"Pater urbis": Augustus as City Father of Rome

Author(s): Diane Favro

Source: Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, Vol. 51, No. 1 (Mar., 1992), pp. 61-
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 Pater urbis: Augustus as
City Father of Rome

DIANE FAVRO University of California, Los Angeles

Romein the mid-first centuryB.C. projected an unattractive image. historianshave focusedon the physicalenhancementof Rome
The urbaninfrastructure had long beenmismanaged. Evenpublic underAugustus:the marvelousnew marbletemples,the great
temples showedtheeffects of neglect.Focusingon immediate solutions mausoleum,the extensivepublic facilities.Yet, as Suetonius
solvablein a singletermin office,Republican could
magistrates not notes, the emperorwas also concernedwith the maintenance
dealeffectivelywithproblems of urban care.
Rather thanenforcing andfunctionalityof the urbanenvironmentand,aboveall, with
extantregulations, thestatereliedinefficiently on privateeffortsand Rome'simage. During his long tenure(27 B.C.-A.D. 14), Au-
civilsuitsto maintainandprotectthebuiltenvironment. As a result, gustusconscientiouslyimprovedadministrativeprovisionsfor
legalrestrictionsonlymarginally curbed poorconstruction andspecu- the careof the city's physicalform.2
lation.At theendof the millennium, Augustus assumed the roleof Rome in the mid-firstcenturyB.c. was unattractiveand un-
paterpatriae. As benevolentfather, he exerted
control over the Roman safe.Rivalpoliticalpartiesopenlybattledin the streets.Thieves
at
people every level. a
Using skillful combination of carrot and stick, accostedinnocent pedestrians.Temples and public structures
he intervened in all aspectsof the urbanenvironment, buildingand crumbledfrom neglect. Fires and floods repeatedlydamaged
repairingstructuresandreshaping legalandadministrative provisions large sectionsof the city. Unmaintainedstreetswere all but
for urban care. For maximum he
efficiency, redefined existingoffices impassable.Tiles fromderelictbuildingsthreatenedto crashon
andestablished a clearhierarchy Exploitingtheoffice
of responsibility. unsuspectingpassers-by.The airof the city was filledwith the
of curator,he madeappointments for lengthytermsandcreated per- dust andnoise of collapsingbuildings.3An unsafeenvironment
manentbureaucratic staffs.He involvedeveryclassin thecareof the engenderedunrest.Equallyimportantfor Augustus,unmain-
capitalandmadesurethatall officeholders owedtheirallegiance tohim tainedpublicbuildingssignaledinefficiencyandpovertyof both
His
personally. efforts coalescedin 7 B.c. with the establishment of resourcesandspirit.In the 20s B.c., Horacewarned,"Youwill
fourteennewadministrative regions.Seenin totality,Augustus's seem- pay, Romans,through no fault of yours for the sins of your
inglyad hocprovisions forfirefighting,waterdistribution, building ancestors,until you have restoredthe templesand crumbling
maintenance, andurbansafetyreflect a consistent
policyofsocialcontrol. houses of the gods."9
His effortsto createa functional,attractive,andenduringurbanen- Augustusforgedan imperialstatefrom the Republicanfed-
vironment werebothpaternalandcalculated. erationof cities. Rome was his capital,yet it did not displaya
marblestatementon his deathbedandthus meantit as a metaphorfor
THE ANCIENT ROMANS MARVELED at theconcern the strengthof his empire.(All translations
arefromthe LoebClassical
Augustus
Library.)
(63 B.C.-A.D. 14) lavishedon the city of Rome. In the second 2. Julius Caesaradoptedhis grandnephew,GaiusOctavius,in his
centuryA.D.,the historianSuetoniussuccinctlydescribedthe will, readin 44 B.c. ThereafterOctaviusassumedthe nameGaiusJulius
improvementsmadeby the firstemperorover a centuryearlier: CaesarOctavianusand spentthe next thirteenyearsavengingthe as-
"Sincethe city was not adornedas the dignity of the empire sassinationof his adoptivefather.The senateawardedhim the honorific
title Augustusas one of the many concessionsmadein the settlement
demanded,and was exposedto flood and fire, he so beautified of 27 B.C.; SuetoniusAugustus7. He also assumedthe respectful,un-
it that he couldjustly boastthat he had found it built of brick threateningdescriptorPrinceps, looselydefinedas firstcitizen;Resgestae
and left it built in marble.He made it safe too for the future, 13, 30, 32; see P. A. BruntandJ. M. Moore,ResgestaediviAugusti:The
Achievements of theDivineAugustus,London,1967, 49, 55, 79-80, 84-
so faras humanforesightcouldprovidefor this."'Architectural 85. Forthe historyof the AugustanAge, see D. Keinast,AugustPrinzeps
undMonarch, Darmstadt,1982.
This essayis an expandedversionof a paperpresentedat the Annual 3. On the unattractiveappearance and dangersof Rome in the Re-
Meetingof the Societyof Architectural Historiansin Montrealin 1989. public,see Z. Yavetz, "The Living Conditionsof the UrbanPlebsin
I thankFikretYegiil,William L. MacDonald,RonaldJ. Mellor,Berge RepublicanRome,"Latomus, XVII, 1958, 500-517;J. Carcopino,Daily
Aran,and especiallyPeterHollidayfor theirvaluedcomments. Lifein AncientRome,ed. with bibliographyandnotesby H. T. Rowell,
1. SuetoniusAugustus 28. Significantly,Suetoniusplacedthispassage translatedfrom the Frenchby E. O. Lorimer,New Haven, 1940;U.
at the end of the book detailingAugustus'sconcernto providethe best E. Paoli, Vitaromana: Laviequotidienne
dansla Romeantique, Paris,1955.
possiblegovernment.Accordingto the historianDio Cassius(56.30), 4. HoraceOdes3.6. See also Ovid Fasti2.58-64; andSuetoniusAu-
who wrote in the secondcenturyA.D., Augustusmade the brick-to- gustus30.2.
JSAH LI:61-84. MARCH 1992 61

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62 JSAH, LI:1, MARCH 1992
dignity appropriatefor its imperial stature.Even in the Republic
the unprestigious image of the city on the Tiber had prompted
calls for relocation to another site.5 Augustus as proclaimed
restorer of the Republic could not abandon the locus of Re-
publican power. Rather, he began to rework the city. Laboring
on several fronts, he transformed Rome into a city able to com-
pete visually as well as politically with the great metropolitan
cities of the East.6Both urban appearanceand endurance were
of paramount importance. All components had to project a pos-
itive image, not only at the time of creation, but also for eternity.
Dealing with a large and complex urban environment, Au-
gustus proceeded slowly and in piecemeal fashion. Municipal
improvements appeared ad hoc. The first emperor did not, as
is common today, establish a five- or ten-year municipal plan
with incremental goals for urban improvement. Rather, he ad-
dressed problems in response to specific crises. While fighting
for power in the 40s and 30s, he vowed to construct numerous
buildings in Rome, and most were realized in the following
two decades.7In contrast, most of his administrativeprovisions
for urban care occurred late in his reign, after his position was
secure and the majority of his projects were complete. At the
turn of the millennium, the Princeps moved to secure the con-
tinuation of his urban transformations at the same time as he
provided for the continuation of his imperial government and
dynasty. In the years of jealous and bloody infighting following
the death of Caesar in 44 B.c., the fractious nobility would not
have allowed a single individual to impose such comprehensive
and long term arrangements. Only after the people had been
seduced by the pleasures of peace could Augustus overtly don
the mantle of urban reformer.
Historiography
Several studies have looked at the history of provisions for
urban care in Rome. In an article published in 1903, Moritz
5. For example,afterthe fire of 390 B.C., the Romansconsidered
relocatingto Veii;Livy5.53;cf. 40.5. Overthreecenturieslater,Caesar's
detractorsspreadrumorsthat the Dictatorintendedto move to Troy
or Alexandria;SuetoniusCaesar79.
6. In the late Republic,Cicero(De legeagraria2.32.86-33.90) iden-
tifiedthreecitiesin the worldthatcouldsupportthe dignityandname
of an imperialcity: Carthage,Corinth,and Capua.
7. Octavianusvowedtemplesin the traditionof viritriumphales even
beforehe celebratedhis tripletriumphin 29 B.C.This paperdealswith
the care of Rome'soverallurbanenvironmentratherthan with new
construction.On Augustanbuildingsin Rome,seeP. Zanker,ThePower
of Imagesin theAge of Augustus,trans.A. Shapiro,Ann Arbor,1988,
139-156; M. Hofter, ed., KaiserAugustusunddie verlorene Republik,
Berlin, 1988, part2; P. Gros,Aureatempla: sur l'architecture
Recherches
religieusedeRomea l'poqued'Auguste, Rome 1976; idem,Architecture et
sociitia Romeet en Italiecentro-m&idionaleaux deuxderniers sidclesde la
Republique, Brussels,1978;F. S. Shipley,"Chronologyof the Building
Operationsin Rome from the Death of Caesarto the Death of Au-
gustus,"Memoirs of theAmericanAcademy in Rome,IX, 1931, 7-60; and
idem,Agrippa's Building in
Activities Rome (WashingtonUniversityStud-
ies, Languageand Literature, 4), Washington,D.C., 1933.
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Voigt meticulouslydocumentedbuildinglawsfromthroughout
the entireRomanperiod.He targetedthreemainconcernsad-
dressedby municipallegislation:fire prevention,preservation
of the existingbuilt fabric,and the promotionof restoration.8
Donald Strong'sarticleof 1968 exploresthe administration of
public building in Rome during the late Republic and early
Empire,emphasizingthe provisionsfornew construction.9 Oth-
er authorshaveexaminedthe city'swatersystem,its fire-fight-
ing and police squads,and the responsibilitiesfor urbancare
assignedto variousofficials.1o While valuablefor specificinfor-
mation,these studiesprovideonly a limited understandingof
Rome'smunicipaladministration in the late firstcenturyB.c.;
they are either too focused topicallyor too broadchronologi-
cally. By centeringon select issuesrelatingto urbanupkeep,
these works presentonly a partialpictureof the complicated
administrativesystem necessaryfor municipalcare. Simulta-
neously,they examinemunicipaladministrationand building
laws in the context of broadpoliticalperiods,such as the Re-
publicor Empire.As a result,the individualreasonsfor insti-
tutionalchangesare seen neitherwithin a specificmomentin
the life of the city nor as part of an individualgovernment's
overall program.Conversely,sectionson the city embedded
within historiesof particularepochs explore changesto mu-
nicipaladministration in relationto largerstateimperatives; thus
they do not addresseffectively how such municipal alterations
transformedthe physicalform and experienceof the city."
In 1932, Leon Homo acknowledgedthis lacunain a short
articlespecificallydealingwith the administrativechangesin
Rome duringthe AugustanAge.12 He succinctlyrevealedthe
political context for municipalimprovementsunder the first
emperor.Using a topical approach,Homo exploredadminis-
trativeresponsesto water distributionand fire preventionin
relationto changingpoliticalpriorities.Missingfrom this ex-
amination,however,wasa consideration of boththe city'sphys-
ical formandthe specificmotivationsfor changesin provisions
8. M. Voigt, "Die r6mischenBaugesetze,"Sachsische Akademiedes
LV, 1903, 175-
Leipzig(Philosophisch-Historische-Klasse),
Wissenschaften
198. I was unableto obtainthe dissertation by DavidFrederickGrose,
"The Administration of the City of Romeunderthe Republic,"Ph.D.
diss.,HarvardUniversity,1975.
9. D. Strong,"TheAdministration of PublicBuildingin Romedur-
ing the LateRepublicandEarlyEmpire,"TheInstitute Studies
ofClassical
Bulletin,1968, XV, 97-109.
10. C. Herschel,The TwoBookson the Water-Supply of theCity of
Romeof SextusJuliusFrontinus, Boston, 1899;D. Sabbatucci, "L'edilith
Memorie
e sacerdozio," estoriche
dellaClassediScienzemorali dell'Accademia
deiLincei,1954, ser. 8, VI, no. 3, 302-320; E. Echols,"The Roman
Journal,LIII, 1958, 377-385; and W. Nippel,
City Police," Classical
"Policing Rome," JournalofRomanStudies,LXXIV, 1984, 20-29.
11. Forexample,H. T. Rowellexpertlydiscussesthepoliticalcontext
of AugustanRomebut does not presentan enlivenedpictureof urban
formor experience;Romein theAugustan Age,Norman,Okla., 1962.
12. Homo, "Augusteet la creationdes grandsservicesmunicipaux
a Rome,"Melanges G. Glotz,Paris,1932, 439-451.
 FAVRO: AUGUSTUS AS CITY FATHER 63

for urbancare.Twenty yearslater,in his masterfuland com- dealtspecificallywith the builtenvironment.TableVI restricted
prehensivebookon Rome,Homo dealtwith all aspectsof urban the transferralof buildingmaterialsfrom one structureto an-
care,though in the muchbroadercontextof the entireimperial other.'6Table VII recountedthe duty of citizensto build and
period.13Here againsurfacethe problemsof topicalfocus and repairpublicstreetsandestablishedpunishmentsfor thosewho
chronologicallimits. Further,more recent evidenceand new failedto meettheirresponsibilities.The sametabledecreedthat
interpretationsmustbe incorporated to providea completepic- all structuresbe surroundedby an unencumberedborder21/2
ture of Augustanurbanadministration in Rome. Roman feet wide.17 This ambitusensuredthat all sides of a
Like all greatcities, ancientRome was extremelycomplex. buildingwould receive light and air and also servedas a fire
Althougha fully synopticcoverageof all the municipalservices break.
in such a vast metropoliswould be unwieldy,it is possibleto Over the centuriesRome becamemore and more crowded.
examinethe Augustanlaws and changesin municipaladmin- In the firstcenturyB.c., peoplethrongedto the capitalseeking
istrationrelatingto the city'sphysicalform.Contemporary texts dolesandrefugefromthe battlesin the countryside.As density
and inscriptionsdocumentimprovementsfor urbancare.Sub- increased,so did the value of urbanproperty.Real estatespec-
sequentimperialprovisionsprovidevaluableinformationon the ulationranrampantin Rome. Shrewdspeculatorsreplacedres-
formof Augustansolutions.Ancientliterarydescriptionsof the idences of one or two storieswith inexpensive,multistoried
city revealthe impactof legal and administrativechangeson structures(insulae)with shops on the groundfloor and rental
the physicalform.Drawingon thesesources,this studyexplores apartmentsabove.Hoping for a substantialand fast returnon
how andwhy the firstemperorcaredfor his capitalcity. their investments,they built quickly and cheaply.18Even the
oratorCicero(106-43 B.c.) wasa slumlandlordandspeculator.
Pre-Augustan for urbancare
provisions In lettershe openlydiscussedrentsfromurbanproperties.Writ-
From the earliestdays of occupation,citizens in Rome as- ing to his friendAtticus,Cicero describedone structureas in
sumedcommunalresponsibilityfor maintenanceof theirshared such bad condition that even the mice had fled; he blithely
environment.As the city grew in size and complexity,private concluded,"However,... I have adopteda plan of rebuilding
careat timesprovedinsufficient.In suchinstancesthe assemblies which will makemy loss a profit."19 Enterprisinglandowners
or magistratesimposedregulationsor relieduponcivil decisions soldscarcebuildingmaterials fromexistingstructuresandhoarded
to ensurepropermaintenanceof publicspaces.In addition,elect- unoccupiedland to raisepropertyvaluesand rents.They also
ed magistratesand appointedofficeholdersgraduallyassumed left propertyvacantin orderto avoidcertainresponsibilities
and
or were assignedresponsibilityfor specificmaintenancetasks. taxesspecificallytied to buildings.For example,an assessment
in 43 B.c. was levied on leasedhouses and roof tiles, not on
Republicanlegislation
Legislationregardingthe urbanenvironmentevolvedout of
customs.The Romansexpectedall propertyownersto do their Coleman-Norton,and F. C. Bourne,AncientRomanStatutes,Austin,
part to maintainsuch sharedpublic areasas roadsand fora. Tex., 1961, 9-18. For a long time underthe Republic,the Romans
madeno distinctionbetweenjudicialandconstitutional law.Magistrates
Gradually,this expectationgainedthe force of law. As legal
instigatedlaws (leges)asjuridicalactions.Lawsratifiedby popularvote
cases againstshirkersproliferated,laws were promulgatedto in the Assemblywereknownas legesrogatae; thoseissuedby a magistrate
promoteequity in judicial decisions.During the Republican but withoutpopularratificationwere knownas legesdatae.In practice,
however, the distinctionbetween the two types was often blurred.
period,each independentcity developedits own frameworkof
Ciceroandotherscalledfor the creationof a handbookof currentlaw,
civil regulationsbasedon individualcircumstancesandindivid- though one neverappeared;Cicero
Leg.1.14; Suetoniuslulius44; and
ual legal cases. Frequently,however, cities adopteddecisions M. W. Frederiksen, "TheRepublican MunicipalLaws:Errors andDrafts,"
made in Rome. As a large metropolis,the city on the Tiber Journalof RomanStudies,LV, 1965, 189, 196. Fora fullerdiscussionof
Romanlaws and legislation,see Crook,LawandLife,18-35.
provideda testing groundfor urbansolutions;as the govern- 16. TableVI.8, C. G. Bruns,FontesiurisRomaniantiqui,Tiibingen,
mental centerof the Republicanconfederacy,Rome likewise 1909-1912, 15. Lawsrestrictingthe transferral of buildingmaterials
servedas a legitimizingmodel.'4 originallyappliedto ruralstructuresbut likewise came to deal with
urbanbuildings;B. W. Frier,Landlords and Tenantsin Imperial
Among the earliestwrittenlaws from the Romanworld are Princeton,1980, 157-159.
Rome,
the XII Tables,from the fifth centuryB.c.15Severalprovisions 17. Festus,s.v. Ambitus.A Romanfoot measuredapproximately 296
millimeters.
13. Idem,Romeimpiriale et I'urbanisme
dansl'antiquitiParis,1951. A 18. Speculationon urbanlandin Rome was risky,but it could reap
similarcoverageis providedin the earlierworkby T. Mommsen, large profits;GelliusNoctesAtticae15.1; Frier,Landlords
Ro:- and Tenants,
misches 3 vols., 3d ed., Leipzig,1887-1888, I-II.
Staatsrecht, 21-26, 31, 35; andP. Garnsey,"UrbanPropertyInvestment," in Studies
14. J. A. Crook,LawandLifeof Rome,90 B.C.-A.D. 212, Ithaca, in RomanProperty, ed. M. I. Finley,Cambridge,1976, 123-132.
N.Y., 1967, 260-264. 19. CiceroAdAtticus14.9.The locationof thesepropertiesmayhave
15. Accordingto Romantradition,the XII Tableswerebasedon the beenoutsideRome,but in anycaseCicero'sstatementreflectscontem-
Athenianlaws of Solon; GaiusDigesta10.1.13;A. C. Johnson,P. R. porarysentiments.On urbanrents,see CiceroAd Atticus15.17, 16.1.

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64 JSAH, LI:1, MARCH 1992

landper se.20Manipulationof the realestatemarketpromoted the people criticizedMarcusEmiliusPorcinafor buildinghis

unrestamongthe lower-classcity dwellers.Equallyimportant, villa too high.25A few decadeslater,P. RutiliusRufus(consul
vacantlots and derelictbuildingscreatedan unattractiveurban 105 B.C.) wrote a treatisecriticizingthe excessiveheight of
image. buildings(SuetoniusAugustus89). Magistratesinstigatedanti-
Two municipalchartersof the lateRepublic reveal the Roman sumptuarylaws, but enforcementwas difficult.In some cases
concernfor preservingurbanappearances. The Lex municipii the statedid not prohibitextravagantprivateconstructionbut
Tarentinidatesfrom between 89 and 45 B.c.; the Lex coloniae neverthelessimposedfinesafterthe fact.When buildinga large
Genetivae Iuliae(s. Ursonensis)was draftedbyJuliusCaesarand shrine,Ciceroclaimedignoranceof the law:"It neveroccurred
enactedby MarcusAntoniusafter the Dictator'sdeath in 44 to me ... that if anythingis spenton a monumentin excessof
B.C.21 Both containedrestrictions proscribingthe demolitionof whateverit is thatthe law allows,one hasto give an equalsum
urbanbuildings.Specifically,they prohibitedthe unroofing(de- to the publicfunds."26Other laws limitedthe size and cost of
tegio),pulling down (demolitio), or destroying(disturbato) of privatetombs;these were enforcedgenerallyafterthe fact.
buildings and requiredany demolished works to be rebuiltor
replacedwith structuresof equalor greatervalue.22The use of Republicancivil law
similarwordingin the two chartersandin latersourcesindicates More frequently,the Romansrelied on judicialratherthan
the existenceof a commonearliermodel, most likely one en- constitutionallaw to dealwith problemsregardingprivateprop-
forcedin Rome.Antidemolitionrestrictionspromoteda healthy erty.Everyresidentin Romehadcertainrights,includingfree-
urbanimageby preventingthe destructionof existingstructures. dom from damageby a neighbor'sbuildingand accessto suf-
Inaddition,theylimitedspeculation,preservedresidentialspace, ficientlight for everydaybusiness.The municipalgovernment,
and maintaineda basefor taxation.While such concernswere however,did not activelyprotectsuch entitlements.Wronged
for
naturallyimportant strugglingmunicipalities, they were citizens had to bring casesto court on their own initiative.27
especially relevant in the dense city of Rome. Writing in the mid-firstcenturyB.C., the oratorCiceronoted
in
As landin Romeincreased value,open urban space became that the court of the Centumviri settleddisputesregardingthe
a rarecommodity.In the firstcenturyB.c., Rome'sbuildings rights of "party-walls, ancient lights, [and]rain-dripfrom the
abuttedone anotheror sharedcommonwalls, makingdemo- eaves,"28Similarly,courtsdecidedcasesbroughtagainstarchi-
lition even moreof a problem.No attemptwas madeto enforce tectsor buildersby clientsunsatisfiedwith completedprojects.29
laws calling for a bufferaroundeach structure.The ambitus The courtsalso adjudicatedcasesregardingpersonalagree-
became an anachronisticreminderof a less crowded past.23 ments.Frequentlypropertyownersin Romeenteredintoprivate
Without a protectivespacebetween structures,air could not contractsor servitudeswith their neighbors.For example,a
circulate,direct light becamea valued commodity,and fires buildingowner might purchasethe right to block the light to
readilyprogressedfrom one buildingto another.In addition, his neighbor'sbuildingor to extenda balconyover his neigh-
urbancrowdingled to clashesbetweenneighbors. bor'sproperty.Partiesbroughtthe case to court if the agree-
While magistratesin Rome and other Republicancities did mentswere violated.While availableto all citizens,such legal
not wish the dilapidationof the urbanenvironment,neitherdid recoursewas constrainedby the reality of social hierarchies.
they wish individualsto set themselvesapartthroughextrava-
gantconstruction.Fromthe secondcenturyB.c.onward,contact 25. Val.Max.8.1. Similarly,whenthe consulValeriuserecteda large
with the HellenisticEastmadeluxuryfashionable.24 In 132 B.c., structureatopone of Rome'shills, the peoplecompelledhim to move
to lower,less impregnableground;he responded,"Arethe foundations
of my honorso insecurethatyoujudge me moreby where I live than
20. Dio Cassius46.31. Ownersof undevelopedlandmayhavebeen by what I am?"Livy2.8.
exempt from certaincivic duties,such as the maintenanceof public 26. CiceroAd Atticus12.35. In general,attemptsto regulateluxu-
roadways and sewers adjoiningtheir Lex
properties; lulia municipalis 20- rious constructionprovedfutile.
22, 32-34; andE. G. Hardy,Six RomanLaws,Oxford,1911, 150-151. 27. For right-to-lightprovisionsand solarservitudes,see D. Favro,
21. Bruns,Fontes,120, 122; Hardy,Six RomanLaws,102-109; and "RomanSolarLegislation,"PassiveSolarJournal,II, no. 2, 1983, 90-
Voigt, "Baugesetze,"195-197. 98; andFrier,Landlords andTenants,101-104.
22. Urso no. 75; Tarentono. 4. Accordingto the CaesareanLex 28. Parietum,luminum, CiceroDe Oratore
stillicidiorum; 1.173. Vitru-
lulia municipalis
(59-62), public contractswere let for demolition in vius (1.1.10), writing in the 20s B.c., urged to
architects be familiar
Rome;Hardy,Six RomanLaws,153. with legal provisions(iura)regardingpartywalls, overhangs,drains,
23. By the late Republic,an ambituswas more often definedas a and light; his use of wordingvery similarto that of Cicero infersa
passageway than as an architectural Varro
buffer; Ling. 5.22. The term common writtensource.lus is a generictermencompassingthe whole
to E.
alsorefers politicalcampaigning; Deniaux, "De a
l'ambitol'ambitus: body of laws, while lex refersto a specificenactment.The Centumviri
Leslieux de la propagandeet da la corruption&lectorale a la fin de la was a bench of 105 judges that heardcomplex and notoriouscases.
Rome, 1987, 279-304.
Republique,"in L'urbs,espaceurbainet histoire, Plaintiffsbroughtsimplecasesbeforea singlejudge (iudex).
24. On luxuryin Rome, see PlutarchMarcellus 21; and Pliny Nat. 29. Regardingtenants'optionswhen rentinga poorlyconstructed
Hist.34.34, 36.4-8. building,see Frier,Landlords andTenants,98-105.

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Only in rare instances would a person of lower status bring a
case against someone higher on the social ladder. As a result,
poor residents injured by the collapse of an urban multistory
building had little real recourse against wealthy, patricianprop-
erty owners.30 Furthermore, potential plaintiffs often did not
realize they had a claim or lacked ready access to legal help, as
well as the funds to pursue a case.31
Custom and private rights formed the basis for urban care in
Rome of the Republic; laws merely provided reinforcement.
This arrangementhad two drawbacks.First, laws addressedspe-
cific occurrences rather than underlying problems. They were
reactive rather than prescriptive. For example, legislation pro-
scribing the demolition of urban buildings did not curb the
speculation that caused it. Second, the state assumed a passive
role, relying on individuals to take action regarding problems
in the urbanenvironment. Litigation protected individual rights
but did not encourage comprehensive planning for urban care.
In addition, the legal system favored upper-classproperty own-
ers at the expense of poor urban renters.
Republican magistrates
The hieratic social and political organization of the Roman
government had a significant impact on the physical form of
the capital city. During the Republic, a patrician went through
a clear succession of magistracies, each rising in power and
stature, in his career as a public official. The senatorial cursus
honorumusually progressed in ascending order: vigintivirate,
quaestorship, plebeian tribunate (optional), aedileship (option-
al), praetorship,consulship, censorship.32The ladder system en-
couraged officeholders to focus on the next higher position
rather than on the task at hand. Predictably, Rome's form suf-
fered as a result.
Three offices held primary responsibility for urban care: ae-
dileship, censorship, and curatorship (Fig. 1). Of these, the
censorship was the only position required in the cursushonorum;
it was also the highest in status, being held after the consulship.
In contrast, the aedileship was inessential in the cursushonorum,
but it usually followed the praetorship. The curatorshipwas an
extraordinary position, appointed, not elected, and completely
outside the magisterial ladder. Like other offices, these were
considered public duties; no salaries were provided.
In a system based on custom, not codification, responsibilities
for urban care were indistinct and variable. Officials could not
30. Wronged tenantsoften had difficultymerely identifyingthe
ownersof urbanrealestate.Urbanpropertiesfrequentlychangedhands
and were in many instancesheld in nameby a middleman;Garnsey,
"UrbanProperty,"123-132; andFrier,Landlords andTenants,34-37.
31. Frier,LandlordsandTenants, 48-50, listseight additionalreasons
why manyneverbroughtclaimsto court.
32. The militarytribunatewas held usuallybeforethe quaestorship,
yet it was so often omittedthat eitherthe positionwas nonobligatory
in the cursushonorum, or exemptionswere allowed.
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FAVRO: AUGUSTUS AS CITY FATHER 65
always ascertain their specific duties. Different magistracies of-
ten laid claim to the same responsibilities. Physicaljurisdictions
also were unclear; large segments of the city were not covered
by a magistracy. Since there was no bureaucraticsupport, con-
scientious magistrates had to provide their own staffs. Records
for individual magistracies were scarce, especially as previous
officeholders considered them private property. Furthermore,
the short terms of office held by magistrates(frequently a single
year) did not allow them to develop any expertise in highly
specialized fields, such as urbanhydraulics.33By the first century
B.c., the small number of magistratescould not provide efficient
coverage for the expansive city of Rome. Overburdened with
responsibilities, they selected tasks with the greatest personal
and political return. Private donors and magistrates alike ne-
glected less prestigious, but necessary, urban projects such as
sewers, road repair, and overall urban care. Fortunately for the
magistrates, accountability was rare.
Maintenance of Rome's physical plant was a daunting un-
dertaking. Upon assuming office, the higher magistrates(quaes-
tors, aediles, praetors, censors) posted edicts in the Forum Ro-
manum. These public declarationsexplained the officials'planned
program and steps for implementation. Though legally binding
only for the tenure of the individual magistrate, succeeding
officeholders customarily confirmed previous edicts. Typically
these regulations defined specific aspects of primitive law, at
times even modifying it when necessary.As a result, magistrates'
edicts came to have a significant impact on the development of
laws dealing with urban administration and maintenance.34
From the fourth century B.c. onward, the two censors ad-
ministered public areas.Elected every five years, custom dictated
they should resign at the end of eighteen months."3 Censors
possessed neither supreme power (imperium)nor an escort of
attendant lictors.36They did, however, wield great influence as
overseers of the official list of citizens and of public morals.
They assigned leases and let contracts for large, new public
projects and for the maintenance of existing works. Cicero listed
the types of projects undertaken by censors: temples, streets,
33. On the dutiesandexpertiseof Romanmagistrates, see L. Homo,
RomanPoliticalInstitutions,London,1929, 344-361.
34. Crook,LawandLife,22-25, 30-33.
35. If a projectwasnotcompletedwithintheallottedeighteenmonths,
the senatecould prolongthe censors'tenure,though such extensions
were not automatic;Livy45.15.9; andMommsen,Staatsrecht, II, 351.
36. Lictorswere executive attendantswho precededmagistrates,
clearingthe way and calling upon passers-byto offer salutations.In
certaininstancestheyputthe magistrate's decisionsintoeffect.Imperium
was the supremepower associatedwith high magisterialand military
posts.In the Republic,a personvestedwith imperium couldtakeauspices,
representthe state,exercisecivil andcriminaljurisdiction,givepunish-
ments,issueedicts,commandarmedforces,andsummonthe senateand
assemblies.He was alwaysaccompaniedby lictors;Bruntand Moore,
Resgestae,12-14, 83-85.
 66 JSAH, LI:1, MARCH 1992

* Republic (3
o Republic,reduced capacity le
* AugustanAge
0 Age,reducedcapacity
Augustan 4

RESPONSIBLE
POSITIONS FORURBAN
CARE
Emperor[triumphator] * * * O
CURSUSHONORUM

censor

consul 30 0
praetor 1 0
aedile[optional] a o o 0 M M a a0 0

POSITIONSOUTSIDETHE CURSUS HONORUM

triumphator
0 0 0
curator,individual
curatorialboard 00
0 0
praefectus annonae

praefectus praetorio

praefectus urbi

praefectus vigilum

vigiles
vicomagistri 0O 0 0
0

Fig. 1. Distributionof municipaldutiesduringthe Republicandthe AugustanAge.

and waterworks.37 The censorsalso gaineddistinctionby ini-
tiatingpublicprojects.At firstthey oversawbuildingsin mu-
nicipalitiesthroughoutItaly;afterthe SocialWar in the early
firstcenturyB.c., they confinedtheir effortsto Rome.38
For the most part the censorsselectedprojectsof general
benefit.Fromamongthe numerouspublicworksin Romeneed-
ing repairs,each pairof censorsusuallychose one or two. In-
cludedin the recordedlist of censorialmaintenanceprojectsare
roadpavements,aqueductrepairs,and drainagesystems.Once
they inspectedand approvedstateworks, censorsbecameper-
sonallyresponsiblefor the projects'viabilityfor a specificpe-
37. CiceroDe Leg.3.3.7. The censorsoften appointedspecialcom-
muristurribusque
missioners,as, for example,the quinqueviri or
reficiendis
tresviri
reficiendis Livy 25.7, 42.6.
aedibus;
38. D. Kienast,CatoderZensor,seinePersonlichkeit undseineZeit,
Heidelberg,1954.
riod.39The senatevoted the censorsfundsat the beginningof
each term but generallydid not interferein the executionof
the chosen work.40An exceptionoccurredin 155 B.c.: when
the censorsundertookconstructionof a theateron the Palatine
slopes,the senateorderedits demolition,claimingthe project
was not of publicutility.41
39. When acknowledgingthe satisfactory completionof a building
contract,censorsused stock phrases:opusprobare; in acceptum referre;
Cicero Verres2.1.149; and Livy4.22, 45.15.
40. Regardingsenatorialapprovalof funding, see Livy 39.44.5,
40.51.2, 44.16.9. Censorsbegan their term by letting maintenance
contractsby publicauctionin the ForumRomanum;Strong,"Admin-
istration,"97-99; and M. Pape, GriechischeKunstwerkeauf Kriegsbeute
undihreoffentiliche in Rome,Hamburg,1975, 70-71. Diffi-
Ausstellung
cultiesoften aroseregardingcompetitivebidding;cf. Livy 39.44. Vi-
truvius(10.pr.1)enviouslyciteda law in Ephesuspunishingcost over-
runson publicprojects;cf. Digesta19.2.60.4.
41. AppianBellacivilia1.28.125;andVelleius1.15.3.

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 FAVRO:AUGUSTUSAS CITY FATHER 67
In the earlyRepublictwo censorswereadequateforthe main- ..
ii![ ... .....".
"":.:..
,, , , . \x',,
. ......... ..
tenanceof publicworks.Drawn from the patricianclass,most ....................
.....
censorshad some experienceas patronsfor privatebuildings.
......
.......
................::
......
'....... ::..
Few, however, had the expertiseto initiate and execute suc- ... .. ... .. ..
........!
.............
.,""..........

cessfullyurbanprojectsfor a giantmetropolis.As the city grew ...... . .. .. . .. . . . . .. . . . .

.... ............
-....... .. ...
. .
.........
.,-... . . .. .
..
and publicconstructionsincreasedin numberand complexity, ...
i

the censorialsystemprovedinefficient.Two officialsservinga

.. . " " " .
mere eighteen monthsquinquenniallycould undertakeonly a :.... .. . .. ...........
......... . ... , ..........
"?

... ... . . .

few projectsof limitedduration.Without an expert,permanent .

staff,the censorshiplackedanycontinuityfromone officeholder i ............ ...........
to the next. Furthermore,the positiondeclinedin statureafter
. .................
, ...... ...)::::::::::::::::
.......
/[
.... ::. S
...............
: ..
.... :::: :::::
Sullareducedits authorityin the earlyfirstcenturyB.c. Between ............. ....
.........
] <
:..'./..

74 and 22 B.c., Rome had no censors. i... ...........

Other magistratesand privatecitizens attemptedto fill the
breach.During the long periodswhen the censorshipwas va-
cant, differentannualmagistratesundertookpublicworks. For
example,the consulsandpraetorsattimesassumedresponsibility
for publicconstructioneven thoughbuildingwas not an official
part of their assignedduties.42Furthermore,the Republican
senateitself directlyauthorizedconstruction.43Periodicallythis
augustbody or its the
representatives, consuls,chargedan in-
dividualto assumethe responsibility,or cura,for a specificproj-
ect, usuallyone requiringcontinuous,long-termsupervision.
Curatores were men with previousmagisterialexperiencewho
were not currentlyin office;they held the curauntil completing
the particulartask.When the Via Salarianeededwork in the
secondcenturyB.c., the consul L. (Caecili)Metellus,with ap-
provalof the senate,placedthe work undercurators,who kept
their postsuntil they finishedthe repairs.44
In certaininstances
the senatealso madespecialcuratorialappointmentsto allow a
praetoror consulto continuework initiatedby a censor.45
Curatorsservedthe city well, but in a limitedcapacity.Ap-
pointed, not elected, they had responsibilityfor a single un-
dertakingwithout distractionsfrom other charges;they saw
projectsthroughto completionregardlessof the time involved.
On the negativeside, the focus on single projectsminimized
opportunitiesfor comprehensiveplanningregardingthe city's
42. Strong,"Administration,"99. The consulsandpraetorsnaturally
becameinvolvedwith the careof the greathighwaysleadingout from
Rome as partof theirresponsibilityfor militarycampaigns;P. Ertman,
"Curatoresviarum:A Studyof the Superintendents of Highwaysin An-
cient Rome,"Ph.D. diss., StateUniversityof New York at Buffalo,
1976, 6.
43. For example,the senateappointedspecialcommissionersto let
contracts(duumviri aedilocandae)
and to approveand dedicateprojects
(duumviri aedidedicandae);
Strong,"Administration," 99.
44. CIL6.3824.The curatorsusuallyservedin pairs,
thoughnumbers
could varyaccordingto the projectsize. For a full list of
Republican
curatoresviarum,see Ertman,"Curatores,"14-15, cf. 25. Properly,viae
arehighwaysoutsidethe city proper,yet they formedan essential
part
of the city andshouldbe consideredin relationto urbancare.On the
differenttypesand namesof urbanpassageways,see Homo, Romeim-
361-372.
pWriale,
45. For examples,see Strong,"Administration," 99.
............
. .. .. .. ..
....
. .
............
.
.................
Fig. 2. The fourSeveranregionsof Republican
Rome(drawing by
RodicaReif).Key:I, Suburana;
II,Esquilina;
III,Collina;
IV, Palatina.
infrastructure.Since the position involved considerablework
and did not entitle the holder to magisterialtrappings,few
patriciansfound the curatorshipdesirable.
The Romansdelegatedthe generalcareof the entirecity to
a single magisterialoffice. The all-encompassingcuraurbisof
Rome-including careforexistingpublicbuildings,streets,traf-
fic, aqueducts,and fountains(Verres2.5.14)-fell to the ae-
dileship.The very name indicatesthis responsibility.Derived
from aedes,the word for building,an aedileis one who looks
afterurbanstructures.46The aedileshipwasthe firstofficein the
cursushonorum to conferfull senatorialdignityon the holder-
an acknowledgmentof the importanceof this responsibility.
Each year the elected aediles along with other magistrates
were assignedby lot to one of the Republicancity'sfourregions
(Fig. 2). Accordingto traditionthe earlyking ServiusTullius
(578-535 B.c.) createdthe Regiones
by unitingthe tribes
quattuor
settledin fourregions:Suburana, Esquilina,Collina,andPalati-
na.47He set asidethe sacredCapitolineHill as communalter-
ritoryoutsidethe regionaldivisions.Surroundingand defining
46. Aedesalso meansa temple;the earliestaedileswere responsible
primarilyfor the careof religiousstructures;VarroLing.5.81. Initially
two plebeianaedilesservedas subordinateofficialsof the plebs.In 367
B.c., two patricianaedilescuruleswere added.At firstthe two orders
alternatedyearly,thoughby the Empirethe aedileshipwasomittedby
patricians.The numberof aedilesvariedfrom four to six. In general,
the dutiesof the aedilesparalleledthoseof Greekmunicipalmagistrates,
the astynomoi andagronomoi; R. Martin,L'urbanisme
dansla Graceantique,
Paris,1956, 58-60.
47. VarroLing.5.45; Livy 1.43; andDionys. 4.14.

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68 JSAH, LI:1, MARCH 1992

the entiresettlementwas a sacredritualborder,the pomerium. the aedilessupplementedthe state allotmentswith their own
Since the Aventine on the city's southernside was occupied funds.
laterthanthe otherhills, it stoodoutsideboth thepomerium and The few aedilescould not efficientlymaintainRome'sinfra-
the Regionesquattuor.Rome's expansivesuburbslikewise lay structurewhile simultaneously overseeingtheirotherduties.As
beyondthe four regions.Thus, while the aedileshad circum- a resultthey routinelyselectedthe tasksmost likely to benefit
scribedareasof responsibility,their assignedregionaljurisdic- their personalcareers.Maintenanceof pragmaticpublicworks
tions excludedlargesegmentsof the occupiedcity. garneredlittlerenownandwasthusoftenignored.On the other
The aedileswere also held responsiblefor fighting fires in hand,the givingof gamesbroughtpopularityandstature.Many
the highly combustiblecity. Their actionswere reactiverather individualsgladlyheld the aedileshipsolely so that they could
than preventive.After the terribleGallic fire of 390 B.c., the gain popularapprovalwith lavish games.Often, aedilesdissi-
governmentat its own expense providednonflammableclay patedtheir personalfortuneson extravagantpublicentertain-
tilesto replacewoodenroofshingles.The strengthof individual ments,hoping to "buy"supportfor higher,morelucrativeof-
rights, however,preventedthe passageof laws requiringfire- fices.52Those who failed to do so sufferedthe consequences.
proof buildingmaterials.48 The aedilesreliedupon the subor- When Ciceropresentedmodestgamesas aedilein 69 B.C., he
dinatetresviri to fightfiresatnight.Thisappointedboard
nocturni lost the praetorshipthe following year.53
of three men led a corpsof stateslavesstationedby the gates Below the senatorialmagistratesof the cursushonorum, an-
and walls.49 other level of officesalso dealtwith urbancare.Appointed minor
As Rome grew ever larger,the aedilescurulesalong with the civil magistrates,like the tresvirinocturni,were often selected
tresvirinocturniand their small slaveforce could no longer ef- fromamongthe equestrians, plebeians,andeven freedmen.For
ficiently fight urban fires. Assignedby lot to the four tribal example, at the neighborhood level, wardsupervisors(vicoma-
regions, each aedile had to a
protect big, and often unfamiliar, gistri) maintained local shrines, drains,and fountainsand pro-
municipalarea;yet large sections of the city lay beyond their vided generalpolice supervision.54 RepublicanRome had more
specifiedjurisdictions.Ambitiousmen exploitedthe situation. than two hundredlocal wards, vici.55For the position of
or
Since the fighting of fires brought popularacclaim,various vicomagister, residentsin each ward nominatedfour candidates
Republicanmagistrates chased fires.Cicero records that consuls generally from amongresidentfreedmen(liberti). The senatorial
rushedto assistat all majorfires(InPisonem26). Other Repub- magistrates(chosenby lot to overseeeach of the four regions)
licanofficialsbecameinvolvedwhen politicallyexpedient.5o Pri- confirmedthe recommendedcandidatesor selectedothers.The
vatecitizensalsofoundfire-fightingto be profitable.In the mid- wardsupervisorsservedfor one year.Livingin theirrespective
firstcenturyB.C. the triumvirCrassusacquiredvastholdingsin wards,the vicomagistri were well situatedto dealwith everyday
Rome by buying burningbuildingsand then using his own problems and to screen concernsfor the overseeingmagistrates.
trainedslavesto dousethe flames(PlutarchVit. Crass.2.5). By the late firstcenturyB.c., Rome'spopulationwasreaching
In additionto the careof the city, the aedilessimultaneously one million.Republicanadministrative provisionsforurbancare
heldothercurae,suchasresponsibility for markets(curaannonae) had developedwhen the city was smallerand less ambitious;
and public games(curaludorum). To raiserevenuesthe aediles they were insufficientfor a large metropoliswhose influence
imposedfineson urbanresidentsguilty of variousmisdemean- spreadthroughoutthe Mediterranean. The limitednumberof
and
ors-among them,witchcraft,fraud, throwing stones from magistrates could not handle the large-scalephysicalproblems
a window.5"The aedilesof 192 B.C. fundedan entire portico of the city.With a focuson personalinterest,the politicalsystem
from fines (Livy 35.10.12). To meet the high costs of games, providedlittle incentiveto undertakelow-profilemaintenance
projects.Officeswere consideredprimarilyas vehiclesfor self-
promotion.In addition,the systemwas disjointed.Eachoffice
48. Livy5.55;andDiodorus14.116.Only afterthe greatfireofA.D.
64 did the emperorNero impose restrictionson buildingmaterials; 52. Dio Cassius48.53. Membersof the senatorialclassdemonstrated
TacitusAnnals15.38-43. friendshipby providingfinancialsupportwhen a friendbecameaedile;
49. A similarboardmayhavehadchargeduringthe daylighthours, SenecaDe beneficiis 21.2.
thoughthe evidenceis sketchy;Livy9.46; andP. K. BaillieReynolds, 53. CiceroDe off 2.17.59; andProMurena19.40.
The Vigilesof Imperial Rome,London,1926, 18-19. On the triumviri 54. CIL 6.445, 975. The post of ward supervisorsufferedmany
nocturni,see PaulusDigesta1.15.1. vicissitudes;it wasabolishedin 64 B.c.butrevivedin 58 B.c.by Clodius;
50. Amongthose involvedin fire fightingwere the tribunesof the AsconiusPis. 7C; and Cicero Pis. 4.9. Regardingthe pre-Augustan
Livy 39.14. The quinquiviribelongedto the seeA. Degrassi,Inscriptiones reipublicae,
Latinaeliberae 1957,
plebs and the quinquiviri; vicomagistri,
minorcivil magistrateswith no specialtitles assignedin
vigintisexviri, 701-704. In the imperialperiod,vicomagistrimayhavebeenselectedby
etc.) to specifictasks.Thesepositionswereusu-
tresviri, the urbanprefectas the directrepresentative of the emperor;Homo,
groups(duoviri,
ally occupiedby men outsidethe senatorialclass. Romeimpiriale,130-132, 171.
51. Witchcraft:PlinyNat. Hist. 18.42;fraud:Livy 10.23;throwing 55. Pliny (Nat.Hist.3.66) liststhe numberof viciin the Flavianage
stones:Gellius4.14. as 265; in the fourthcenturythe Regionaries numbered424.

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operated more or less independently; no attempt was made to
provide continuity or direction for large urbanprojects. In sum,
the Republican administrative system impeded successful mu-
nicipal care.
Private efforts
As a result of weaknesses in the administrative system, many
significant urbanundertakings, from new construction to main-
tenance, fell to private enterprise. In ancient Greek cities, urban
patronage was a social responsibility; in Rome it was more a
point of personal honor.56 To enhance their status, wealthy
citizens constructed notable structures for public as well as pri-
vate use. Naturally, the government attempted to maintain con-
trol over public works. Donors had to have senatorial approval
to erect public monuments. There were also restrictions ac-
cording to building type: for example, only a senior magistrate
with imperiumcould vow, contract, and dedicate a state temple.57
The Republican senate oversaw triumphal projects. Only the
senate could acknowledge a general's right to celebrate a tri-
umph and spend booty.58 Triumphators commemorated their
victories with grand monuments. Serving a propitiary function,
such works were initially religious in principle. By the first
century B.c., however, the emphasis had changed. Triumphal
projects became largely propagandistic undertakings aimed to
celebrate the achievements of the individual general. As a result,
triumphal works were highly competitive. Many clustered in
the southwestern Campus Martius of Rome as each new victor
sought to demonstrate his superiority over his predecessors
through ever larger and grander projects.59
A patron's responsibility did not end with the completion of
a public structure. Since the appearance of a building was so
closely tied to the donor, maintenance became of premier im-
portance. The condition of a project reflected not only upon
the donors, but also upon their entire families. Failure to main-
tain a structure was an overt admission of family bankruptcy.
Thus, descendants assumed that they had both the right and the
moral responsibility to preserve public works erected by their
ancestors. This was true whether the project was initiated by a
triumphator or by a magistrate. For example, in 179 B.c., the
censors M. Fulvius Nobilior Nasica and M. Aemilius Lepidus
56. Privatebenevolencein antiquity,describedby the neologism
euergetism,is exploredin detailby P. Veyne,Lepainet le cirque,Paris,
1976.
57. Livy2.8, 4.29; andJ. E. Stambaugh,"The Functionsof Roman
Temples,"AufstiegundNiedergang derromischen Welt:Geschichte und
KulturRomsim Spiegelderneueren Forschung,II, Principat,XVI, pt. 1,
BerlinandNew York, 1978, 584.
58. I. Shatzman,"The Roman General'sAuthorityover Booty,"
Historia,XXI, 1972, 177-205. On triumphs,see Pape,Kriegsbeute.
59. Gros,Architecture,
37-39; F. Coarelli,"PublicBuildingin Rome
betweenthe SecondPunicWar and Sulla,"Papersof theBritishSchool
at Rome,XLV, 1977, 1-23; Strong,"Administration," 99-100; andJ.
E. Stambaugh,TheAncientRomanCity,Baltimore,1988, 24-47.
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FAVRO: AUGUSTUS AS CITY FATHER 69
usedpublicmoneyforthe constructionof abasilicain the Forum
Romanum;the projectsubsequentlybecameknown as the Ba-
silica Aemilia after the more prominentof the two censors.
Over the following two centuries,membersof the gensAemilii
honoredtheir distinguishedforefatherby fundingrestorations,
in 78, 55, 34, and 14 B.c. and in A.D.22.60
When a familywas unableto maintaina structure,its dete-
riorationwas frequentlyrapid.Neither magistratesnor unre-
latedprivatedonorswere willing to expendfundsto glorifya
buildingbearingthe familynameof another.Respondingto a
highlypersonalagenda,the privatepatronageandcareforpublic
worksdid not workforthe commonbenefitof the overallurban
fabric.
LateRepublican
context
for change
Rome'sextanturbanfabricdeclinedsignificantlyduringthe
disruptionsof the lateRepublic.Socialwars,externaluprisings,
internecineconflicts,and proscriptionsdrew attentionand re-
sourcesawayfrom municipalcare.Fundswent into war chests
ratherthan to urbanupkeep.61Fearingfor their lives, many
families abandonedtheir communal duties. Descendantslet
structuresby their ancestorsdecay.Individualsavoidedmagis-
traciesthat were costlyor inessentialin the cursushonorum, and
those in officeneglectedtheir duties.62During periodsof tur-
moil, the opportunitiesfor using gamesto currypopularfavor
declined;as a result,the aedileshipstood vacant(Dio Cassius
49.16).
The growingpowerof certainindividualschangedthe con-
ceptionanddevelopmentof Rome.Wieldingpervasivecontrol
over the city, the dictatorsSullaand Caesarsaw themselvesin
a differentrelationshipto Rome. They became independent
benefactors,dispensinglargesseat will. In the 80s B.c., Sullaas
dictatorinitiateda grandbuildingprogramin Rome;the office
of censorbecamesuperfluousand remainedempty.63
Caesarlikewisedisplayedhis independence.When appointed
curatorto repairthe Via Appiaearly in his career,he boasted
that he used his own funds.64 Though awarded a triumph in 60
60. S. B. Platnerand T. Ashby, Topographical Dictionaryof Ancient
Rome,Oxford,1929, 72-76. Sincethe basilicawas a publicwork,each
descendanthadto get permissionfrom the senateto undertakea res-
toration;Mommsen,Staatsrecht, III, 1136;II, 1044-1046. Forexample,
Tacitus(Annals3.72) recordsthat MarcusAemiliusLepidusaskedthe
senatefor permissionto decoratethe BasilicaAemilia.
61. Contemporary disruptionsfosteredcorruption,as seen with the
unscrupulousactivitiesof GaiusVerres,who embezzledfundsfor the
repairof the Templeof Castorand Pollux in Rome when praetorin
74 B.c.; CiceroVerres 2.1.
62. Mommsen,Staatsrecht, II, 452. A parallelsituationexistedin the
late empire;BryanWard-Perkins, FromClassical Antiquityto theMiddle
Ages,Oxford, 1984, 14-19.
63. Strong, "Administration," 101; and E. B. Van Deman, "The
SullanForum,"Journal of RomanStudies,XII, 1922, 1-31.
64. Caesarwascurator of the ViaAppiasometimebetweenhis quaes-
torship(69 B.c.) and his aedileship(65 B.c.); PlutarchCaesar5.
70 JSAH, LI:1, MARCH1992

scale and grandeur. To cite one example, Caesar'splans for the

voting hall called for a portico of marble one mile in length.67
The over-scaled urban interventions of Julius Caesar reveal
his over-scaled self-image. Wielding more power than others
before him, the Dictator began to envision the entire capital,
not just a few select structures,as a monument to his authority.
After his victory at Munda in 45 B.c., the senate hailed Caesar
as the parenspatriae(parent of the country).68This familial re-
lationship further reenforced his proprietary interaction with
the great city. Though malicious rumors circulated that he in-
tended to move the capital to the East, Caesar instead made
On:*i
extensive plans to reshape the city's physical form and admin-
istration.69
Thinking about the city as a whole, Caesarplanned compre-
hensive interventions. Perhapsthe most intrusive was a proposal
~ ~Republican Wall / to realign the Tiber. A new course was to be carved for the
o river, one that would be straighter and less likely to flood (Fig.
11I
3). Technically, this move would have augmented Rome, for
land once on the less-desirable right bank would have become
part of the city proper. In 45 B.c., Cicero wrote to his friend
Atticus about the planned changes: "What a shame! A coun-
j: Campus Martius
I
tryman of yours is enlarging the city. .. . [Caesar]thinks it too
small though it is big enough to hold him!"70 The Dictator
II
/ repeatedly demonstrated a proprietary attitude toward Rome's
urban fabric. The following year he began a new theater near
the Tiber; ignoring religious sanctions and popular opinion, he
cavalierly destroyed existing shrines on the site.7'
Once he began to consider the entire city as his personal
charge, Caesarnaturally turned to urban care and functionality.
To provide better coverage, he increased the number of aediles
to six. In addition he turned to the law. At the time of his
assassination in 44 B.c., he was drafting a series of laws based
on existing provisions for municipal administration.MarcusAn-
tonius gathered the incomplete laws and motioned for their
collective passage without revision soon after Caesar's death.
of
alteration The laws, known collectively as the Lex lulia municipalis,dealt
Fig.3. Planof RomeshowingJuliusCaesar's
proposed
theTiber(drawingby RodicaReif). with the management and welfare of Rome and were adopted

and anotherin 49 B.c., for politicalreasonsCaesarcele- 67. CiceroAdAtticus4.16.14. ThoughCaesarbeganthe votinghall,

B.c.
bratedneither.65In lieuof buildinga religiousstructureastrium-
phator,Caesarchose publicworks more in line with the pa-
tronageof censors,includingrestorationof the BasilicaAemilia,
constructionof the new BasilicaIulia,anextensionto the Forum
Romanum,and a permanentstructurefor the voting of the
assembly.66For maximumimpact,all were of unprecedented
65. In 60 B.c., Caesarforsookhis triumphin orderto be a candidate
for the consulate.By 49 B.c., the Civil War precludedany triumphal
celebration.Caesarcelebratedhis firstofficialtriumphin 46 B.c., hon-
oringfourvictories;SuetoniusCaesar37.
66. Strong,"Administration," 102. Nominally,AemiliusPaulusre-
builtthe BasilicaAemilia,thoughall Romeknew he did so with funds
providedby Caesar;SuetoniusCaesar29.
or Saepta,it was completedby Agrippaanddedicatedin 26 B.c.
68. AppianBella Civilia2.106.442, 144.602; Dio Cassius44.4.4;
StefanWeinstock,DivusJulius,Oxford, 1971, 200-205; and Strong,
"Administration," 101-102.
69. SuetoniusCaesar79; and Homo, Romeimperiale, 3-73.
70. CiceroAd Atticus13.35; see also 13.20, 33a. The countryman
asnamesake)
(alsotranslated mentionedin thispassagerefersto the urban
planner broughtto Rome by JuliusCaesar.
71. In additionto destroyingthe existingstructures,Caesarburned
the templestatuesand appropriated templefunds;Dio Cassius43.49.
Littleis knownof the shrinesdestroyed.Includedamongthemwasthe
templeof Pietas,dedicatedby M. AciliusGlabrioin 181 B.c. Sincethe
Aciliifamilyremainedprominentin the firstcenturyB.c., the structure
wasprobablywell maintained.Caesarwasassassinated beforethe theater
couldbe built;his heir,Augustus,realizedthe projectwith the Theater
of Marcellus,dedicatedin 13 B.c.

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by other Italian cities. Due to their unpolished state, the pro-
visions are hard to interpret. Apparently they were an ordering
and simplification of contemporary municipal regulations, with
adjustments to incorporate provisions from magisterial edicts.72
Two sections directly considered the urbanfabric. The first (nos.
20-55) carefully reinforced the responsibility of property own-
ers to repair and maintain public roads and footpaths adjacent
to their land. If streets were not properly maintained, the aediles
were to contract for repairs and bill the property owner.73The
second section (nos. 68-82) regulated the use of public areasby
private individuals in an attempt to prevent unapprovedobstruc-
tions. To ensure comprehensive coverage, the law specifically
extended jurisdiction to the ever-expanding edge of urban con-
struction.74
The best-known provision of the Lex lulia municipalisdeals
with urban traffic in Rome. While other portions of the law
were codifications of existing practices, this section offered a
sweeping reform. In the first century B.c., Rome's streets were
jammed with hundreds of carts bringing in goods for urban
consumers and conveying garbage out of the city. Clogged
circulation promoted conflicts, impeded state processions, and
slowed progress on building projects. Caesar took a dramatic
step: he outlawed wheeled trafficwithin Rome during the day-
light hours.7sAs specific exceptions he cited religious vehicles,
72. Suetonius(Caesar44) documentsthat Caesarplannedto reduce
and reorder "the vast and prolix mass of statutes to include only the
bestandmostessentialin a limitednumberof volumes."The Lexlulia
municipalis must have been an initial step in this direction.It did not
form a uniformcharterfor Rome and Romanmunicipalities;instead,
it was composedof separatemotionsconcerningurbanmanagement.
An incomplete,revisedandlocalizedversionof this law is preservedin
the so-calledTabletof Heraclea.The Lexlulia municipalis clarifiesthe
nature,functions,qualifications,andtitles of officesin Romanmunic-
ipalities,though it makesa cleardistinctionbetweendifferenttypesof
settlements, including coloniae,municipia,praefecturae,
fora, and Rome
itself;M. Cary,"Notes on the Legislationof JuliusCaesar,"
Journalof
RomanStudies,XIX, 1929, 116-119; and Hardy, Six RomanLaws, 136-
168. For an overviewof literatureon this law, see Z. Yavetz,Julius
Caesarand His Public Image,London, 1983, 117-122.
73. According to the Lex lulia municipalis(nos. 50-52), the quat-
tuorviricleaned streets in the city, and the duumviricleaned those within
one mile of the capital; Hardy, Six RomanLaws, 152. C. Nicolet traces
theoriginsof privateresponsibility
forurbanstreetsin "LaTabled'Hera-
clee et les originesdu cadastreromain,"in L'urbs,espaceurbain,1-25.
74. To coverurbanterritoryoutsidethe Republicanregionsandthe
limitsof the pomerium, lawswere madeeffective"to the edge of urban
construction" (ubei continentehabitabitur)or "in the city of Rome and
within one mile of the city" (in urbemRom[am], propiusveu[rbem]
R[omam] p[assus] M); Lex lulia municipalisnos. 20-21, 26-27, 50-51;
Hardy, Six RomanLaws, 150-153; and Voigt, "Baugesetze," 175-180.
Pliny (Nat. Hist. 65-66) used the phrase "to the edge of the roofs" (ad
extrematectorum);E. Frezouls, "Rome ville ouverte: Reflexions sur les
'
problames de l'expansion urbained'Auguste Aurelien," in L'urbs,espace
urbain,372-386.
75. Lex lulia municipalisnos. 56-67. Before the Lex lulia municipalis,
traffic in Rome was restricted by design. For example, the surrounding
porticoandstairsof the Forumlulium madethe centralspaceinacces-
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FAVRO: AUGUSTUS AS CITY FATHER 71
those carrying refuse, and wagons moving building materials
for public projects. Though not directly dealing with urban
form, this law greatly improved Rome's operation and facilitated
public construction projects. Caesarmade great plans for Rome.
His assassination on the Ides of March, 44 B.C., brought the
projects to a temporary halt, but his vision of the city endured.
By the late 40s B.c., the city on the Tiber was undergoing
several simultaneous transformations.As individuals gained un-
precedented political power, they began to see themselves as
synonymous with the state. Rome became their personal charge.
At the same time, the general populace began to think of the
city on different terms. As the Romans forged an empire, Rome
was transformed from one city among a confederation into a
capital. Aware of their position on the world stage, the Romans
as a whole realized the city's appearancewas inappropriatefor
its stature. Many invoked the phrase "as the dignity of the
empire demands" to compel improvements.76Thus, change in
the appearanceand care of Rome's physical fabric resulted from
two related images of the city-as imperial capital and as resi-
dence of the state's most prominent citizens.
Augustanprovisionsfor urbancare
Caesar's heir directly manipulated urban form and adminis-
tration to fulfill these visions of Rome. Gaius Julius Caesar
Octavianus inherited the Dictator's name and ultimately his
power. Honored with the title Augustus in 27 B.C., he pro-
claimed the restoration of the Republic and, at least on the
surface, operated within the traditional Republican system. In
reality, he concentrated power in his own hands and instituted
an imperial political system. With filial devotion, he completed
those Caesareanprojects in Rome already underway and initi-
ated the construction of others still in the planning stages. While
Caesar had limited time to implement urban changes, his heir
stood as Princeps of Rome for over half a century. During this
period he moved to create, not just an imperial capital, but an
Augustan city.
The Princeps addressedthis goal on two fronts. Early in his
career he instituted an expansive building program. Impressive
Augustan buildings of marble appeared throughout Rome. To
ensure the predominance of these works, Augustus restructured
the patronage of urbanbuildings. As the yearspassed, he realized
that his projects lost prestige by placement in a derelict urban
context. He promoted building laws to requiresafe construction.
Later in his career, he reordered the municipal administration
to ensure continued urbanmaintenance. Such provisions overtly
dealt with urban care; covertly they allowed Augustus to gain
control over the urban populace at every level.
sible to wheeled traffic.In other urban spaces, entries were blocked with
bollards.
76. Cicero Verres2.4.68-69; and L. Storoni Mazzolani, The Idea of
the City in Roman Thought,London, 1967, 11, 138-141.
72 JSAH, LI:1, MARCH 1992

the forumstood a statueof the Princepsin quadriga.78 An in-

scriptionon the baserecordedthe title awardedAugustuswhen
the forumwas dedicatedin 2 B.c.:afteryearsof servingthe city
andstate,he wasdesignatedpaterpatriae (fatherof his country).79

Aeneas lie Romulus Patronage

S quadriga
Inscribed I
Pater Patrilae I1
j _3
Fig.4. Planof theForumAugustum withplacement
of sculpture
iden-
tified(drawingby RodicaReifafterP. Zanker).
Change on an urbanscale cannot be institutedovernight.
Followinghis motto,festinalente,Augustusmovedslowly.After
the exampleof Caesar,he was especiallyconcernedwith the
popularperceptionof his role. GraduallyAugustusexpanded
upon the paternalassociationsof Caesarandhimselfassumeda
paternalpositionin relationshipto the city. In a Romanfamily
the eldestmalestoodsupremeas the paterfamilias. He acquired
status,not only throughhis lineageandachievements,but also
throughthe appearance of his house.Authorsof the firstcentury
B.c. clearlyequated conditionof a domuswith the statusof
the
the owner and the familyas a whole. Describingan imposing
domusin Rome, Cicerowrote, "Everybodywent to see it, and
it was thoughtto havegainedvotes for the owner.""77 Contem-
poraries were surprisedat the of
modesty Augustus's own house
on the Palatine(SuetoniusAugustus 72). As "firstamongequals"
(primusinterpares),the Princepsdid not wish to set himself
aparton a personallevel. Instead,he expendedhis wealth and
efforton the city. In effect,he treatedRome as his domus.
A healthy,attractivecapitalcity representeda successfulgov-
ernment,justasa well-maintainedhouserepresented a successful
family.Augustus constructed new complexes,repairedderelict
of and for solid construction.He rein-
parts Rome, provided
forcedthe house metaphorwith specificprojects.The Forum
Augustum,like the atriumof a privatedomus,containeddepic-
tions of honoredancestors(Fig. 4). In one exedrastoodstatues
of illustriousmen fromRome'shistory;in the other,depictions
of Augustus'sown ancestors.The templecontainedstatuesof
his divinerelativesas well as those of the city. In the centerof
77. Cicero De Off. 1.39; cf. Vitruvius6.5.2; and T. P. Wiseman,
"Conspicui dignadeo:The Public Image of Aristocratic
postestectaque
andImperialHousesin the LateRepublicandEarlyEmpire,"in L'urbs,
espaceurbain,393-413.
ShapingRome in his own image,Augustuscarefullyconsid-
eredthe urbaninterventionsby others.When vying for control
in the 30s B.c., the Princepsdid not have the power to direct
architecturalpatronage.Followingtradition,triumphators con-
tinued to celebratetheir successeswith impressivenew build-
ings.80Commemoratingthe deedsof his rivals,these projects
detractedfromthe Augustanmessage.In response,the Princeps
at firstsoughtto redirectpatronage.When thisfailed,he moved
to restrictthe donationof publicmonumentsin Rome.
Augustusshrewdlyattemptedto interestpatronsin restoration
work.Suchan emphasisoffereda potentialdoublebenefit.Ren-
ovationprojectswouldreplacecompetitive,high-profileprivate
constructionby political rivals;and restoredbuildingswould
improvethe city'sderelictappearance. The Princepsurgedother
donors, and especiallytriumphators,to undertakeless-presti-
giousmaintenance projects.To primethepump,he usedmonies
fromhis tripletriumphof 29 B.c. to fundthe restorationof the
ViaFlaminiatwo yearslater.Suetoniustellsus he then"assigned
the restof the highwaysto otherswho hadbeen honoredwith
triumphs,asking them to use their prize-moneyin paving
them."81
By repeatedlyand consciouslyservingas an exemplar,Au-
gustusstrengthenedhis identificationas fatherof his country.
The Romanpaterfamilias stoodas a role modelfor all members
of his family. Similarly,Augustusaspaterpatriaedemonstrated
the traditionsandcorrectbehaviorfor all citizens.He boasted,
"I broughtbackinto use manyexemplarypracticesof our an-
cestorswhich were disappearing in our time, andin manyways
I transmittedexemplarypracticesto posterityfor their imita-
tion" (Resgestae8.5).
To encourageothersto undertakethe restorationof religious
buildings,Augustusmadesurehis own effortswerewell known.
78. P. Zanker,ForumAugustum,Tiibingen, 1968. Paternally,Au-
gustusclaimedhe had not built his forumas largeas desiredso as not
to ejectthe ownersof the neighboringhouses;SuetoniusAugustus56.
79. Augustuswasawardedthe titlepaterpatriaeby unanimousimpulse
of "the senate,equestrianorder,and the whole Romanpeople,"Res
gestae35.1; cf. SuetoniusAugustus58. In additionto the inscriptionin
the ForumAugustum,the title appearedon the porch of Augustus's
houseandin the senatebuilding(CuriaIulia).
80. Laterauthorsmarveledthatthe firstemperorallowedsuchovert
displaysby triumphators, when in fact Augustusat the time did not
havethe powerto preventthem;TacitusAnnals3.72.
81. SuetoniusAugustus30. Gros,AureaTempla,37-38, emphasized
that projectsAugustusdelegatedto otherswere neveras importantas
those he undertookhimself;cf. G. Bodei Giglioni, Lavoripubblicie
occupazione nell'antichita Bologna, 1974, 137-139.
classica,

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In the Res gestaehe proclaimed, "In my seventh consulship [28
B.C.]I restored eighty-two temples of the gods in the city ...
neglecting none that requiredrestorationat that time" (Resgestae
20). Significantly, his efforts focused on high-profile religious
projects.
The renovation of temples affirmedAugustus's piety and met-
aphorically confirmed his restoration of the Republic. Further-
more, costly restoration work demonstrated Augustan solvency
in contrast to the insolvency of the original donor's family, who
had allowed structures to decay. The Princeps naturally ex-
ploited the propagandistic possibilities. When he restored the
Theater of Pompey, Augustus made a show of not placing his
name on the project, an act that emphasized his magnanimity
and devalued the status of Pompey and his family.82
To prevent the political exploitation of temple maintenance,
Augustus personally undertook the responsibility for Rome's
most important religious structuresor directed care to a group.
Dio Cassius records that a law of unspecified date gave senators
the right to take general charge of the temples of Apollo and
Jupiter Capitolinus; in 2 B.c. a similar law gave them respon-
sibility for the care of the new Augustan temple to Mars Ultor
(Dio Cassius 55.10). Since the senators collectively had respon-
sibility by fiat, not choice, they accrued little personal fame.
Given the obvious propaganda value of building, Augustus
had difficulty convincing triumphators to follow his example
and undertakepragmatic maintenance projects. Throughout the
30s and 20s B.c., they continued to erect large, opulent tri-
umphal monuments as enduring personal commemoratives.
These projects certainly improved the appearanceof Rome, but
they detracted from the creation of an Augustan city. By the
teens, Augustus had sufficient power to limit patronage. After
19 B.C., only he or members of his family celebrated triumphs.
As a result, Roman generals no longer had the mandate or the
booty for major works in the capital.83
In addition to restricting public patronage, Augustus dis-
couraged private extravagance. Once more he stood as an ex-
ample. Unlike other powerful men, the Princeps lived in a
comparatively humble house. When Vedius Pollio willed him
a showy residence on the Esquiline, Augustus promptly tore it
down and in its place erected a public structure, the Porticus
Liviae (Dio Cassius 54.23). He encouraged others to build mod-
est and sturdy residences. After Piso erected a house with great
care, Augustus responded, "You make my heart glad by building
82. Resgestae20; andD. R. Stuart,"ImperialMethodsof Inscription
on RestoredBuildings:Augustusand Hadrian,"American Journalof
Archaeology,IX, 1905, 427-440. In contrast,Augustus'ssuccessor,Ti- moted large families, especiallyamong the patricians;Dio Cassius
berius,more overtlyemphasizedthe insolvencyof Pompey'sdescen-
dantswhen he undertookrepairsafterthe fireof A.D.21; TacitusAnnals
3.72.
83. F. W. Shipley,"BuildingOperationsin Rome from the Death
of Caesarto the Death of Augustus,"Memoirs of theAmericanAcademy presentationof Romanbuildingtechniquesis foundin J. P. Adam,La
in Rome,IX, 1931, 46-58.
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FAVRO: AUGUSTUS AS CITY FATHER 73
thus, as if Rome is to be eternal"(PlutarchMoralia208). By
establishinga clearexample,Augustuslimitedoptionsfor pri-
vateaswell aspublicbuildingby otherpatrons.Thus,by default,
he encouragedexpenditureon maintenanceprojectsas the only
acceptableoutlet for publicpatronageby privatecitizens.
Augustanbuildinglaws
The firstemperoralsousedlawsto checkprivateexpenditure.
He enactedantisumptuary laws in severalareas,includingpri-
vate entertainments(Aulus Gellius 2.24.13-14). Regarding
building,he forbadeany privatestructureon public streetsto
rise as high as 70 feet.84To legitimizethis action,the Princeps
readto the senateand people the earlytreatiseby P. Rutilius
Rufus calling for height restrictions.85 The Augustanheight
regulationpreventedovertextravagancein heightsand created
streetfrontageswith privatebuildingsof fairlyuniformheight,
with no one privatestructuredrawingattentionfor its scale.
Height limitationsalso improvedurbansafety.Tall structures
were often unsafe,and their upperfloorsof wood were great
fire hazards.86
Unsafebuildingpracticesbecamea significantproblemin the
AugustanAge. With peace cameprosperityand growth. The
Princepsencouragedthe developmentof Rome, linking the
"greatnessof the city andthe unlimitedcrowdingof citizens."87
Populationexpansioncreateda constantneed for more urban
shelter;unrestrictedtradeensuredan ampleinflux of building
materials.Speculationin urbanpropertiesran rampant.Strabo
(5.3.7) documentedthe situation:"The buildingof houses...
goes on unceasinglyin consequenceof the collapsesand fires
andrepeatedsales..... Now AugustusCaesarconcernedhimself
aboutsuchimpairmentsof the city ... reducingthe heightsof
the new buildingsand forbiddingthat any structureon the
public streetsshould rise as high as seventy feet . . . and his
constructivemeasureswould have failed by now were it not
that the mines andthe timberand the easymeansof transpor-
tationby waterstill hold out."
Propertyownersanxiousto maximizetheirinvestmentsoften
selectedthe most inexpensivematerialsfor construction:wattle
and daub,rubble-fill,pis6, and especiallysun-driedor slightly
firedbrick(lateres).88Mud-brickand wood constructionin par-
84. Strabo5.3.7. The exactformof this regulation(law,edict,proc-
lamation,etc.) is unknown.
85. SuetoniusAugustus89; see also Ovid Fasti5.559-560.
86. Yavetz,"LivingConditions,"511.
87. Vitruvius2.8.17. Augustusincreasedthe dole registerandpro-
54.16.1-2; and SuetoniusAugustus46.
88. Vitruviusoutlinedconstructionmethodsin book 2: wattle and
daub,2.1.3, 2.7.20, cf. 7.3.11; rubble-fill,2.1.4; lateres,2.3, 2.8. Re-
gardingpiseconstruction,see VarroLing.5.48;andRust.1.14.4.A clear
construction
Romaine: Matiriauxet techniques,Paris,1984, chaps.2-8.
74 JSAH, LI:1, MARCH 1992

architecture, he mentions public laws limiting party walls in

,??
li?
~:::~
:? i;
Fig.5. Earlyimperialwallpainting fromBoscoreale showinganurban from
scene.The protruding balconiesmayhaveresultedfromprivateser-
vitudesandgeneral lawsregarding and
eaves,easements, right-to-light and speculative needs without disruptingthe streetscapeor com-
(TheMetropolitan Museum of Art,Rogers Fund,1903;03.14.13).
ticularpresentednumerousproblemsin anurbancontext.While
economicaland easilyworked,mudbrickis easilydamagedby
fires,floods,and even the elements if not carefullyand contin- thus placed less weight on the supporting structure, yet they
uously protectedwith a surfacecovering.89In addition,sun- did not prevent poor construction. Furthermore,property own-
driedbrickis weakin both compressionandtension;to support ers often ignored height limits outright. Laments about poorly
upperfloors,walls must be extremelythick and thus take up
valuableurbanspace.
The Romansconsideredpropertyrights almostsacredand
rarelycondonedgovernmentalinterferencein the privaterealm.
The precariousconditionof buildingsin the capital,however,
madeinterventionnecessary.Secondarysourcesreferto lawsin
effect duringthe AugustanAge regardingpartywalls, drains,
and overhangs,in additionto buildingheights.Unfortunately,
the exactdatesandformatsof theseprovisionsremainunknown.
The architectVitruvius,writingin the 20s B.c., is the primary
sourcefor the regulationon wall thicknesses.In his treatiseon
89. Buildingsof sun-driedbrickcollapsedwhenfireconsumedwood-
en supportsor when the brickswere erodedby floods,as describedin
Dio Cassius'saccountof the inundationin Romeof 54 B.C.;Dio Cassius
39.61.
Rome to a maximum of 11/2Roman feet in width and notes
that "brick walls of a foot and a half... cannot support more
than one story."90The implication is obvious. The law on wall
thickness in effect proscribedthe use of sun-driedbrick for party
walls in multistoried buildings. As an alternative,Vitruvius rec-
ommends that architects use more costly, but stronger, stone
piers and walls of fired brick with rubble-work partitions.91
Despite the obvious issue of safety, Vitruvius clearly gives
another motive for limiting wall width. He states, "Limitations
of building space necessarilyforbid the employment of unbaked
brick walls within the city [of Rome]" (2.8.18). Similarly, he
records that non-party walls were also built 11/2 feet thick in
order to save space (2.8.17). Since other Roman cities did not
have the same problems of density, overcrowding, and specu-
lation as the capital, they did not need such restrictions. In the
first century A.D., Pliny described multistory brick buildings at
Arezzo and Mevania, adding that "Structures of this sort are
not erected in Rome, because an eighteen-inch wall will only
carry a single story, and there is a regulation forbidding any
portion exceeding that thickness; nor does the system used for
party-walls permit of it" (Nat. Hist. 35.173).
Though well intentioned, laws regarding wall thicknesses
and heights were not effective. The height limit applied spe-
cifically to street fagades;it did not prohibit higher constructions
on other parts of the property. Behind the street faCade,away
sight, rich property owners could indulge their personal
peting too much with Augustan public projects.Representations
in wall paintings affirm the existence of setbacks behind the
street line (Fig. 5). In fact, Seneca (Epist. 90.7) describesRome
as filled with "shrewdly contrived dwellings . .. which rise roof
upon roof." Set-back upper floors covered a smaller area and
90. Vitruvius2.8.17. The contextindicatesthatVitruviusconsidered
11/2feet quitethin structurally.
Unfortunately,the originaldateof these
publiclawsis unknown,thoughtheywouldonly havebecomenecessary
in the latefirstcenturyB.C.
91. Vitruvius(2.8.17) describespreferableconstructionas of "pilis
lapideis,structuristestaceis,parietibuscaementitiis";
J. H. Middleton,
TheRemainsof AncientRome,London,1892, 88. AlthoughVitruvius
impliesthatbrickwalls have less worth,in anotherpassagehe praises
brickconstructionandcites severalbuildingsas outstandingexamples.
In particular(2.8.8-9), he notesthatwhile mostwallsdepreciated one-
eightiethof theircosteachyear,anexceptionwasmadeforbrickwalls;
as long asthey remainedplumb,they werevaluedat theiroriginalcost.
The questionremainswhetherhe refershereto firedor unfiredbrick,
as the termswere often appliedinterchangeably; M. E. Blake,Ancient
RomanConstruction in ItalyfromthePrehistoric
PeriodtoAugustus, Wash-
ington,D.C., 1947, 276-280.

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 FAVRO: AUGUSTUS AS CITY FATHER 75

constructedbuildingscontinuedin the first centuryA.D., and general,however,such generosityextendedsolely to those of

laws limiting heights had to be passedover and over.92 politicalconsequence.Augustusonly marginallyaddressedthe
Evenmorediscouraging,someexistingprovisionsto curbthe social problemsbehindderelictionand overcrowding,and the
defamationof Rome'sphysicalfabrichad the oppositeeffect. inequities leading to improperconstructionby unprincipled
Forexample,the antidemolitionlawsin effectin the firstcentury speculators.He did indeed make Rome safer,but only in a
B.C. may actuallyhave encourageddestructionof the urban limited capacity.Wealthy landownersfound the capitalto be
fabric.Accordingto the Augustanjurist Alfenus Varus,the comparativelyfree from civil disruptionsand saferfor urban
principaltenantof a house could sue a proprietorwho razeda investments.Building laws promotedsafety and maximized
structurein orderto builda betterone.93To protectthe building availableurbanspace. They did little, however, to improve
owner,the tenant'sclaimwas substantially smallerif the struc- conditionsforlower-classresidentsin crowded,totteringinsulae.
turein questionwascollapsing.94Cleverpropertyholdersin the
Augustancapitaltook advantageof this distinction.Strabocon- Augustanadministrative offices
fesses, "Indeedthe sales [of houses in Rome] are intentional Augustusmost directlyaddressedthe careof Rome'surban
collapses,as it were, sincethe purchasers
keeptearingdown the fabricby reorganizingadministrative Bit by bit
responsibilities.
houses andbuildingnew ones, one afteranother,to suit their he dividedand clarifiedurbanduties, introducednew offices,
wishes."'95 anddefinedgeographicjurisdictions.As with all aspectsof gov-
During the AugustanAge, crowdedand poorlybuilt struc- ernment,Augustushad a clear goal: to exert comprehensive
tures often collapsed,and the cave-in of one structurecould controlwhile preservingthe appearance of Republicanstructure.
leadto the collapseof an entireblock.In the earlyfirstcentury To this end he experimentedwith varioussolutions,always
A.D., Senecathe Youngerlookedat Rome'sshakingtenements carefulto emphasizehis role as paterpatriae.Augustusbegan
andmoaned,"Believeme, thatwas a happyage,beforethe days with the traditionalmagistraciesconcernedwith urbancare.
of architects,beforethe daysof builders!... You of the present When improvementsin theseprovedinsufficient,he instituted
day shudderat every soundyour housesmake, and as you sit more sweeping changes,but alwaysmaintaininga superficial
among your frescoes the slightest creakmakes you shrink in connectionwith the veneratedRepublicanframework.
terror."''96 Poor residents in speculative urbanstructures suffered The censorshipand aedileshiphad both sufferedduringthe
greatly,buttheircrieswent largelyunheeded.Wealthyproperty disruptionsof the mid-firstcenturyB.c. Duringthe two decades
ownersgave little thoughtto the occupantsmadehomelessby following Caesar'sdeath,the censorshipoften remainedvacant
the collapse or demolition of poorly constructedapartment (SuetoniusAugustus37). Triumphators,not censors,built large
buildings. publicmonumentsin the 30s and 20s B.c. As Augustusand his
Augustus concerned himself with urban housingonly when family claimedthe right to erect importantstructuresas their
politicallyexpedient.Traditionperpetuatedthe storythat after personalprerogative,the censors'associationwith publicbuild-
a large fire he paid for new housing from public funds as a ing all but ceased.In 22 B.c., the people offeredAugustusthe
demonstrationof his paternalbenevolence(Orosius7.2.1). In dictatorshipand the censorshipfor life. He declinedboth. In-
stead,the Princepsappointedtwo privatecitizensto hold the
censorship,though, Dio Cassiusnotes, "Augustusperformed
92. Buildingcollapsesarewell documentedby Martial,Juvenal,and
other authorsof the firstcenturyA.D.; see also Carcopino,Daily Life, manyof the dutiesbelongingto theiroffice."97 Apparently,these
28-29, 36-37. LawsregardingbuildingheightsappearedunderNero did not involve construction; no new projectscan be assigned
(Tacitus Annals 15.43), Trajan(AureliusVictorEpitomede Caesaribus to 22 a
B.c., year dominated by pestilenceandfamine.Though
13.13), andMarcusAureliusandL. Verus(Cod.lust. 8.10.12);see also sourcesdisagree,Augustushimselfapparentlyheld the censor-
the Digesta39.1.1.17;andHomo, Romeimpiriale, 550-553.
93. Digesta19.2.30 pr.AlfenusVarus,consulsuffectusin 39 B.C., pub- shipin 19 and 11 B.c.; againno majornew workscanbe linked
lishedthe responsesof thejuristServiusSulpiciusRufus.DavidDaube, with eitheryear.
in a conversationin 1978, confirmedthatthis passagepreservedin the The aedileshipalso underwentsignificantchanges.Despite
Digestais in the style of AlfenusVaruswritingin the AugustanAge. the clear enunciationof their dutiesregardingurbanmainte-
94. If a propertyownerdemolisheda buildingforprofit,the principal
tenantcouldsueforboth a refundof the rentandanyanticipatedprofit nance,outlinedin the CaesareanLex lulia municipalis of c. 44
from subletting.If the owner demolishedthe buildingbecauseit was B.C., the aediles continued to neglect pragmatic urban projects
collapsing,however,the tenantcouldsuefor rentonly;Digesta19.2.30 in favorof giving games.In 43 B.c., therewere repeatedcalls
pr.
95. Strabo5.3.7. Horace (Epist.1.1.99-100) confirmsthis image, for roadmaintenance,particularlyof the highwaysleadinginto
writing that "the whole systemof life is out of joint, pulling down,
buildingup, andchangingsquareto round."
96. Senecathe YoungerEpist.90.8, 43. Vitruvius(2.8.7) likewise 97. Dio Cassius54.2. Strong,"Administration," 103-104. The cen-
pointedwith disgustto the emphasisplacedon speedin buildingin the sors of 22 B.C.were the last two privatecitizensoutsidethe imperial
AugustanAge. family to hold the officetogether.

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76 JSAH, LI:1, MARCH 1992

the capital,a responsibilityassignedto the aediles'subordinate He furtherdemonstrated his unstintingsupportforthe Princeps

duumvirs.Apparentlythe calls were in vain. The following
year,the rulingtriumvirs-MarcusAntonius,Lepidus,andOc-
tavianus[Augustus]-assessedthe richestsenatorsforimmediate
renovationof the viae(Dio Cassius47.17).
In 33 B.c., Octavianustook a differenttack regardingthe
aedileship.An examplewas needed. He occupiedtoo high a
positionon the cursushonorum to assumethe post himself.In-
stead, he turned to his closestconfidant, Agrippa.98A successful
admiral, Marcus Agrippa also stood farabovethe relativelylow
aedileship.He had alreadybeen urbanpraetorin 40 B.c., gov-
ernorof Gaul in the early30s B.C., and consul in 37 B.C.99 A
staunchsupporter,Agrippabecameaedilefor the sole purpose
of promotingOctavianus.In the late 30s B.c., Caesar'sheir
needed popularsupportto competewith his rival, Antonius.
Agrippapresentedgamesfor fifty-ninedaysand lavishedgifts
on the capital'sresidents,includingrationsof olive oil andsalt,
free barberservices,and a year'sbathingprivileges.100 Shortly
afterhis aedileship,popularfavorturnedin favorof Octavianus.
Beyondgamesand donatives,the aedileAgrippaprovideda
stellarexampleforall otherRomans.Unlikeaedilesof the recent
past,he conscientiouslyattendedto the curaurbis.Dio Cassius
(49.43) wrote, "Agrippaagreedto be madeaedile,andwithout
taking anything from the public treasuryrepairedall public
buildingsandallstreets,cleanedoutthe sewersandsailedthrough
them undergroundto the Tiber." He also reworkedRome's
aqueductsystem,constructingthe AquaIuliaandrepairingall
otherchannels.101 In additionto repairingthe urbaninfrastruc-
ture,Agrippaadornedpublicfountainswith threehundredstat-
uesof bronzeandmarble,fourhundredmarblepillars,andother
ornaments andspokeoutforthe nationalization of allartworks.102
In effect,Agrippatreatedthe aedileshiplike a triumphalduty.
98. Dio Cassius(49.16) recordsthat Maecenas,anotherclose con-
fidantof Octavianus,was also given responsibilitiesfor mattersin the of this office.As curatorfor life, Agrippahad the opportunity
city, though exactlywhat these were remainsuncertain.
99. J.-M. Roddaz,MarcusAgrippa,Rome, 1984, 145-156.
100. Pliny Nat. Hist. 36.121; and Dio Cassius49.43. Agrippabuilt positiveexample,Augustusintroducedthreesignificantchanges
a huge bathingcomplexin the CampusMartius,which he bequeathed in Republicancuratorships.First, he made the positionsper-
to the Romanpeoplein 12 B.C.
101. Agrippadevelopedaqueductsspecificallyto serveareasof Au-
gustandevelopment;H. B. Evans,"Agrippa'sWater Plan,"American
Journalof Archaeology,LXXXVI, 1982, 401-411. Ancientsourcesdis-
agree about the projectsassociatedwith Dio
Agrippa'saedileship. Cas-
sius (49.43) did not mentionextensivework on aqueductsin 33 B.C.
Instead(48.32), he linkedworkon the AquaIuliawith Agrippa'sprae-
torshipin 40 B.C.;cf. FrontinusAq. 1.9.
102. The nationalization of artcouldbe considereda logicalpartof
the curaurbis;Pliny Nat. Hist. 35.26. The importanceof all artwork,
andespeciallystatuary,in the imageof a city cannotbe underestimated.
Vitruvius(7.5) criticizedan entirecity for failingto coordinatestatutes
with buildingfunctions.On the sculpturalprogramsof Augustus,see
Zanker,Images;B. A. Kellum,"SculpturalProgramsand Propaganda
in AugustanRome:The Templeof Apolloon the Palatine,"in TheAge
ofAugustus(Archaeologica Transatlantica, 5), ed. R. Winkes,Louvain-
la-Neuve, 1985, 169-176.
by decliningto celebratethe triumphshe earned.103 Insteadof
expendingbooty on a grand personalmonumentin Rome,
Agrippausedhis warrichesto fundpragmaticsewersandrepair
aqueducts.A few yearslater,in 27 B.C.,Augustuscalledupon
triumphators to spendtheirbootyon similarlow-profileprojects
concernedwith urbanmaintenance.
AgrippaandAugustusremainedclose throughouttheirlives.
In 21 B.c. AgrippamarriedAugustus'sdaughter,a unionwhich
producedtwo sons later adoptedby the Princeps.The close
relationshipbetweenAgrippaand Octavianuswas not readily
duplicated.The Princepshad few other confidantshe could
convinceto takethe low positionof aedileor to forgopersonal
advancement.When Agrippa'sterm as aedileended,Augustus
had him named"perpetualcurator"of Rome'swaterworks,a
position he held until his death in 12 B.c..'04 With this cura,
Agrippaassumedpersonalcontrol over duties regardingthe
urbanwater system that previouslyhad been assignedto the
aediles.
Duringthe followingyears,the Princepscontinuedto transfer
dutiesfrom the aedileshipto other offices.For example,in 22
B.C., he gaveresponsibilityfor publicgamesto the ten praetors,
and he limitedthe cost and size of presentations.'05 In 20 B.c.,
Augustus himself assumed responsibilityfor the care of roads,
the
the curaviarum.In 7 B.c., he assigned aediles'fire-fighting
As a resultof these transferrals,
duties to the vicomagistri. the
aedileshipsteadily declinedin importance. In A.D. 5, once again
no one stoodfor the office,andlower officialswere compelled
to drawlots to decidewho would serveas aedilefor the year
(Dio Cassius55.24).
While the aediles'role in urbancaredecreased,that of the
curatorsincreased.In the Republic,curatorsadministeredan
entire project or system and saw it through to completion.
Agrippa'stenureascurator aquarum demonstrated the advantages
to develop expertisein his assignedfield. Respondingto this
manent, thereby ensuring ongoing maintenanceof Rome's
physicalplant.Second,he appointedcuratorseitherfor life or
for lengthy terms, thus allowing them to become expertsin
their areasof responsibility.Third, he made all curatorships
103. Agrippawas awardedtriumphsin 37 B.C., 19 B.C.,and 14 B.C.,
but he declinedthem all; Dio Cassius48.49, 54.11, 54.24.
104. FrontinusAq. 98; Roddaz,Agrippa,151. On the locationof
administrative in the post-Augustan
officesfor the statioaquarum period,
see F. Coarelli,L'areasacradi LargoArgentina: e storia,Rome,
Topografia
1981, 47.
105. Dio Cassius54.2. Despitethe restrictionson the cost and size
of games,the aedilesof 20 B.C.againgaveexpensiveperformances. In
19 B.C.,an aedilecitedpovertyas a reasonto resign;Dio Cassius54.8,
11.

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collegial; he established boards (curatelae)of several curators,
thereby distributing and equalizing power. The Princeps per-
sonally selected the members and either held the top position
himself or delegated authority to one of his partisans.
The first board established by Augustus dealt with road main-
tenance. Attempts to have triumphators and wealthy senators
repair Rome's highways had proved unsuccessful. Dio Cassius
records that, in 20 B.c., "Augustus was chosen commissioner
of all the highways (curatorviarum) in the neighborhood of
Rome, and in this capacity set up the Golden Milestone as it
was called, and appointed men from the number of ex-praetors,
each with two lictors, to attend to the actual construction of
the roads."106The selection of ex-praetors to fill the curatorship
was calculated. Six to eight men held the praetorshipeach year.
Only two could become consuls in the succeeding election; the
rest served in the provinces as propraetors. Augustus held up
the new curatorshipsas an opportunity for ex-praetors to main-
tain the status of officeholders while remaining in the capital.
Dio Cassius pointedly notes that the curatoresviarumwere to be
accompanied by lictors, even though they did not hold imperium.
Thus, ex-praetors found the office attractive even if it required
low-prestige maintenance chores. They gained further status
simply by being chosen by Augustus.
Formally, the curatorial board was probably commissioned
through a senatusconsultum,a resolution of the Roman senate
with legislative force.107 Nominally, the curators remained un-
der the control of the senate. In practice, Augustus held firm
control as head curator. He oversaw all repair work executed
by subordinate curators and supplemented state appropriations
from his own fortune. The new system apparently worked ef-
ficiently, for in 13 B.c. Augustus eliminated the subordinate
duumvirs responsible for roads outside the city limits.108
Well-maintained highways allowed the city to function well.
The Golden Milestone celebrated this achievement. It took the
form of a gilt bronze column in the Forum Romanum, marking
Rome as the focal point of the empire. At the same time, the
Golden Milestone reflected the bureaucraticorganization of the
106. Dio Cassius54.8. The length of time in officewas not pre-
scribedandvariedconsiderably. The curatorviarum heldoffice
apparently
for five years;CIL9.2845. Whethereachcuratorwas responsiblefor a
differentroad or the curatorsjointly caredfor all highwaysremains
uncertain,though the formeris morelikely;Ertman,"Curatores," 77-
79. In the city proper,the aedilesand their subordinatequattuorvirs
apparentlyremainedresponsiblefor streetmaintenance;L. Cantarelli,
"Laseriedei Curatoridelle vie durantel'Impero,"Bullettino dellaCom-
missione comunale
archeologica inRoma,XIX, 1891, 81-83; andG. Radke,
Viaepublicae Romanae, Bologna, 1971, 95-99.
107. Accordingto Frontinus(Aq.100-101), the senateuseda senatus
consultum to establishthe waterboard.The abbreviationS.C. appears
in the titles of some of the earliestcurators;Ertman,"Curatores,"
23-
24.
108. Augustusreducedthe twenty-sixminormagistrates(vigintisex-
viri)to twenty (vigintiviri);
Dio Cassius54.26.
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FAVRO: AUGUSTUS AS CITY FATHER 77
Augustanadministration. Inscribedwith the namesof the prin-
cipal cities of the empireand their distancesfrom the capital,
the column was a visible manifestationof the exact record-
keepingundertakenby Augustancurators.109
Much more is known aboutthe secondAugustancuratorial
board,the curatelae aquarum.Asthe curatoraquarumunderNerva,
SextusIuliusFrontinuswrote a detailedhistoryand handbook
about the office. He recordedthat before the administrative
improvementsunderAugustus,Rome'swatersystem"hadbeen
managedat the optionof officials,and hadlackeddefinitecon-
trol" (Aq. 99). Once Agrippawas namedthe firstcurator aqua-
rum,improvementsoccurredrapidly.Agrippaundertookspecific
new projects(AquaVirgo,PonsEuripus,PonsAgrippae),main-
tainedexistingwaterchannels,recordedwaterusage,instituted
the use of adjutagesto regulateflow, and personallyexplored
the sewers.110 Perhapsmost importantof all, Agrippacreateda
bureaucracy. traineda force of 240 slavesto do hydraulic
He
work and establishedan office of waterworkswith complete
recordsof all municipalallotments.111
At Agrippa'sdeath, Augustusfaced a problem.The curator
aquarum was a powerfulposition.Though not associatedwith
prestigiousbuilding in the capital,this curatorshipinvolved
substantialsumsof money,a large,trainedworkforceof slaves,
and the possibilityof curryingfavorthroughthe allotmentof
water. Agrippabequeathedhis trainedslavesto Augustus;the
Princeps,however,had neitherthe time nor the inclinationto
assumethe curaaquarum himself(FrontiusAq.98, 116). On the
other hand,he could trustfew other citizensto be a perpetual
curatoras conscientiousor loyal as Agrippa.Returningthe cura
aquarum and its armyof slavesto the aedileswould have been
dangerous;theseambitiousmagistrates alreadycontrolledaforce
of six hundredslavesto fight fires.
Following the model Augustushad establishedfor the care
of roads,the senate passedresolutionsin 11 B.c. forming a
permanentboard,the curatelae aquarum.The new board had
threemembers,directedby a curator aquarum who wasappointed
for life.112 Augustusgave the boardcontrol over the trained
109. In accordancewith long-establishedtradition,actualdistances
were calculated,not fromthe locationof the GoldenMilestonein the
Forum Romanum,but from the gates in the Republicanwall; Dio
Cassius34.8; and PlutarchGalba24.
110. Frontinus Aq.84;andCIL6.31545.AgrippacompletedtheAqua
Virgo in 19 B.c., and Dio Cassius(54.11) tells us that "[he]namedit
the Augusta.The emperortook such greatdelight in this that once,
when therewas a greatscarcityof wine andpeoplewere loudlycom-
plaining,he declaredthat Agrippahad in a most competentmanner
seen to it that they shouldneverperishof thirst."
111. To measurethe amountof water distributedalong different
lines, Agrippaestablisheda systemof regulatednozzles or adjutages.
By varyingthe sizeandcharacterof theseopenings,he coulddetermine
the waterflow to differentpartsof Rome.Agrippacarefullyregistered
all allotmentsin the officialrecords;FrontinusAq. 23, 98-99.
112. M. ValeriusMessalaCorvinussucceededAgrippaas curator
aquarum and held officeuntil his deathin A.D.8. Frontinus(Aq. 102)
78 JSAH, LI:1, MARCH 1992
slaveshe had inheritedfrom Agrippa(FrontinusAq. 98, 116).
The senateandconsulsoutlinedthe specificduties,jurisdictions,
and basicpolicies of the boardin a seriesof consulta.113These
orderedthe curatorsto maintainthe establishednumberof foun-
tainsand to be surethat waterflowed continuously(Frontinus
Aq. 104). The consulsof 11 B.C.drewup a reporton the duties
andprivilegesof the curatores aquarum,with a detaileddescrip-
tion of decreesto protectthe watersystem.The report,however,
did not authorizeenforcementof the regulations.Curatorshad
to relyon citizensto bringchargesagainstviolators,a frustrating
arrangementat best.114 In 9 B.c., the people, on the recom-
mendationof the consul Titus QuinctiusCrispinus,passeda
law outlining the fines and punishmentsthe curatores aquarum
couldlevy on those damagingthe capital'swatersystem(Fron-
tinusAq. 129).
Despitethe activeparticipationof the consuls,senators,and
people in the definitionof the new waterboard,Augustuswas
clearlyin control. He selectedthe boardmembersand nomi-
nated the curatorin charge;the senate merely approvedap-
pointments.Though the senateallotedthe curators'working
funds,the Princepshimselfcontinuedto financeandtakecredit
for select waterprojectsin the capital(Resgestae20). Further-
more,Augustuspassedan edict"makingthe entire[water]sup-
ply [of Rome]dependentupon his own grants"(FrontinusAq.
99, v. 108). He in partmaskedthe curators'lackof realpower
overthe watersystemby the busyworkof the officeand,aswith
the curatoresviarum,by the trappingsof importance.Frontinus
explainedthat the curatores aquarum "wereallowedto wearre-
galia though magistrates [and]when they go outsidethe
as ...
City in the dischargeof theirduties,[they]shallhavetwo lictors,
threepublicservants,and an architectfor each of them."115
The new AugustanwaterboardservedRomewell. An ample
andcontinuouswatersupplygreatlyenhancedthe imageof the
capital.Under the directionof the curatores aquarum, millions
recordsthat Messalawas succeededby AteiusCapitoin A.D.13; the
five-yeargap has not been explained.Perhapsthe boardwas run by
Messala'sassistant,PostumiusSulpicius,ex-praetor.Accordingto the
Lex Quinctia de aquaeductibus of 9 B.C., praetors assumed the responsi-
bilities of the curatoraquarumwhen necessary;Frontinus Aq. 129.
113. Frontinus Aq. 101, 106, 108, 125, 127. Aediles and censors still
maintained control over Rome's water distribution in relation to games;
they alone could give permission for the flooding of the Circus Max-
imus. The aedilescurulesassigned men in each district to care for the
public fountains; Frontinus Aq. 97.
114. Frontinus Aq. 100. A resolution of 11 B.c. required those con-
victed of violating aqueduct regulations to pay a fine of 10,000 sesterces,
with half going as a reward to their accuser;FrontinusAq. 127. Among
the regulations cited was one requiring a 5-foot ambituson either side
of all aqueducts to protect the city's hydraulic system.
115. FrontinusAq. 99-100. In the same passage Frontinus points out
that there was an attempt at parity; the water commissioners received
the same number of secretaries, clerks, assistants, and criers as the cu-
rators of Rome's grain supply. Regarding Augustus's concern with ap-
pearancesas manifested in dress, Suetonius Augustus40; and Dio Cassius
49.16.
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of gallonsof waterenteredRomedailyto quenchthe residents'
thirst, nourishurbanlandscaping,fill animatedfountainsand
glassyponds,operatethe new imperialbaths,andflushthe city's
streetsand sewers.
Augustusis associatedwith two other curatorshipsdealing
with Rome'sphysicalform. Suetoniusmentionscareof both
publicbuildingsand the channelof the Tiber in a list of new
offices(novaofficia)establishedby the Princeps(Augustus37).
Since no evidenceindicatesthe creationof a permanentcura-
torship,the Princepsmay havepersonallyassumedthese curae,
ashe haddonefor the curaviarum.He fulfilledthe responsibility
for publicworksandplaces(curaoperum locorumque
publicorum)
by restorationprojectsandnew buildingsthroughoutthe city.116
The firstknown,regularcuratorchargedwith thisdutyappeared
underTiberius(emperorA.D.14-37).
Care for the Tiber was a seriousmatter.By the mid-first
centuryB.C.,the riverwas filledwith rubbishandnarrowedby
jutting buildings.Even a small rise in the waterlevel resulted
in extensiveflooding.Without Caesar'splannedalterationof
the Tiber, water floodedRome's low-lying valleys in 44, 34,
27, 23, 22, and 13 B.c. Assumingthis cura,Augustuswidened
and clearedthe Tiberbed, restoredthe city'sbridges,and,in 7
a
B.c., reworkedthe river banks and delimited public
flood
zone."' Augustus'ssuccessorinstitutedan actualboard,the cura-
telaealveiTiberis,composedof five senatorialcurators."18
With the Augustancuratelae, Rome at last had a well-orga-
nized,permanentsystem for maintenance. Eachboardhadclear-
ly definedtasks,state funding,and an expertstaff.The pres-
116. Suetonius(Augustus 37) is the only sourcefor this cura.The
associatedboardhad differentnamesduringthe Empire;for a full list,
see A. E. Gordon,"QuintusVeraniusConsul A.D.49," University of
California in Classical
Publications Archaeology,II, 1934-1952, 257, 279.
Agreeingwith Gordon,Kornemannarguesfor a foundingdateof this
boardafter11B.C.,whenthe dutiesof thecuratores aquarum weredefined;
FrontinusAq. 100; and Kornemann,"Curatoresaediumsacrarumet
operumlocorumquepublicorum,"in Pauly-Wissowa, s.v., IV, 1787:43-
47.
117. SuetoniusAugustus30; and CIL 6.1235-1236, 31541-31542.
These Augustaninterventionsdid not eliminatefloodsbut decreased
their frequency;after7 B.C.,majorfloodsare recordedonly in A.D.5
and 12 in the AugustanAge; Dio Cassius55.22, 56.27. Imperialso-
lutionsdid not addressthe realproblem:controlof waterupstream.All
suggestionsto drainoff waterupstreammet with greatresistance; Tac-
itusAnnals1.76.
118. Tiberiusestablishedthe boardafterthe flood of A.D.15; Dio
Cassius57.14. Though inscriptionsreferto a headquarters buildingin
Romefor the curatorsof the Tiber,the locationremainsuncertain;CIL
6.1224. Under Tiberius,the jurisdictionof the curatorsextendedto
Ostia;CIL14.192.At the timeof Trajan,the boardexpandedto include
careof the sewers,becomingcuratores alveitiberiset riparum et cloacarum
urbis;CIL6.1239, 31549-50. Tiberiusalso establishedthe curalocorum
publicorumjudicandorum to dealwith propertydisputesinvolvingstate
holdings;CIL 14.3602; and Kornemann,"Curatores,"1789:15-17,
1795:18-20. The two presidingcuratorsof consularrankundertook
maintenanceof bothsacredandprofanepublicstructures; A.D.137, CIL
6.1854; andA.D.161, CIL6.119b.

ervationof completerecordsstimulatedpridein the office,not
just in the individual,a fact evidentin the life and writingsof
Frontinusas curator aquarum. In addition,conscientiousrecord-
keeping meant that curatorsreceived recognitioneven for mun-
danemaintenancetasks.Thoughcuratorsworemagisterialgarb,
in realitythey hadlimitedpower.Curatorslackedimperium and
sharedcontrol collegially. Thus curatorialpositionsoccupied
formermagistrateswith necessary,though not politicallyvital,
duties. Simultaneouslythe curatelae engrossedthe senatewith
constantrequestsforvouchers,supportinglaws,andclarification
of curatorialresponsibilities,therebydrawingattentionaway
from Augustusand his centralizationof power.
The appointedAugustancuratorsmaintainedthe built en-
vironmentof the capital,but they did not keep it safe for oc-
cupants.Rome was rackedby fires,civil unrest,and crime.119
Duringthe unsettledyearsof the 20s B.c.,the Princepsreshaped
the positionof praefectus to handleproblemsrequiringmilitary
organization,strength, and control.In the Republic,a prefect
wasa militaryadministrative officerwho stoodoutsidethe cursus
honorum; was not elected by the people but appointedby
he
anothermagistrate.120In 25 B.c., Augustusinitiatedthe post of
praefectus urbi.21 Chargedwith policingRome,this prefectcon-
trolleda standingforce (cohortes urbanae) and administeredjus-
tice. The praefectus urbiwas not directlyconcernedwith the
physicalenvironment,yet he and his cohortsimprovedRome
by makingthe city a saferplacein which to live andto invest.
To ensurethe effectivenessof the praefectus urbi,the Princeps
assigned the post to a senator,usually of consularrank, and
empowered him with an imperium.
In contrast,Augustusappointedequestriansto other prefec-
tures. Generally,membersof the equiteseschewedpolitics in
favorof the commercialworld, where they could garnerlarge
fortunesand high standingin the capital.The first emperor
drew heavily on their supportand expertise,and in turn he
119. Suetonius(Augustus 43) notedthatwhen Augustusgavegames,
he thoughtfully"stationedguardsin variouspartsof the city,to prevent
it fromfallinga preyto footpadsbecauseof thefew peoplewho remained
at home";cf. SuetoniusAugustus32.
120. Likecurators,specialprefectscouldalsobe appointedto oversee
set tasks, such as the praefectus
oraemaritimae and the praefectus
levis
armaturae. UnderCaesar,the prefectscommandedcavalryforces;Pauly-
Wissowa,s.v., XXII, 1257-1347.
121. The Princeps'sfirstattemptto establishthe urbanprefecture
was unsuccessful.In 25 B.C.,M. ValeriusCorvinusMessallaheld the
officefor a few daysbeforeresigning,eitherbecausehe felt an armed
force in Rome was contraryto Republicanideasor becauseof his in-
capacityto exercisehis duties;HieronymusabAbr.1991; and Tacitus
Annals6.11. In 16 B.C.,StatiliusTaurusservedaspraefectus urbiwhile
Augustuswascampaigningin the West;Dio Cassius54.19.The regular
prefecturewas establishedin A.D.13 with L. Piso, who held officefor
twentyyears.The actualorganizationof the officewas left to Tiberius;
G. Vitucci,Ricerche sullaPraefectura
Urbisin etdimperiale,
Rome, 1956;
andP. A. Brunt,"Princeps andEquites,"JournalofRoman LXXIII,
Studies,
1983, 59-61.
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FAVRO: AUGUSTUS AS CITY FATHER 79
awardedthem positions of authority.122After experimenting
with senatorialprefectsfor the grainsupply,Augustusestab-
lishedan equestrianprefecture,thepraefectus annonae,to oversee
this importanttask.'23In 2 B.c., he likewiseplacedtwo eques-
trianprefectsin commandof the cohorspraetoria, the imperial
bodyguard that Augustushad personallydirectedsince its es-
tablishmentin 27 B.C.124
The two Augustanprefecturesexploitedthe organizational
skills of equestriansand placedthem in prominentpositionsin
the capital.In effect, these positionslaid the groundworkfor
the creationof an equestriancursushonorum.125 More immedi-
atelyrelevantfor the city, the equestrianprefecturesestablished
a clearhierarchyof commandoverdutiesconcernedwith urban
safety.At the top stood the Princeps.Augustuspersonallyap-
pointed the prefects,who directedsubordinatearmedforces.
Accountabilitywas clear. The system was so successfulthat
Augustusalso establisheda prefecturein A.D.3 to deal with
urbanfires.
Urbanfire fighting
In ancientRome, firefightingwas both necessaryandpolit-
ically significant.The Princepsexperimentedwith a varietyof
solutionswithin the existing administrative frameworkbefore
turning to the prefecture.Despiteadministrativeimprovements,
firescontinued.Without changesin constructionor the regu-
lation of cooking fires,Rome remaineda tinderbox.
Augustusfirstrespondedto the problemin 23 B.c., when a
large blaze raged through the capital.Shortly afterward,he
reaffirmedfire fighting as the responsibilityof the aediles,or,
more specifically,of the patricianaedilescurules,and granted
them a force of six hundredstateslaves(Dio Cassius54.2). As
usual,the patricianaedilesfrequentlyignoredthis responsibility
or used it for personalgain. For example,in the 20s B.c., the
aedileM. EgnatiusRufusemployedhis privatefire brigadeto
win the favorof the plebeiansin Rome.In gratitude,the people
reimbursedhis expendituresand allowed him to standfor the
praetorshipthe following yearwithout observingthe legal in-
terval.Dio Cassius(53.24) tells us:"MarcusEgnatiusRufus...
becameso elatedover these very honorsand so contemptuous
of Augustusthat he issueda bulletinto the effect that he had
122. In addition,Augustusrevivedvariousceremoniesthat recon-
firmedthe statusandpositionof the equites;SuetoniusAugustus38-39;
and Brunt,"PrincepsandEquites,"42-75.
123. Dio Cassius54.1, 55.26, 31.
124. The pretorianguardhad a total of nine cohorts,with three
billetedin the capital;M. Durry,"LesCohortespretoriennes,"
Bibliothe-
quedesEcolesfranpaises etdeRome,fasc.146, 1938.Unlikeother
d'Athenes
equestrianprefects,the praefectus remainedlargelya military
praetorio
post with few administrativeresponsibilities;
A. N. Sherwin-White,
"Procurator Augusti,"Papersof theBritishSchoolat Rome,XV, 1939,
11.
125. The consolidationof the equestrian
careeroccurredunderClau-
dius;Sherwin-White,"Procurator," 20.
80 JSAH, LI:1, MARCH 1992
ror
r AL
L&4L
Lr:
:Xam
. ......
Fig.6. Altarof the LaresCompitales showingAugustus on theright
handingstatuettesof theLaresto slaveministri
(Vatican formerlyBel-
vedereinv. 1115;photo,German ArchaeologicalInstitute,
Rome).
handedthe city overunimpededandintactto his successor.All
the most prominentmen becameindignantat this, Augustus
himselfmostof all."The Princepsdidnot overreact.He merely
orderedthe succeedingaedilesto preventfiresand to put out
those that did occur.Augustusleft EgnatiusRufusto self-de-
struct.126
Majorconflagrations againravagedRome in 16, 14, 12, and
7 B.C.127Augustushad to admitthat the senatorialmagistrates
couldnot handlethe fire-fightingneedsof the city. Instead,he
turnedto the plebeiansandfreedmen.These groupswere more
126. Ancientsourceson the date of Rufus'saedileshipare contra-
dictory.Dio Cassius(53.24) placesit in 26 B.c. VelleiusPaterculus
(2.91) recordsthat Rufusbecamepraetorafterthe aedileshipandcan-
didatefor the consulshipin 19 B.c., thusmakinghim aedilein the year
21/20 B.c.; cf. SenecaClem.1.9.6. If Dio Cassiusis right, Augustus
assignedthe six hundredstateslavesto the aedilesin responseto the
is correct,
fire-fightingactionsof EgnatiusRufus.If VelleiusPaterculus
Rufusmadea point of not usingthe Augustanfirebrigade.In 19 B.c.,
EgnatiusRufusplottedagainstAugustus,but he was detectedand ex-
ecuted;VelliusPaterculus2.91.
127. Dio Cassius54.19, 24, 29; and P. Werner,De incendiisurbis
Romaeaetateimperatorum, Leipzig,1906, passim.
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numerousthan the senatorialclass and unencumbered by the
demandsof the cursushonorum. Equallyimportant,they suffered
the most human,as opposedto financial,damagefrom urban
calamitiesandthereforewere morelikely to taketheirrespon-
sibilitiesfor urbancareseriously.In 7 B.c., Augustusplacedfire
fightingandcareof the streetsdirectlyunderthe vicomagistri of
the city'snumerous
wards.128
Even beforethis transferralof responsibility,Augustushad
shown interestin the viciandtheirsupervisors. The vicomagistri
caredfor the local shrinesdedicatedto the LaresCompitales,
the popularspiritswho guardedall crossroadsand were asso-
ciatedwith the dead.129Shortlyafterbecomingheadpriest(Pon-
tifexMaximus)in 12 B.c., the Princepsjoined worshipof both
his own personalGeniusandthe spiritsof his family,the Lares
Augusti,with that of the LaresCompitales.130 Thereafter,im-
ages of the at
imperialfamilyappeared every crossroad shrine
in the capital.Augustusmadespecialprovisionsfor them to be
crownedtwiceayearwith flowers(SuetoniusAugustus 31). Both
the freedmenservingas vicomagistri andtheirassistants,the mi-
nistrichosenfromamongthe mosthonoredslaves,gainedpres-
tige by caringfor theseshrines(Fig. 6).131 As a furthersign of
honor,Augustusallowedthe freedmenappointedvicomagistri to
wear the magisterialdressusuallyassociatedwith patricianof-
fices and grantedthem lictorsas accompaniment in their own
wardson specialdays(Dio Cassius55.8).
The selectionof the vicomagistri
to directfire-fightingefforts
was a logicaladministrativestep.They represented everycorner
of Rome,wereintimatelyfamiliarwith theirrespectivevici,and
had a personalinterestin curbinglocal fires.With strongties
to the Princeps,the vicomagistricould reasonablybe entrusted
with the six hundredslavestrainedto fight fires.Afterall, the
largenumberof wardsmeantno one supervisorcontrolledtoo
manyslaves.
The AugustanXIV Regions
The exploitationof the wardsupervisorsalong with the re-
workingof fire-fightingprocedures
wasactuallypartof a major
128. Dio Cassius55.8.6. In the Imperialperiod,if not earlier,the
werelinkedwith worshipof StataMater,protectress
vicomagistri against
fire;Fest.p.317; andMommsen,Staatsrecht, I, 328.
129. Eachvicuswasunderthe protectionof divinitiesworshipedon
an altarcalleddii compitales G. Lugli,I monumenti
sivearaecompitaliciae;
antichidi Romae suburbio,
Rome, 1940, 3-6.
130. OvidFasti5.143-147; CIL6.449, 452;ILS3613-3621;andL.
R. Taylor,TheDivinityoftheRomanEmperor, Middletown,Conn.,1931,
181-201.
131. Zanker,Images,131-133. Geniusstatuettesarerecordedby H.
Kunkelin Derromische Genius,Heidelberg,1974;on altarsof the Lares,
seeM. Hano,"Al'origineduculteimperial:Lesautelsdes LaresAugusti:
Recherchessur les themes iconographiques et leur signification,"in
Aufstiegund Niedergang derromischen Welt,II, Principat,XVI, pt. 3,
Berlin and New York, 1986, 2333-2381. Augustusprovidedvarious
benefitsfor freedmen:he improvedmarriagelawsregardingthem and
enrolledindividualfreedmenas equestrians.
 FAVRO: AUGUSTUS AS CITY FATHER 81
1t ~ ..'.
\ " ...."
ji!!\-',.' I........
...........
':,',!':' .
:..:!:-

. .......... ...

..........
. . . ..:.
? ,, - ::- .........:...........:
tv,,!,<,.::.::':
.,-...
..............?
"\ 7
,,"\
.. ....

. ' ......:". .:..:.:.'. .,o. ,'i.:

"ii ....
"t' :::..... I
...... ?... . ........
.
;..',~:'."
:.'
. i'"
.
. ................ : ''''?
.... :........... ---- 'ii::
1
,.- ----, .. :ii::
4..." .,,,... ..- ...
.....
?', ".. ! : ",.... ".
..
?-?? ::::,.,'''.....
'
.
'"" ~
,",ei:
.........
:... " -?
.
........ .-
" ";" i" " . ..... " :" . _.L. .. ...
'.",', ""./
......:::::. i.",, ..

Fig.7. TheXIVAugustan Regions(drawing byRodicaReif).Key:1,

PortaCapena; 3, Isiset Serapis;
2, Caelimontium; 4, Templum Pacis;
6, AltaSemita;
5, Esquiliae; 7,ViaLata;8, ForumRomanum; 9, Circus
Flaminius; 11,CircusMaximus;
10,Palatium; 12, PiscinaPublica;
13,
Aventinus;14,Transtiberim.

Fig.8. Marble usedto marktheedgeof RegionVIIinAugustan

cippus
administrative reorganizationthatbeganin 8 B.c. In that year Rome,nowin Grottaferrata
Monastery(photo,author).
the senaterenewedAugustus'simperium for ten years.132Rein-
forcedby this sanction,the Princepsreassessedthe urbansitu- UrbsXIV Regionum.135 Though neverstatedin ancientsources,
ation. He ordereda censusto be takenwardby ward,the first the implicationwas thatthe Princepshaddoubledthe size and
since70 B.c. (Regestae 8). Using this accounting,Augustuseval- importof the city.
uatedpropertyholdingsthroughoutRome.He grantedprivate Seven of the new regionslay within Rome'spomerium and
citizens ownershipwhere the stateclaim was in disputeand, seven outside.136 Suetoniuswrites that Augustus"dividedthe
conversely,restoredprivatelandto publicuse when expedient areaof the city into regionsandwards,"yet it seemsunlikely
for politicalor pragmaticreasons(SuetoniusAugustus32). At that he fully reorderedthe hundredsof existingvici (Augustus
this sametime he delimiteda flood zone. 30). Logically,he must have used the existingwarddivisions
Utilizing the empiricaldatagatheredin 8 B.c., the Princeps to facilitatethedistribution
andmanagement of the newregions.
reapportionedthe capital into fourteen new administrative Although archaeologists have uneartheda few cippimarking
regionsthe following year(Fig. 7).133 The numberwas signif- the edges of the Augustanregions(Fig. 8), these markersdo
icant. The city had long been associatedwith seven hills, as not allow for a completereconstruction; the exact apportion-
evidentfrom the earlyepithetSeptimontium.'34 Under the first ment of the fourteenmunicipalregionsremainsuncertain.137
the
emperor, city of seven hillsbecame the City XIV Regions,
of
135. On the regionsof Rome,see PlatnerandAshby,Topographical
132. Dio Cassius55.6.1. Augustus'simperiumasprovincialgovernor Dictionary,444-445; A. Von Gerkan,"Grenzenund GrossenderVier-
becamemaiusin 23 B.c. and was renewedat intervalsof five or ten zehn RegionenRoms,"Bonner Jahrbucher, CIL, 1949, 5-65; and Fre-
years(18, 13, 8 B.c., andA.D.3 and 13). zouls, "Romeville ouverte,"374-385.
133. G. Gattiarguedfor 7 B.c. ratherthan 8 B.c. as the founding 136. Accordingto the fourth-century the regionsfalling
Regionaries,
date of the XIV Regions,though the evidenceis inconclusive;"Ara insidethe pomeriumwere II, III, IV, VI, VIII,X, andXI.
marmoreadel 'vicusStatematris,'" BullettinodellaCommissione archeo- 137. The verbaldescriptionsof the XIV Regionsin the Regionaries
logicacommunale in Roma,XXXIV, 1906, 198-200. providesome cluesto the Augustandivisions;Von Gerkan,"Grenzen
134. SuetoniusAugustus 30;andDio Cassius55.8.7.Inhisetymology undGrossen,"34-48, presentsoverfifteendifferentapportionments by
of Latinwords,Varro(Ling.5.41)describedSeptimontium astheprevious scholars;cf. Homo,Romeimpiriale, 98-114. The fourteenregionalbor-
nameof Rome. William Loerkeexploresthe importanceof multiples dersmayhaveservedas customsboundaries, thoughevidencefor such
of seven in relationto the Pantheonin "A Rereadingof the Interior usagecomesfromthe post-Augustan age;CIL6.1, 9, 1016a-c, 31227;
Elevationof Hadrian'sRotunda,"JSAH, XLIX, 1990, 22-43. Homo, Romeimperiale, 246-248; and F. Coarelli,"Rom:Die Stadt-

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82 JSAH, LI:1, MARCH 1992
What is clear, however, is that the new divisions encompassed
extensive urban areas that had been omitted from the earlier
apportionment. The fourteen Augustan regions did not super-
sede the four tribal regions with their historical and religious
associations; rather, they provided a framework for improved
municipal management.
Augustus placed management of the XIV Regions under mag-
istrateschosen by lot. The same selection process had been used
for the RegionesQuattuorin order to avoid favoritism. According
to Dio Cassius,the magistratesvying for control of the Augustan
regions included aediles, tribunes, and praetors.'38From this list,
one may extrapolate that the quaestors were too low in status
and the consuls too high to draw lots. Unfortunately, the extent
of the magistrates' actual participation in administering the
regions cannot be determined fully. Most likely, they relied on
the vicomagistrito screen and refer problems to them.
The new Augustan regions established a comprehensive ad-
ministrative network encompassing the entire urban fabric.
Fourteen senatorial magistrates, rather than four, now oversaw
care of the city. Each supervised the activities of the localized
ward supervisors in his respective region. The freedmen ap-
pointed vicomagistrireveled in their elevated status as directors
of the city's fire-fighting slaves and supervisors of the shrines
honoring the Genius of the emperor along with the LaresAu-
gusti and Compitales. The Augustan curatorial boards, com-
posed of senators, supervised broad, interregional urban con-
cerns: the water system, roads, and, subsequently, the Tiber and
public buildings. The equestrianpraetorsdealt with nontangible
issues related to urban safety: policing, grain handouts, and,
eventually, fire fighting.
The distribution of fire-fighting responsibilities among the
various ward supervisors of Rome was logical and promising.
Unfortunately, it proved ineffective. While given the trappings
of office, the plebeian vicomagistriin reality lacked the power to nocturniwereestablishedin 7 B.c. alongwith the XIV Regions,though
instigate the drastic actions or coordination necessary during
conflagrations. The aediles, tribunes, and praetors assigned by
lot to each region belonged to different ranks. One can image
that they did not work together comfortably. Furthermore,they
must have found it difficult to direct the hundreds of vicomagistriReynolds,Vigiles,30-32.
spread out in over two hundred vici. Most obvious of all, the
slave crew of six hundred was insufficient to combat fires in the
enormous capital.
In A.D. 3, a blaze damaged Augustus's own dwelling on the
Palatine.'39After another fire three years later, he created a new Juvenal(Schol.lul. Sat.14.305)tellsustheywerenicknamed"Sparteoli"
company of watchmen to fight fires, the cohortesvigilum. These
men were organized in seven divisions of one thousand freed-
planungvon CaesarbisAugustus,"in Hoftner,ed.,KaiserAugustus, 75-
77.
138. Dio Cassius55.8.7;SuetoniusAugustus 30;Lexluliamunicipalis; causedsome dismay;SuetoniusAugustus25. After Augustus,a reac-
andHardy,Six RomanLaws,24-26.
139. Dio Cassius55.12.3;andValeriusMaximus1.8.11.
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men.'14A tribuneled eachdivision,with an equestrian praefectus
vigilumdirectingthe entireforce.'41 In line with theirparamil-
itarystatus,the prefectandhis chargesdonnedmilitarygarb.142
Initiallythe Princepsmeantfor the vigilesnocturnito servein
Romeonly in A.D.6, duringthe crisisbroughton by new taxes,
famine,and the fire. The watchmenprovedso usefulthat he
insteadmadethem a permanentfixturein the capital.Through
the long hoursof the night, they patrolledthroughthe city. As
the primaryofficialforce activeafterdark,the vigilesalso acted
vigilumoffereda versionof night
as night police;the praefectus
court, dispensingjustice in minor The vigilesalso
matters.'43
supervisedcivilianactions,checkingto be surethe residentsof
apartmentson upperfloorskepta supplyof waterreadilyavail-
able andbeatingthose who neglectedtheir fires.
Augustusused the new fire departmentto provideadminis-
trativeopportunitiesfor freedmenas well as for the equestrian
prefects.Previously,the fighting of fireshad been assignedto
slaves.Augustusrealizedthe potentialproblemsof placing a
corp of seven thousandarmedslavesunderthe controlof am-
bitiouspatricianofficials.To avoidthe politicalexploitationof
the fire-fightingslaveforce,Augustuscalleduponanothergroup
to serve.Romancitizensconsideredfire fighting a servileoc-
cupationand were reluctantto undertakethis task.Freedmen
were not. By openingthe cohortes vigilumto freedmen,he gave
them an opportunityto performin a militarycapacityeven
though they were barredfrom servingin the army.'44There-
140. Strabo5.3.7; Dio Cassius55.26; SuetoniusAugustus25; and
PaulusDigesta1.15.1.Appian(BellaCivilia5.122) placedthe institution
of the vigilesin 36 B.c. but was hesitantaboutthis earlydate.Sincethe
cohortesvigilumis similarto a post in Alexandria,an establishment date
afterAugustusvisitedEgyptis more likely;Dio Cassius51.10; Strabo
17.1.12; A. H. M. Jones, The GreekCityfromAlexandertoJustinian,
Oxford, 1940, 211-212; Nicolet, "LaTable d'Heraclee,22-25; and
Baillie Reynolds,Vigiles,17-21. Other authorsarguethat the vigiles
evidencefor this earlierdate is scant;SuetoniusAugustus30; and Fre-
zouls, "Romeville ouverte,"381.
141. The prefectwasalsocalledthepraefectus Digesta47.57.1.
vigilibus;
His exact tenure is uncertain,though no recordlists any prefectas
holdingofficelongerthanfiveyears;TacitusAnnals1.7,9.31;andBaillie
142. A badlywornsepulchralreliefin the Vaticandepictsthe vigiles'
standardbearerin a militarytunic;CIL 6.2987; andBaillie Reynolds,
Vigiles,98.
143. PaulusDigesta1.15.3; the jurist Paulusspecificallynotes that
thepraefectus vigilumshouldwearpropershoesforpatrolling.Overtime,
the vigilesdevelopeda comic reputationsimilarto the KeystoneCops.
after their buckets;Petronius(Satyricon 78) picturesthem chopping
down a doorto get at a harmlesscookingfire;BaillieReynolds,Vigiles,
14-15. In A.D.7, Augustuslevied a tax on the saleof slaves,in partto
fund the night watchmen;Dio Cassius55.31.
144. The Romansgenerallyfearedarmedfreedmen.The employ-
ment of libertias firefightersoutfittedwith axes and other weapons
tionarymovementretractedmanyof the benefitsgivenfreedmen;Pliny
Nat. Hist.33.32. For example,the vigileswas openedto other classes;
 FAVRO: AUGUSTUS AS CITY FATHER 83
after, the libertihad two notable careeroptions, as vigilesor nicipalchores.He placedongoing urbanconcernsin the hands
vicomagistri. of appointed,not elected, officialsand himself madethe most
With the institutionof the vigiles,Rome finallyhad a large, importantappointments.Stepby step,AugustusshapedRepub-
permanentforce chargedwith both preventingandcombating licanextraordinary, temporaryofficesinto a permanentmunic-
urbanfires.The effectivenessof the cohortswas madepossible ipalbureaucracy outsidethe cursushonorum. Independentaction,
by the existenceof a clearadministrative
structure.The emperor and thus individualrecognition,becameincreasinglydifficult.
himselfappointedthe equestrianpraefectus vigilumwho directed Forexample,the Republicancuratorsresponsibleformajorproj-
the sevencohorts.The XIV AugustanRegionsdefinedspecific, ects were subsumedby Augustancuratorialboardsin which
comprehensive jurisdictions.Eachforce patrolledtwo regions. individualresponsibilitywas hardto assess.The curatorsat least
This arrangementhelpedto mitigatevariationsin the regions' maintainedthe illusion of groupindependence,as the boards
sizes resultingfromdifferencesin historicalimportanddensity nominallywere underthe careof the senate.Forurbanservices
of occupation.Eachcohortresidedin its assignedzone. with potentialpoliticalrepercussions (firefighting,grainhand-
Overall,the new regionshadscantvisualimpacton the city- outs), the Princepsrelied on equestrianprefectsdirectly ac-
scape.Aside from the smallcippi,therewas little physicalevi- countableto him. With hindsightTacitus(Annals1.2), in the
denceof the regions'existence.145Apparentlythe cohortes
vigilum firstcenturyA.D.,recordedthe processof Augustancentraliza-
did not have permanent,identifiablequartersuntil the post- tion: "Stepby step he beganto makehis ascentandto unite in
Augustanperiod.146The low profileof theXIVAugustanRegions his own personthe functionsof the senate,the magistracy,and
reflectsthe uniquestatusof this administrativechange.Unlike the legislature."
all the otheroffices,duties,andlaws redefinedby the Princeps, Augustusmade the most significantadministrativechanges
the fourteenregionshadno directRepublicanprecedentbeyond and consolidationlate in his career.By the turn of the millen-
the exampleof the fourtribalregions,whoseoriginandpurpose nium the Princepshad the power to ensuresuccessfulimple-
were quite different. mentation(Appendix).The late date of these changesalso re-
flects the aging Princeps's desire to leave an enduring
Conclusion commemoration.With shrinesto his familiallaresand Genius
The low visibility,yet comprehensiveness, of the XIV Au- on every corner, the city stood as his permanentresidence.
gustanRegionsis representative of Augustus'sapproachto the Vitruvius (1.pref.3) capturesAugustus'sattitude toward the
entire urbanadministrationof Rome. Proclaimingas his goal capitalin the dedicationof his treatiseon architecture:"With
the restorationof the Republic,the Princepspreservedexisting respectto the future,you havesuchregardto publicandprivate
postsbutsignificantly alteredtheircontentandimportby changes buildings,that they will correspondto the grandeurof our
in responsibilityand accountability(Fig. 1). Collectively,the history,andwill be a memorialto futureages."
Augustan transformationsreflect a disguised centralization. With the new municipalorganization,Augustusprovidedfor
Anxiousto hamperhisrivalsforpowerandacclaim,the Princeps Rome's continualmaintenance.The structureof Republican
limitedtheirimpacton the appearance of his capital.Threatened officesdid not allow magistratesto gain expertiseor to build
most by the senatorialclass, he systematicallyremovedurban successfullyupon the effortsof their predecessors.In contrast,
responsibilitiesfrom the controlof regularmagistrates.Simul- the Augustanmunicipaladministrationrelied primarilyupon
taneously,he restrictedthe patronageof urbanbuildingsby appointedpositionswith longer tenures;each office,not each
triumphatorsand officeholders. officeholder,had a trained,permanentstaffand prescribedre-
The premierRepublicanofficefor new constructionhadbeen sponsibilities.The new XIV Regionsdefinedclearjurisdictions.
the censorship,the culminatingpositionin the magisteriallad- Furthermore,Augustusincreasedthe overallnumberof posts
der. Underthe Princepsthis post all but disappeared. Augustus and distributedthem among all the differentclassesof Rome.
likewisediminishedthe powerof otherofficesby dividingmu- Suetoniusstatesthatthe Princepsdevisednew officesspecifically
"to enablemore men to takepartin the administration of the
Dio Cassius55.27. The LexViselliaof A.D.24 providedanothersolution
full to freedmen who served as State" (Augustus 37).
by granting citizenship vigilesfor six
years; Ulpian fr.3.5; Baillie Reynolds, Vigiles,66-67; and Zanker, By providingall groupswith a role in urbanmaintenance,
Images,131. Augustus establisheda broadpowerbase.Equallyimportant,he
145. Numerousinscriptionsreferto the vici,the Lares,and the vi-
few mentionthe municipalregions;CIL6.445, 975. created the appearanceof a well-orderedsocietyin which ev-
comagistri;
146. At firstthe vigilesmayhavebeenquarteredin privatehomesor eryonehada placeandresponsibilityin the greatcapital.Official
in the residencesfor stateslaves;PaulusDigesta1.15. Only in the post- trappingsvisuallyaffirmedthe statusof eachofficeandallowed
Augustanperiod is there secureevidencefor the distributionof the
cohortsinto their own barracks(stationes)with severalsubstations(ex- all classes,even freedmen,magisterialgarb.1'47 Conceptually,
for a full list of sources,see BaillieReynolds,Vigiles,24, 43-
cubitoria); 147. RegardingAugustus'sconcernwith appearances
in dress,see
63. SuetoniusAugustus40; and Dio Cassius49.16.

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84 JSAH, LI:1, MARCH 1992

Augustus could justify his inclusiveness as the paterpatriae.A
good Roman father directed the lives of his offspring and im-
proved the family domus.
Rome in A.D. 14 had a far more efficient administration for
urban care than in 44 B.c. Though not without faults, the large
city presented an enviable picture to the rest of the ancient
world. Its buildings were in good condition, people moved
around in relative safety, and the infrastructurefunctioned well.
After the death of Augustus, the municipal organization he
devised blossomed into an extensive imperial bureaucracy,but
the efficiency of the system fluctuated.Juvenal and Martialpor-
tray Rome in the first century A.D. as still plagued by fires,
crowding, collapsing structures,and thieves. Without a system
of enforcement, laws prescribingbuilding techniques, materials,
and heights had little effect on the capital'sphysical form; often
they had to be reinstituted. Similarly, the efficiency of municipal
officeholders relied upon a strong hierarchical structure. Ulti-
mately, the systemfor urbanmaintenanceestablishedby Au-
gustusfunctionedwell when the emperorwas conscientious;it
falteredwhen the emperorwas negligent.148Far beyond the
improvementof administrative and legal provisionsfor urban
care, Augustus's most effective legacy was a paternalattitude
to
towardthe city. According the third-century jurist Paulus,
Augustusbelievedthat"thebusinessof lookingafterthe public
safetywas ... suitedfor no one so well asthe Emperorhimself,
nor was anyoneelse equalto the duty"(Digesta1.15.3). By his
death in A.D. 14, Augustushad indeed earnedthe epithet of
paterurbis.
148. Municipalcareof Rome naturallydeclinedduringperiodsof
politicaldisruption(e.g.,A.D.69) orwhen the emperorwaspreoccupied
with other concerns(e.g., SeptimiusSeverus);Homo, Romeimpfriale,
182. On the establishmentof a permanentimperialbureaucracy in the
post-Augustan period,seeP. R. C. Weaver,FamiliaCaesaris,
Cambridge,
1972.

APPENDIX
to theurbancareof RomeduringtheAugustan
Eventsrelating Age
44 B.c. Lexlulia municipalis 20s B.C. Vitruvius mentions building laws
Flood 19 B.C. Lasttriumphawardedindividualnot relatedto Augustus
43 B.C. Assessmenton roof tiles andleasedhouses 16 B.C. Fire
Storm 14 B.C. Fire
42 B.C. Triumvirsassessrichestsenatorsto fundrepairson viae 13 B.C. Augustus eliminates duumvirs responsible for roads outside
Stormandlightning city
39 B.C. AlfenusVarusmentionsantidemolitionlaws Flood
38 B.C. Fire 12 B.C. Worshipof LaresAugustiandGeniusof Augustusassigned
36 B.C. Aedileshipstandsvacant to shrinesof LaresCompitales
Fire Fire
34 B.C. Flood 11 B.C. Curatorialboardfor careof watersystem
33 B.c. Aedileshipheld by Agrippa 9 B.C. Laws to protect water system
32 B.C. Fire Storm
Storm 8 B.C. Census ordered
Agrippabecomesperpetualcuratorof watersystem 7 B.C. XIV Regions established
31 B.C. Fire Augustusdelimitsfloodzone andreworksTiber
29 B.C. Fire Fire
28 B.C. Augustusas consulrestoreseighty-twotemples Responsibilityfor fightingfiresassignedto vicomagistri
27 B.C. Flood 2 B.C. Augustus proclaimed paterpatriae
Augustusassumescurafor Via Flaminia Praefectuspraetorioappointed
Augustuscalls on triumphatorsto spendbooty on urban 3 A.D. Fire
care 5 A.D. Aedileship stands vacant
25 B.C. Praefectus urbiappointedto police Rome Flood
23 B.C. Aedilescurulesgiven six hundredstateslavesto fight fires Earthquake
Flood 6 A.D. Fire
Fire Fire fighting assigned to praefectusvigilumcontrolling seven
Storm thousand vigiles
22 B.C. Responsibilityfor gamestransferred to ten praetors 9 A.D. Lightning storm
Flood 12 A.D. Fire
21 B.C. Fire Flood
20 B.C. Augustusassumescuraviarum 14 A.D. Death of Augustus

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