip (2016) - Prevention of icing with ground source heat pipe: A theoretical
analysis for turkeys climatic conditions,Cold Regions Science and Technology(2016), doi:
10.1016/j.coldregions.2016.02.003.)

Currently available technologies for internally heating bridge decks consist primarily of three types of
systems: electrical, hydronic, and heat pipe

In the electrical system, heat is produced by a current flow in an insulated metallic cable mounted
within a bridge deck. Typically, the cable is laid out in a corrugated pattern to provide uniform heat
distribution across the surface. The cable transfers heat to the surrounding material when it warms up due
to the passage of an electrical current. These heating cables have been used on projects that comprise
pavements, sidewalks

The hydronic system produces its heat from the flow of a hot liquid instead of electricity. Usually, a
continuous loop of a rigid or flexible pipe is used. Hot liquid is circulated through this closed-circuit loop
by a pump. As the heat of the liquid decreases following heat transfer to the surrounding medium it
returns to the heat source for reheating.

Ice formation or accumulation can be prevented directly or indirectly by ground source heat pipe. Heat
pipe (HP) is a heat transfer device that carries the heat with a phase change of working fluid from a
high temperature medium to a low temperature medium. HP can carry the heat even when there is low
temperature difference without needing additional energy. Basically, HP is vacuumed, sealed, and
includes a working fluid that can boil at low temperatures and tube shaped passive heat transfer device.
In the evaporator, the working fluid is evaporated with the transferred heat energy from the high
temperature medium. In the condenser, saturated vapor condenses with heat rejection to the low
temperature medium. The condensed working fluid returns to the evaporator by capillary forces in the
porous wick structure or by gravity. This cycle repeats continuously and heat is transferred with a low
amount of fluid.
II- Methods of temperature control in concrete:

[ Theory only]

a. Low-heat materials:

Using low-heat generating concrete mixtures to minimize potential thermal problems (i.e cracking...). For
example, using Class F fly ash and/or slag as a substitute for a portion of the cement

b. Pre-cooling of concrete:

Methods to pre-cool concrete :

- Shading and sprinkling of aggregate piles

- Using chilled mix water (or chipped or shaved ice)

- Liquid nitrogen (LN2) - effective but expensive

c. Post-cooling of concrete:

Post-cooling utilizes cold water flowing through pipes embedded into the concrete. This helps to transfer
heat from the core, and reduce the temperature differential. Pipe spacing is judged by heat transfer
principles and must be spaced in a manner which achieved the desired temperature differential.

d. Insulation:

Insulating formwork limits the heat loss from the surface, the difference in temperature between the
surface and the core is minimized. This method is not expensive but resulting delays from the reduced
cooling rate can be costly

e. Aggregate:

Use low-heat cement such as: Type II cement

- The water-to-cementitious materials ratio of the concrete should be as low as reasonably possible

- The total cementitious materials content should be as low as possible to achieve the required
compressive strength at the required age

- Using low thermal expansion such as granite and limestone

f. Smaller Placements

Placing the concrete of a thick foundation in multiple lifts with smaller thicknesses can be an effective
method to minimize the potential for thermal problems (i.e cracking...)
References:

a. John Gajda and Martha Vangeem (2002) - Controlling Temperatures in Mass Concrete - Concrete
International , Volume: 24 , page 58-62.

b. John Gajda, P.E., and Ed Alsamsam, Ph.D., S.E., P.E. - Engineering Mass Concrete Structures -
Professional Development Series - November 2006

c. John Gajda, Alfred Kaufman, and Francisco Sumodjo - Precooling Mass Concrete

d. ACI Committee 207 - Cooling and Insulating Systems for Mass Concrete - ACI 207.4R-93.

III - 3D Thermo-elasticity:

The constitutive equations for a homogeneous, isotropic body:

zz
yy +

xx ( ]+ T =
1
2 [ xx

]
+ T
1+ kk
1
xx=
E

zz
xx +

yy ( ] + T =
1
2 [ yy

]
+ T
1+ kk
1
yy =
E

yy
xx +

zz ( ] + T =
1
2 [ zz

] + T
1+ kk
1
zz =
E

Or in notation form:

ij =
1
2[ ij

]
+ T
1+ kk

where:

i, j, k =1,2,3
 : coefficient of linear thermal expansion

kk = xx + yy + zz

T =T ( x , y , z ; t ) T (x , y , z ; 0) : temperature change from reference temperature.

In 1999, a type of conductive concrete filled with steel fiber was proposed in (Yehia et al., 2000), and the
deicing performance of this concrete in bridges was investigated. Although this technique can deice a
certain amount of ice on the bridge, it has not been widely used for deicing/snow melting to date because
of issues such as high resistivity, low electro-thermal efficiency and steel fiber corrosion. A conductive
concrete filled with carbonfiber was also proposed, with the goal of utilizing the Joule heating effect to
melt snow (Houet al., 2002). Despite a great improvement in the electro-thermal efficiency, this material
was still not widely used in deicing/snow melting because of low thermal efficiency, high resistance and
applied voltage. Fortunately, a new deicing method based on a carbon nanofiber heating element was
developed by Chang et al. (2009). The feasibility of this deicing method was verified, the thermal conduc-
tivity of this system was still relatively low, and the effect of the heat flux density, wind speed, the
surrounding temperature and the thick-ness of the ice layer on the deicing performance of this method
were not investigated (Chang et al., 2009).

During the past decade,Yehia and Tuan (1998)conducted a systematic study on bridge deck and pavement
deicing by using conductive concrete overlay. In their study, conductive concrete was made with steel
shaving and steel fibers

Afterwards, another new method of deicing with carbon fiber heating wire (CFHW) buried inside con-
crete slab was proposed by Zhao et al. (2010)

Obviously, the key factor that determines the applicability of electro-thermal-based deicing approach is
the electro-thermal efficiency

In such pavement heat-ing systems, a heated fluid is circulated through a series of pipe circuits, usually
laid in a serpentine configuration, just below surface.
A number of models of snow melting on hydronically heated pavements have been previously developed.
However, they are either too simple to accurately predict transient and two-dimensional snow melting
process or can not quantify the snow conditions or degree of cover and may be very computationally
demanding.

Researchers have conducted extensive studies on optimizing snowmelting performance with the
development of model for hydronically heated pavements. Chapman developed the first steady-state
model of hydronic snow melting systems[7] and analytically showed that energy output should be based
on the frequency distribution of the heat requirements[8]. The ASHRAE HAVC Applications Handbook
1959 adopted Chapman's analysis and listed the first design alternative for hydronic snow melting
systems[9]. The steady-state algorithm was improved by Schnurr[9], Ramsey[10],Williams[11], and
Kilkis [12]. The improved algorithm differs from Chapman's algorithm mainly in terms of dimension of
themodel and the complexity of the surface conditions. Schnurr and Rogers [12] developed a two-
dimensional steady-state model of the hydronic-heated slab and revealed the variation of surface
temperature resulting from the discrete layout of hydronic piping.Williams[11] studied surface heat loss
during snowstorms and concluded that more heating energy is required to maintain a snow-free surface
after a snow event than during snow event. Kilkis[13] proposed a design algorithm that requires only air
temperature, wind speed, and maximum recorded daily snowfall in order to calculate the heat
requirement. The ASH-RAE Project 926 modified the equations used in calculating each heatflux term at
the pavement surface to update the guidelines published in1959[14]. The updated snowmelting loads are
listed in the ASHRAE HAVC Applications Handbook 2003[10].