Mosque Architecture

Mosque Architecture (1205-1765) was introduced by the Muslims for the ritual needs of their
religion, Islam after the establishment of Muslim rule in Bengal. Mosque architecture was different
from those of the Buddhists and Hindus. Differences were due to the different nature of participation
that was required. In temples, a Brahmin priest performed the rituals before the image of a deity; he
alone entered the sanctum while the rest of the devotees waited outside.

The Muslims needed a large space for congregational prayer, especially on Fridays, when all men
were required to perform the prayer collectively. There was no sanctum with a sacred image, and all
worshipers had to stand in rows behind the imam who led the prayer. The only indispensable
architectural feature was the mihrab, the niche in the qibla wall (western in South Asia) that directed
the worshippers towards the Kaba in Mecca, their holiest shrine; the orientation prescribed for ritual
prayer. During the Sultanate the Friday (jami) mosque became very important as an official building
because the khutba (sermon delivered before the mandatory collective prayer) gave official
recognition to the ruler, and also worked as a declaration of sovereignty. It expressed piety, and was
a potent visual symbol of the power, ideology, and affiliation of the sponsor.
Numerous mosques were built during the five and a half centuries of Muslim rule before the British
colonial period, but a few landmark monuments have been chosen to illustrate how mosque styles
developed in Bengal (both the Indian state of West Bengal as well as Bangladesh). BAKHTIYAR
KHALJI (1205-06), the founder of Muslim rule in Bengal, had constructed several mosques, madrasas
and khanqas, all centred on the capital, LAKHNAUTI. But unfortunately, extant monuments are few
from the 13th and early 14th centuries, the only firmly dated mosque of the period being Zafar Khan
Ghazi's Mosque (1298 AD), now in ruins, in Tribeni (Hughli district; West Bengal, India).

It is a large multi-domed rectangular, hypostyle building of brick with stone veneer (fig.1). Brick,
easily manufactured from the abundantly available clay of the delta, has been the traditional building
material of Bengal from ancient times, as seen in the ruined, but
monumental MAINAMATI and PAHARPUR monasteries in Bangladesh (7th to12th centuries).
Stone was not available locally, and during the early part of Muslim rule it was often quarried from
pre-existing temples, as seen in Zafar Khan Ghazi's mosque. Stone columns divide the interior into
two aisles, each with five square bays, covered by small domes. Each one of the five bays in front
has an entrance, opposite which is a mihrab in the qibla wall. Such a line-up of multiple mihrabs is
absent from mosques in the central Islamic lands as only one is sufficient to signify direction. The
alternative interpretation, that the mihrab symbolized the place where the Prophet stood in the first
mosque of Madina, also dictates a single mihrab. This convention of multiple mihrabs axially aligned
to entrances seems to have local roots, and may be traced to temple architecture, where an image
niche is opposite every entrance into the sanctuary. This mihrab-entrance organisation and the
rectangular shape remained popular in Bengal mosques throughout the Sultanate period. The
building appears squat because the front row of arches springs directly from huge piers. The
ornamentation is both in stone and terracotta, and some in a 15th century style suggestive of
remodeling in later times. The inscription tablet on the central mihrab refers to Zafar Khan as a
warrior and to the building as a madrasa, indicating that the mosque served a dual purpose.

Fig. 1: Zafar Khan Ghazi Mosque plan (after Catherine Asher)

The ADINA MOSQUE in HAZRAT PANDUA of Maldah district; WEST BENGAL, dated to 770 AH (1369 AD) is
the only dated mosque of the 14th century which corresponds roughly to the rule of the independent
Iliyas Shahi rulers (1338-1413). It is unique not only because it is the largest mosque in South Asia,
but because it is the only one in Bengal with an enclosed courtyard (fig. 2), an important feature in
the traditional mosque plan of the central Islamic lands of West Asia.Built in the new capital by
Sultan SIKANDAR SHAH (1358-89) who had successfully repelled the attack of Sultan FIRUZ SHAH
TUGHLAQ of Delhi, it is clearly conceived as an expression of the glory and authority of the new
dynasty.

Its main prayer chamber had a great vaulted central nave (fig. 3), now collapsed, that divided it into
two wings and related it closely to the Great Mosque of Damascus, the earliest extant mosque in
Islam built by the Umayyad caliph al-Walid in 87 AH (706 AD). The early mosques of Delhi and
Ajmer have enclosed courtyards, but no naves. Perhaps Sikandar Shah, seeking additional sources
of legitimacy, had both nave and courtyard to reinforce his affiliation to Islamic lands beyond India;
accordingly, in the foundation inscription he declares himself to be 'the most liberal and the most
perfect of the kings of Arabia and Persia'.

Mosques with huge enclosed courtyards were never built again, because they did not suit the soil,
climate, and needs of the community; large, open courtyards were not very useful in a monsoonic
region like Bengal. The nave, later used rarely, was built cautiously with adaptations, perhaps
because local craftsmen were not experienced in executing vaults of such massive proportions.

Fig. 2: Adina Mosque plan (after Naseem Banerji)

Another unusual feature in the Adina, repeated again in a number of mosques sponsored by sultans
or high officials, is the takht or raised platform in the northwestern corner, which functioned as a
maqsura (royal enclosure). This was screened off from the rest of the mosque; had a separate
entrance in the northwest approached by a ramp from the outside, and could be used by the king
and his entourage.

Each wing of the prayer chamber was organised along the same principles as the mosque in Tribeni;
columns form numerous square bays, each one covered by a dome, and the qibla wall has a mihrab
opposite every entrance in front, so that there is a staggering number of three hundred and six
domes and forty one mihrab niches. The stone veneer has been re-used with a much better
understanding than the helter-skelter manner in which plundered material was used in earlier
mosques; mihrab interiors with hanging lamp motifs were carved specifically for the mosque. The
terracotta motifs of the mihrab tympanums are noteworthy for their excellent craftsmanship. The
tradition of carving had pre-Islamic precedents; the Buddhist/Hindu sculptor who made religious
images of imported stone had enjoyed a higher status than makers of terracotta. With the advent of
Islam, which did not make use of stone images, mosques were lavishly decorated in terracotta. By
supporting terracotta, the Muslim rulers elevated the status of the terracotta artist. Some traces of
coloured tiles and painted plaster remain. In the nave, to the north of the central mihrab, is a carved
stone mimbar (pulpit from where the imam delivers his Friday sermon) approached by a staircase.

Fig. 3: Adian Mosque, Central nave, Maldah

A typical Bengal style of architecture with salient features derived from the rural hut evolved in the
15th century; the EKLAKHI MAUSOLEUM in Hazrat Pandua, Maldah district, West Bengal, (fig. 4) being
most significant in this development. It is believed to be the tomb of Sultan JALALUDDIN MUHAMMAD
SHAH, the converted son of RAJA GANESHA, and his family.

The first Muslim sultan of Bengali origin, he favored a style with indigenous roots. The tomb re-
established brick alone as the primary building material, and its form, a single-domed square
building with curved cornice and roof, squat hemispherical drumless dome, engaged corner towers,
and terracotta ornamentation, influenced all subsequent buildings, particularly mosques, the only
building type that has survived in large numbers.

The hut was the model for a type of pre-Islamic Buddhist/Hindu temple (bhadra), examples of which
are found in Myanmar. Antecedents of these must have existed in Bengal, because from here ideas
of religion and religious buildings spread further east. References to temples in manuscript paintings
and stone sculpture also prove that ancient Buddhist /Hindu temples were small square structures
ultimately based on the village hut. They had straight cornices, and roofs crowned with xikhara or
stupa, the signifiers of function and denominational affiliation.
 Fig. 4: Eklakhi Mausoleum, Maldah

The Eklakhi and subsequent buildings differed in elevation because they always had curved
cornices and roofs crowned with domes. They did not replicate the entire thatched roof because
domes had the symbolic function to broadcast the presence of Islam in a largely non-Islamic
environment. They imitate the curvature of thatched roofs of the rural chala huts of Bengal. These
are generally single-roomed structures with a roof sloping down in two segments (do- chala) or four
(chau- chala), away from the centre of the room. The top ridge where the segments meet, as well as
the eaves on the lower edge, are curved because of the flexible nature of the bamboo frame that
supports the thatch. The stocky, octagonal corner towers which emphasize the solidity of the Eklakhi
may have been inspired by the corner posts of a hut, which bear its fabric but are usually hidden
from view. Jalaluddin's seventeen-year reign heralded the beginning of an era when the sultanate
firmly grounded itself in the culture of the land, and the style of the Eklakhi reflects the new outlook.
Incorporation of hut forms into a brick medium became so popular that the style persisted even after
the restoration of the old Iliyas Shahi house in 1435.

The Bengal style is well reflected in the architecture of the restored Iliyas Shahi (1433-1486)
and HUSAIN SHAH (1494-1538) periods, much of which is located in Lakhnauti, later called GAUR, the
capital. The international border between India and Bangladesh runs through this ancient walled city,
both parts are still known as Gaur. The buildings reflect the absence of any need for monumental
symbols and fit in well with local culture, which even in pre-Islamic times lacked structures on a
monumental scale, the Mainamati and Paharpur monasteries being rare exceptions. The sultans no
longer had the air of foreign rulers whose buildings must symbolize political power or the majesty of
religion. Mosques of modest size suggest that the Muslims had begun to feel accepted in Bengal.
 Fig.5: Baba Adam Mosque, Rampal, Munshiganj

Instead of trying to impress people with imposing architecture, they concentrated on their own ritual
needs by building small, practical mosques that fitted in with the local building tradition. Numerous
small, square, single-domed mosques inspired by the Eklakhi tomb, and some medium sized,
rectangular, hypostyle mosques with multiple bays and domes are extant from this time onwards.

A good example of the 15th century style is the mosque in Rampal (Munshiganj district,
Bangladesh), dated 888 AH (1483). It is named after Baba Adam Shahid, traditionally known to be
an early martyr of Islam, whose tomb is nearby. It is a medium-sized, rectangular, hypostyle mosque
with three bays and two aisles covered by six domes (fig.5). Decoration during this century was
subordinated to the building design, so that there is no excess of ornamentation. Large decorated
panels stand out in high relief against plain walls, as in the Eklakhi Mausoleum. A thin layer of lime
wash, once probably painted, is sometimes still visible on the surface of the terracotta plaques.

Sometimes a verandah would be added to the front, just as in a residential hut, with additional
engaged towers in the exterior where the verandah joined the prayer chamber. Examples of small
and large mosques with verandahs are the GOPALGANJ MOSQUE in Dinajpur dated 865 AH (1460),
where the prayer chamber is only 4 metre square; and the DARASBARI MOSQUE in Gaur dated 884 AH
(1479) with a 30.32 metre ' 11.8l metre rectangular prayer chamber, both in Bangladesh (fig.6
and7). The verandahs used a variety of roofing devices: cross-vaults, as in the Gopalganj Mosque;
or domes; or combinations, as in the Darasbari Mosque. Built by Sultan Yusuf Shah in 884 AH the
latter once had a maqsura in the northwest corner approached by a flight of steps outside the north
wall. The terracotta decoration that fills the tympana of the mihrabs in the interior is remarkable for
its liveliness and deep relief.
 Fig. 6: Gopalganj Mosque plan

Deviations within the style prove the dynamism of 15th century architecture. From the middle of this
century there is a homogenous group of monuments in southern Bengal known after KHAN JAHAN.
His title Ulugh Khan-I-Azam suggests that he was an ethnic Turk and a high ranking officer in the
Bengal Sultanate. He is popularly credited with Islamising and clearing forests in the area that now
comprises the Bagerhat, Khulna, Jhenaidah, Jessore, and Patuakhali districts of Bangladesh. He is
said to have founded KHALIFATABAD, with its administrative centre of Haveli Khalifatabad, presently
identified with Bagerhat. The majority of the Khan Jahan style mosques are located in this area.

They range from very large to small in size, and include an unusual square, nine-domed type.
Although rooted in the 15th century architectural tradition of Bengal, their stark, unadorned exteriors,
circular engaged corner towers, and massive appearance show considerable influence from Tughluq
architecture of Delhi. The most important example of this group is the SHATGUMBAD MOSQUE in
Bagerhat, the largest mosque in Bangladesh (fig. 8). The mosque has eleven bays and seven
aisles, with the largest bay in the centre. This central bay is divided into seven independent,
rectangular bays that are covered by the chau'-chalas; this being the earliest use of the form in
Bengal. It connects the largest entrance in the east to the largest mihrab, and divides the mosque
into northern and southern wings.

The interiors of the miniature chau-chalas have thin, raised bands of brick that imitate the rafters and
purlins of bamboo hut frames. The rest of the bays also terminate in mihrabs except the one
immediately north of the central mihrab, which has an entrance doorway reserved for the imam so
that he can enter directly from behind the mosque.
 Fig. 7: Darasbari Mosque plan

There are seven entrances each on the north and south sides. It seems that the stone pillars once
had brick casings, because there are traces of brickwork around some of their bases. The bare
exterior walls are articulated by recesses. The curved cornice comes to a point over the central
arched doorway in the east, resulting in a triangular shaped pediment, which is probably derived
from the gable ends of do-chala huts. The four circular tapering corner towers are domed, and the
two in front have staircases inside, making these the only ascendable towers attached to a mosque
in this period. The monumental gateway in the east indicates that there was probably once an
enclosing wall around the mosque.

Besides the tomb in Bagerhat the only other dated monument in the Khan Jahan group is
the MASJIDBARI MOSQUE of 876 AH (1471-72 AD) in Mirzaganj, Patuakhali district. This mosque not
only indicates the extent of influence of the Khan Jahan Style, but also helps us map the southern
limits of Sultan Barbak Shahs kingdom to whose reign it is dated. It is also the only extant mosque
with a large chau -chala vault covering the entire verandah. The interior of the vault shows how
meticulously the terracotta decoration was used to simulate the patterns of woven bamboo
strips (fig. 9)

Fig. 8: Shatgumbad Mosque, Bagerhat

Three of the four nine-domed mosques in Bangladesh, the NINE-DOMED MOSQUE in Bagerhat,
the MASJIDKUR MOSQUE in Khulna, and the QASBA MOSQUE in Barisal are in the Khan Jahan style;
the SATOIR MOSQUE in Faridpur, being of a slightly later date. Fairly large in size, in plan and
elevation they are enlargements of the square, single-domed type of mosque. A typical one is the
Masjidkur Mosque in Khulna where the interior is about 12.19 metres square and the walls are 2.20
metres thick (fig. 10).

Four pillars in the centre divide the interior into nine equal square bays, each one covered by a
dome. There are three entrances on each of the east, north and south sides. According to
convention, the three mihrabs in the west wall are on axis with the front entrances. The only earlier
building of this plan is the chamber attached to the west wall of the Adina Mosque in Hazrat Pandua,
popularly believed to be the tomb of Sultan Sikandar Shah, the patron of the Adina.

Fig. 9: Masjidbari Mosque, Patuakhali

There are no pre-Islamic examples of nine-bayed buildings in Bengal, but such mosques are known,
though not common, throughout the Islamic world; they are rare in other parts of India. In Bengal
they were discontinued after the Sultanate period, but there are nine-bayed tombs in later Mughal
times throughout the subcontinent. The building type, perhaps imported from the central Islamic
lands, became popular because it was entirely covered, and thus met the need for sheltered space
for assembly in Bengal. In usage it became thoroughly Bengalised, and gives the impression of a
large square building where the single-domed square unit has been multiplied. A nine-domed
building was the only solution if a symmetrical enlargement of the popular square, single-domed
mosque was desired, while still retaining the emphasised central mihrab. Compared to the smallness
of the single-domed mosques, these were large and most certainly built for the Friday congregation.
 Fig. 10: Masjidkur Mosque plan

Sultanate architecture of the 16th century includes buildings of the Husain Shahi (1494-1538), Suri
(1538-63) and Karrani periods (1563-1575), before the takeover by the Mughals in 1576. The
general peace and prosperity brought about by the Husain Shahi rulers resulted in a large number of
buildings of a rather uniform style. Although the Bengal style spread as far as Bihar and Assam at
this time, there was nothing outstanding or innovative in design. Craftsmen seemed to occupy
themselves with refining decoration and details.

Fig. 11: Chhoto Sona mosque plan

There are several mosques both in West Bengal and Bangladesh that represent this late Sultanate
style. Tiles, which had appeared in a restrained manner in the 14th (Adina Mosque) and 15th (Khan
Jahan's Tomb) centuries, are now in profusion as in the LATTAN MOSQUE in Gaur, West Bengal.
Stone is also sometimes used to encase brick, as in the Bara Sona and Chhota Sona mosques in
Gaur, (West Bengal, and Bangladesh), Sura and the Kusumba mosques in Dinajpur and Raishahi,
Bangladesh.

The Chhota Sona Mosque in Gaur (fig. 11) dates by inscription to the reign of Sultan Alauddin
Husain Shah (1494-1519), and was built by one Wali Muhammad, a high official in the royal court.
This rectangular mosque is completely faced with stone in the exterior, while inside there is stone up
to the springing of the arches. Pillars, pilasters, and the maqsura platform in the northwest corner
are of stone. CUNNINGHAM also reports seeing screens of trelliswork, now disappeared, which used
to partition off the platform, entrance to which was from the exterior northwest side. In this five-bayed
mosque the central bay is wider than the others and has chau-chala vaults instead of domes, as in
the earlier Shatgumbad and Darasbari mosques.

Fig. 12: Bagha Mosque, Rajshahi

There is abundant stone carving in low relief in the exterior, and ornamental niches within
rectangular panels, rosette and kalasa (pot) motifs that are used repeatedly. There are similar motifs
in the mihrabs inside, but the central mihrab is bare and the stone structure is now believed to be in
the Royal Scottish Museum in Edinburgh.

The BAGHA MOSQUE in Rajshahi (fig. 12) was built by Sultan NUSRAT SHAH (1519-32), son of Husain
Shah in 930 AH (1523-24). This rectangular mosque is within an enclosed courtyard, to be entered
by a gate. Four pillars in the north-south direction divide the interior space into two aisles and five
bays, each of the resulting ten bays being covered by a dome. The presence of a mihrab on an
upper level in the northwestern bay indicates there was a maqsura platform in that corner that must
have been approached by a flight of stairs in the east, although no trace of platform or staircase
exists.
 Fig. 13: Terracotta Ornamentation, Bagha Mosque

It is also possible that a platform was planned but never built. The mosque is profusely decorated
with terracotta, and the style is so distinctive that several monuments are dated stylistically to the
early 16th century on the basis of similarity to the 'Bagha style'. Rectangular panels with cusped
arches and hanging motifs are predominant in the decorative scheme (fig. 13).

The hanging ornament has lost its earlier vegetal quality and become highly ornamental,
approximating jewelry design. The rectangular frames of the three large mihrabs in the interior have
panels with niches holding flowering rose, fruiting pomegranate and mango trees.

Fig. 14: Kusumba Mosque plan

The Mosque at Kusumba, Rajshahi, dated by inscription to 966 AH (1558-59), is a rectangular six-
domed mosque of two aisles and three bays whose exterior is entirely faced with stone (fig. 14). It is
one of the last major monuments of the Sultanate period, and recalls plans of the earlier mosque of
Muazzampur of 1435-36 and Baba Adams Mosque at Rampal of 1483 in Bangladesh. It also
anticipates the single-aisled, three-bayed plans of the end of the 16th century.

The stone-faced interior and exterior, curved cornice, engaged corner turrets, and the maqsura
platform in the northwest corner belong to the tradition of the Chhoto Sona Mosque.
 Fig.15: Kusumba Mosque Central Mihrab, Rajshahi

The platforms of these two non-imperial mosques prove that they were used not only by the king, but
others of high position to separate themselves from the masses during prayer. All the decoration is
on carved stone, and on the exterior a prominent moulding divides the wall into upper and lower
sections. The outside stone facing is coarse and the carving is in shallow relief. Inside, the mihrabs
and the platform supports are very elaborately carved. There are bunches of grapes, serpentine
vines, and kalasas; tendrils and rosettes are reduced to dots (fig. 15). Although AKBAR conquered
Bengal in 1576, it was many decades before the resistance of powerful local landlords could be
crushed, and it was only in 1613 that the whole of Bengal was firmly integrated into the Mughal
empire. Two mosques in Bangladesh built by the Qaqshals, one of the rebel Afghan clans, occupy
key positions in the transformation of the Sultanate style to Mughal.

[Image:KheruaMosquePlan.jpg|thumb|400px|left|Fig. 16: Kherua Mosque plan]] These are

the CHATMOHAR MOSQUE, Pabna, dated 989 AH (1581-82), and the Kherua mosque in Sherpur (fig.
16) dated 989 AH (1582). These mosques used the single-aisled, three-bayed plan, which was to
become the plan par excellence for Mughal mosques in Bengal from the 17th century onwards. In
elevation the octagonal corner towers, the curved cornice, low drumless domes, brick surface and
pointed arches link them to the Sultanate style.

In contrast to the buildings of the Sultanate period, which have a marked regional character, Mughal
buildings are constructed within the imperial tradition of Delhi and Agra, but are more subdued than
contemporary architecture elsewhere in the subcontinent. As in Sultanate times, Mughal mosques
consist of only a prayer hall, which is now single-aisled with three or five bays. The exterior surfaces
are plastered and paneled, the cornices are straight, and the buildings look less ponderous than
Sultanate ones because of the higher domes.
 Fig.17: Lalbagh Fort Mosque, Dhaka

A refined Mughal provincial style was developed in the capital city of Dhaka in the 17th century. The
Lalbagh Fort Mosque in Dhaka dated 1059 AH (1649) and 1194 AH (1780) conforms to the typical
Mughal mosque plan. Located inside the fort, closest to the river, it was probably the earliest building
on the site (fig. 17).

Lateral arches in the interior divide the rectangular structure into three bays, the central one being
the largest. The building is plastered, and the entire east facade is divided into small rectangular
panels; the engaged tapering corner turrets have regularly spaced horizontal mouldings. The three
doors in front are placed within recessed arches with half-domes ornamented with faceted stucco
motifs. The straight cornice is embellished with a row of merlons; its height varies, the central
section, which corresponds to the largest bay, being the highest. Inside, the north and south walls
have panels like the exterior, and the stucco motifs of the entrances are repeated in the three
mihrabs.

Fig. 18: Satgumbad mosque, Dhaka

The 1780 date, now whitewashed, must refer to the restoration of the mosque when the domes were
reconstructed, because fluted domes such as these, especially like the side ones which have a
restricted shape, are more common in the late 18th century architecture of Murshidabad. The
domes, placed over drums, are higher than their Sultanate counterparts.

The SATGUMBAD MOSQUE in Dhaka, also of the second half of the 17th century, has a unique
character (fig. 18). Although the main prayer chamber has the regular three-bayed plan, enormous
double-storied, domed corner pavilions replace the usual engaged turrets. The three domes of the
prayer chamber together with the four corner ones add up to a total of seven, thus giving the
mosque its name.

While mosques in Dhaka reflect the imperial style of Delhi, the Sultanate style lived on in several
mosques that were built away from the capital. The ATIYA MOSQUE in Tangail district in Bangladesh
was built in 1018 AH (1609) by Sayyid Khan Panni. It is a single-domed, square mosque with a
three-domed verandah in front, engaged octagonal corner towers and curved cornice.

Its weightiness, suggested by the relatively small entrance arches as well as the ornamental style of
the exterior surface which is broken up into numerous small niches (fig. 19), recalls Sultanate
monuments, eg the KADAM RASUL (1530) and JAHANIYAN MOSQUE (1535) of Gaur, West Bengal.

Fig.19: Atiya Mosque, Tangail

But the drums of the domes, the lotus finials, and the merlon decoration are Mughal. SADI MOSQUE in
Egarasindur, Bangladesh dated 1062 AH (1652) is another mosque that harks back to Sultanate
times.

Two mosques in Dhaka dating from the early 18th century mark the termination of the high tradition
of Mughal architecture which had begun a hundred years earlier.
These are KARTALAB KHANS MOSQUE in Begumbazar, which he reportedly built during his residence
in Dhaka between 1700-1703, and Khan Muhammad Mridhas Mosque in Lalbagh dated by
inscription to 1116 AH (1704-05). Both are built on raised terraces with vaulted rooms in the plinth
that were used for shops or for madrasa students. Both are single-aisled, and while Mridhas
Mosque has three bays, Kartalab Khans has five. An unusual feature of Kartalab Khans Mosque is
the room with a pitched do-chala roof with drooping eaves that is attached to the north side of the
mosque (fig. 20)

Fig. 20: Kartalab Khan Mosque, Dhaka

By 1717 MURSHIDABAD became the last Mughal capital of Bengal. The earliest surviving and most
significant of the monuments that were built to embellish this capital is the Jami Mosque, also known
as the KATRA MOSQUE, built 1137 AH \1724-25 (fig. 21). The name comes from the domed chambers
that surround the mosque on all four sides, which are locally known to have served as a market but
have been described also as a madrasa. In accordance to his wishes, MURSHID QULI KHAN was
buried under the entrance to this mosque.

Fig. 21: Katra Mosque, Murshidabad

The largest Mughal mosque in Bengal, the Katra Mosque is now ruined. This single-aisled, five-
bayed mosque sits on a high plinth about 54 metres square. Although the plan is typically Mughal, its
massiveness, and the ornamental style of its exterior surface, like the Atiya recalls the Jahaniyan
Mosque of Gaur of Sultanate times, and contrasts with the elegant Mughal buildings in Dhaka. The
rounded shape of the cusped arches may indicate an early European influence, and the harking
back to the Sultanate style symbolizes the break with Delhi just as quarrels among the successors
of AURANGZEB was leading to the decline of Mughal power there. [Perween Hasan]

Bibliography Alexander Cunningham, Report of a Tour in Bihar and Bengal in 1879-80, The
Archaeological Survey of India Report, XV, Calcutta, 1882; A H Dani, Muslim Architecture in Bengal,
Dacca, 1961; S M Hasan, Mosque Architecture of Pre-Mughal Bengal, (2nd ed), Dacca, 1979;
George Michell (ed), The Islamic Heritage of Bengal. Unesco, Paris,1984; Perween Hasan, Art and
Architecture, in Sirajul Islam (ed), History of Bangladesh 1704-1971, 2nd ed, Dhaka, 1997.

Mosque Architecture in Bangladesh: The Archetype and Its Changing

Morphology.
by Ishrat Islam , Allen G. Noble
Abstract. Bangladesh possesses a rich early heritage involving two great religions, Hinduism and Buddhism. These
two beliefs, with their political patronization, developed an architectural vocabulary expressing their spiritual desire
and aspiration. Later, when Muslims invaded India, they brought a different architectural approach, evident in their
secular and religious structures all over the Indian subcontinent. Muslims built mosques with the use of imported
features modified by local culture, climate, tradition, materials, and technology. From that period through the
present, mosques in Bangladesh have developed a unique style in terms of architecture. The notion of mosque
architecture has been changing over time, according to the desires of the ruling class and the common people as
well. This study presents tangible evidence of the changing morphology of mosque architecture, and identifies the
influencing factors that initiated the development over the ages.
Architecture is the carrier of the social, political, and cultural history of a nation. Whenever we speak of an
architectural style or pattern, we have to look behind to search for the history, culture and, above all, the aspirations
of the people of that period. Bangladesh, formerly part of undivided Bengal, by virtue of its remote location at the
northeastern extremity of the Indian subcontinent, remained undisturbed by external forces for thousands of years.
The architectural heritage of Bangladesh dates back to the third century C.E. From that ancient time the country
cradled two major religions, Hinduism and Buddhism, and it was marked by religion-based politics. The architectural
relics of that period are basically religious buildings, largely because domestic structures of that time were built of
less permanent materials. The Buddhist monasteries and Hindu temples, although now mostly in dilapidated
condition, can still give us an idea of their architectural characteristics. The orientation, geometric configuration, use
of local materials, and sense of proportions prove that, in ancient times, people of Bengal were sensitive to the
highest demands of the forms and techniques of building and architecture. The advent of Islam in Bengal in the
thirteenth century was of a different dimension than in the rest of India. In India, it was a political and military
conquest over the Hindu dominion. But in Bengal, it occurred with less political and social upheaval because of the
conversion of upper class Bengalis to Islam long before the invasion (Zahiruddin 1990, 17-24).
Because of the long heritage of the Buddhist and Hindu periods, this region developed a rich architectural
vocabulary of its own. On the other hand, when the Muslims invaded India, they already possessed a highly
developed style of mosque architecture, distinguished by the arch, the dome, the minaret, and the mihrab, features
common in mosques everywhere. Such architectural features imported by Muslims, together with the prevailing
vocabulary of architecture of the region, gave birth to a unique Islamic architectural style. The climate of
Bangladesh, available local materials, and skilled native craftsmanship were considered and explored accordingly by
the Muslim builders. Since then, a unique type of mosque architecture has played a significant role in the history of
the building art of Bangladesh.
Fundamental Principles of Islam and Their Interpretation in the Mosque
Muslims erected mosques wherever necessary to meet the fundamental religious requirement of congregational
prayers five times a day. Thus, the mosque became the symbol and the central feature of the Islamic way of life,
and it formed an inseparable part of Muslim settlements over the course of time. In a Muslim majority country like
Bangladesh, mosques serve as the focal point of each neighborhood. Apart from their principal religious purpose,
mosques also act as a nucleus of sociocultural activities and as a symbol of identity in a locality.
Any analysis of architectural design inherently deals with the properties of lines, proportion, surfaces, and forms
arranged in space. Calligraphy, geometry, and garden design are the three fields in which Muslims have made
marked contributions. Of the three, garden design has the least relevance to the design and development of mosque
architecture. The spiritual divinity and the religious essence of Islam were successfully translated into mosque
architecture with the help of different formal and geometric approaches. The purity of geometric form has been
augmented and enhanced by calligraphy in lieu of animate decoration.
As a monotheistic religion, Islam differs from the Buddhist and Hindu faiths. Also, Muslims pray in large
congregations. Their rituals are simple and do not permit any symbolism. Islam also discards a priesthood. These
criteria historically encouraged an open mosque design, extrovert in nature, allowing light to penetrate rather than
creating the mystic interior darkness common to structures of other religions. The mosque had clarity, a strong
axiality (east to west), and had a sense of transition and purification through changes of levels and framing of views
(Qureshi 1955, 34-35).
By contrast, Hindus and Buddhists accentuate symbolism, and their form of worship involves individual visits to the
image of the deity where large congregations are not necessary. Hindus traditionally decorate their buildings with
plastic modeling, images of deities, and lesser figures are often used as motifs of ornamentation. Decoration is as
important as form and design.
Mosque architecture in Bangladesh rejected the introvert geometry and mysticism of Hindu and Buddhist temples.
Islamic architecture emphasizes the use of color, geometry, and calligraphy. Prohibition of figurative ornamentation
in Islam encouraged the calligraphic medium to flourish. The excellence in the work of calligraphy on the surfaces of
mosques introduced an added dimension in ornamentation.
Although the component parts, which together constitute the mosque, have never varied basically in either function
or meaning, the different architectural forms, features, construction technology, and available material generated a
region-specific identity to this archetype in different parts of the world. For example, the traditional hypostyle plan of
the mosque with an enclosed courtyard, an idea imported from western Asia, in many cases was abandoned in favor
of designs more suited to local climate, tradition, and needs.
Mosque Architecture in Bangladesh and Its Different Phases of Evolution
The degree of synthesis of the prevailing Hindu and Buddhist architecture with the Muslim provided the Islamic
architecture of this region with a new dimension. An Indo-Islamic style of Bengal flourished in mosque architecture.
The newly introduced architectural features presented by Muslims such as domes, arches, minarets, mihrabs, and
the extrovert nature of the mosques clearly distinguish mosque architecture from temple architecture, though in
many ways the Islamic architecture of Bengal was influenced by prevailing Hindu styles. Throughout the Indian
subcontinent mosque architecture has distinctive provincial styles characterized by indigenous art, tradition, culture,
local climate, availability of material, and performances of highly-skilled local artisans.
The mosque architecture of Bengal is based fundamentally upon the building tradition of western and central Asia
(Muktadir 1990, 75). Yet, Muslims were receptive to local potentials and the outcome was the creation of a unique
architecture combining local skills, craftsmanship, and material with already accepted traditions. Through the
analysis and examination of architectural elements, forms, layout, and building material, the mosque architecture of
Bangladesh can be analyzed under the following four phases: (1) the pre-Mogul or Sultanate period (1204-1576
C.E.), (2) the Mogul period (1576-1757 C.E.), (3) the British colonial period (1757-1947 C.E.), and (4) the
contemporary period (1948 to present).
The Pre-Mogul or Sultanate Period
Mosques were a new building type introduced to Bengal during the Sultanate period. Although the initial design
ideas were imported from the West, a unique local architectural style rapidly developed (Hasan 1984, 253). Though
Bengal later became a province in the Mogul Empire, earlier it enjoyed independent rule for about three and a half
centuries. It was during this early period when the architecture of Bengal flourished and developed its own identity.
Four features serve collectively to differentiate the mosques built during the Sultanate period in Bangladesh. These
features represent the modification of mosque design to accommodate the local cultural and environmental
conditions of Bangladesh. The minaret has become one of the identifying features of mosque architecture in
Bangladesh. Besides its primary function to ensure that adhan (call for prayer) can be heard from the maximum
distance, it acts as a local landmark. It was not until the fourteenth or fifteenth centuries that the building of
minarets became universal in Bangladesh (Frishman 1994, 40). In pre-Mogul and Mogul mosques of Bangladesh,
with a few exceptions such as the Shat Gumbad Mosque of the mid-fifteenth century, there was an absence of
minarets. Local scholars have attempted to explain this circumstance from several different viewpoints. Some say
the minaret had been deliberately rejected in earlier mosques of Bengal as it was not found in mosques of Medina
during the prophet's time. Another group of scholars suggests a geographical explanation. Most of Bangladesh is
characterized by flat land and dense vegetation. Thus, minarets were not easily visible from any distance and
therefore they had limited utility to mark the location of the structure.
Another unusual characteristic of pre-Mogul mosques of Bangladesh is the multiple mihrabs in the qibla (west) wall.
Each mihrab corresponds to an aisle and doorway. This arrangement, which is not found in mosques, elsewhere,
may be based upon the convention of a doorway corresponding to a niche for an image, a feature common to Hindu
temples (Hasan 1994, 161). This design appears to be a case of cultural borrowing. The size of each of these
mosque doors is also instructive. Elsewhere the doors are large, especially very tall, but in Bangladesh the doors are
quite small even though large, false archways are traced on the facade of the structure. This change in mosque
design is an architectural adaptation to the climate of Bengal, where monsoon rains would penetrate the interior if
doorways were tall and large.
In most cases the site of a mosque includes a pond or a large tank. In the low-lying countryside: of Bangladesh the
pond is a by-product of the mosque construction process. Large amounts of earth were needed to raise the land
level for construction and to secure the site from periodic flooding. Also, large quantities of clay were required to
provide the raw material for brickmaking. Except in city mosques where land is scarce, most mosques have large
ponds. City mosques have only small ablution tanks or water taps.
The most readily available building material on the riverine and delta lands in Bengal is clay. The mosque
architecture in Bengal shows the wide acceptance of brick as a building material. In other parts of India stone was
the primary structural material. The mosques of pre-Mogul Bengal not only used brick as a construction material, but
also the unplastered exterior was ornamented with brick and terra-cotta decoration, which was also common in
temple architecture at that period.
The pre-Mogul mosques of Bengal are marked by ambitious planning, distinctive architectural features such as the
pointed arch, a curvilinear roof and cornice, carved brick designs, and glazed tile decoration. Pre-Mogul mosques of
Bangladesh may be classified in four separate groups (Hasan 1979): (a) the vault and domed type, (b) the square-
domed type, (c) the oblong multi-domed type, and (d) the hut-shaped or curvilinear type.
The Vault and Domed Type
This type is characterized by hemispherical roof domes without drums, corner towers, curved battlements, stone
carving, and the use of glazed tiles. The Adina Masjid (Bengali term for mosque) at Hazrat Pandua is a distinctive
example of the earliest design phase. The large open courtyard at the center of the structure is surrounded by an
oblong liwan (shaded portico) (Fig. 1). The design represents one introduced into Bangladesh from a drier
environment. Rapidly, however, mosque builders accommodated the local monsoon climate by changing the original
design to cover over the open courtyard by a series of hemispheric domes similar to those of the liwan. Such a
change necessitated the breaking up of the central unobstructed floor space by a series of columns or pillars to
support the roof domes (Fig. 2).
[Figures 1-2 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
The phenomenon of an arched facade was introduced in Bengal during the Sultanate period. The vault over the
nave of the Adina Masjid is one of the earliest attempted in Indo-Muslim architecture (Hasan 1979, 72). Currently in
a dilapidated condition, this mosque illustrates brick-and-stone construction, where stone is used as a veneer to
conceal the brickwork of the core.
Square-Domed Roof Type
The square-domed roof type of mosque from the pre-Mogul phase is distinguished by a cubical prayer hall (with or
without antechamber), corner towers, wall paneling with offsets and recesses, mihrab projections in the qibla wall,
curved cornice, stone casing, stucco design, glazed tiles, and moldings.
An excellent example is the Lattan Mosque at Gaur (1475). It consists of a 34 ft. square room with an 11 ft. deep
antechamber (Fig. 3). There are three arched entrances on the east. The battlements and cornice are very gently
curved, above which rise the three domes of the veranda and the large dome over the central hall. The middle
dome of the veranda is of the chauchala (four-sided) type.
[Figure 3 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
The four circular corner towers in the Lattan Mosque are characteristic features for pre-Mogul mosques. The
curvilinear cornice, which is typical of later Bengali architecture, appears first in this mosque. The whole surface of
the mosque was initially covered with glazed tiles in geometric patterns, but these have mostly disappeared.
Oblong Multi-Domed Type
Typical architectural components of this typology include a rectangular plan, aisles, bays, hemispherical domes,
pointed-arched entrance, curved cornice, corner towers, paneled walls, stone casing, jali (semi-transparent screens)
windows, stucco and glazed tiles, and stone chiseling. The Mosque of Baba Adam at Rampal, Dhaka (1483) is an
excellent example. This six-domed congregational mosque has an oblong plan measuring 43 ft. x 36 ft. It is divided
into two aisles by a three-arched colonnade running longitudinally (Fig. 4). The mosque incorporates a number of
beautifully carved stone pillars. It also has a curved cornice and octagonal corner towers. The mosque is renovated,
and the old ornamentations have unfortunately disappeared.
[Figure 4 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
The Hut-Shaped or Curvilinear Type
The architects of pre-Mogul Bengal experimented with a unique roof structure commonly known as the hut-shaped
or curvilinear roof. At an early period Bengalis evolved curved types of roofs made of bamboo and reeds to cover
their humble cottages. The curvilinear form allowed flexible materials to assume shapes facilitating rapid drainage in
this region of heavy monsoon rainfall. These roofs usually took two forms: do-chala (two slopes), chau-chala (four
slopes). These forms of roof structure were translated into brickwork in permanent structures, and then in later
periods incorporated into mosques, tombs, and temples of Bengal. Such roofs have been termed the "Bangla roof"
(Fig. 5).
[Figure 5 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
An example is provided by the Chhoto Sona Mosque (1493-1519). The interior of the mosque is divided into three
longitudinal aisles and five bays by stone pillars. The middle bay, which is larger than the side ones, is roofed over
by three Bangla (chauchala) roofs. The side bays are covered by hemispherical domes, the interiors of which show
decoration copied from bamboo framework, a design which emphasizes the local character of the dome (Dani 1961,
138). The mosque has an open court and an arched gateway. The exterior of the brick walls is faced with gray
basalt, the surface of which is carved to emulate contemporary terra-cotta design (Hasan 1994, 162).
The Mogul Period
Indo-Islamic architectural styles started in the imperial capitals of Delhi, Agra, and Fatehpur Sikri in the sixteenth
century and appeared in the provinces as these areas were brought under the Mogul Empire. Although in every
provincial context there were special features rooted in the vernacular tradition, the Mogul style in mosque
architecture had a universality recognized throughout. In contrast to the buildings of the Sultanate period, which are
characterized by regional identity, Mogul mosques followed an imperial tradition. The principal elements introduced
by the Mogul architects were dominant central domes and tall axial entrances. Arches became graceful; four
centered arches were introduced instead of the earlier two arches. Traditional terra-cotta art was replaced by
reiterated plaster panels. Straight, horizontal panels substituted for the curved cornices of the pre-Mogul structures.
Bengal became a province of the Mogul Empire and was ruled from Delhi by the governors of Bengal (1576).
Although the Moguls are termed "the great builders" in the history of Indian architecture, their efforts in Bengal
were subdued compared to the ongoing contemporary architecture being practiced elsewhere in the subcontinent.
The Bengali architectural tradition that had been generated during the pre-Mogul period, was disrupted by the
Moguls. The traditional expression of brickwork with terra-cotta decoration was abandoned for the use of plastered
surfaces. The typical three-domed mosques of the Mogul period replaced the multi-domed mosques of pre-Mogul
times.
Mogul mosques are classified in the following four categories according to the varying ground plans and roofing
patterns: (a) the single-domed type, (b) the bungalow type, (c) the three-domed type, and (d) mosques on a raised
platform.
The Single-Domed Type
Perhaps the best example is the Allakuri Mosque (1680). It is located at Shaka and has a square plan with projecting
fronts at the middle of each side, which provided doorways for the east, north, and south sides (Fig. 6). Four corner
towers are each crowned by a plastered kiosk and parapet. The thickness of the wall keeps the interior cool. The
dome is carried on squinches and is crowned by a finial (Fig. 6). The dome comes into its own with the Moguls and
the influence of Persian design is clearly' seen. It also provides an easily recognizable symbol of empire.
[Figure 6 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
The Bungalow Type
Churihatta Mosque (1649) may be taken as a typical example. It is characterized by a chauchala roof rather than
domes, and has an oblong plan with four corner towers. Three doorways, formed by two successive arches, provide
entrance from the eastern side. The facades are decorated with panels and a straight parapet.
The Three-Domed Type
The most common type of Mogul masjid in Bengal is the rectangular three-domed mosque. Either all the domes
were uniform or the central dome was larger than the other two. Such a mosque style had its roots in Persia. One of
the finest examples of this kind, where the central dome is larger, is the Lalbagh Fort Mosque (1678-79 C.E.), with
an oblong plan (Fig. 7). The structure is roofed over by three fluted, bulbous domes, resting on drums. Three arched
entrance doorways are adorned by cuspid arches. The facade is decorated with rectangular panels. The mosque is
buttressed by four octagonal towers, capped by cupolas. Parapets are straight instead of the curvilinear cornice of
pre-Mogul types.
[Figure 7 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Mosques on a Raised Platform
The Khan Muhammad Mirdha Mosque (1704-05) stands on a 16.5 ft. raised platform, supported by a series of
vaulted chambers (Fig. 8). Of rectangular plan, it is a three-domed type with the prayer chamber in the upper floor
level. The terrace is approached from the east by a flight of steps in front of the hall. The corner minarets are
terminated with ribbed cupolas. Three squat shouldered domes cover the roof. Facades are ornamented with
paneling. The interior of the hall is divided into three bays by two lateral arches, each containing a decorated
mihrab.
[Figure 8 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
The mosque architecture of the Moguls was terminated by the arrival of the British. Mogul political collapse was
reflected in a general decline in arts, including architecture.
Mosque Design During the British Colonial Period
The architectural legacy of the British colonial period in Bangladesh is not very rich. In Bengal during the middle of
the eighteenth century, the western region, particularly the areas in and around Calcutta, was the main focus of
political and administrative power (Ahmed 1986, 22). The eastern part, which later became Bangladesh with its
largely rural area, was neglected for about two centuries of British rule. From a completely different culture,
tradition, religion, and background, the British rulers were always treated as alien, never being accepted by the local
people. The British imported a new style of architecture. Among the religious buildings, a number of churches were
built by the Christian Missions under the patronization of the government. Mosque architecture in Bangladesh, after
the decline of the Moguls, was exposed to this new influence.
No longer the product of direction and patronage of the ruling class, mosques had become an architectural
expression of the common people. Mosques built within this period were mostly initiated and supported by locally
influential people. The period did not generate any specific innovative design characteristics. Most mosques followed
the common Mogul style of a three-domed structure with an oblong plan and octagonal corner towers. A few,
however, are significant for their extensive and elaborate ornamentation.
One of the most ornate and attractive mosques of Dhaka built during the colonial period is the Tara Masjid.
Originally constructed in the late eighteenth century, :it was renovated and given an impressive look during the early
twentieth century. It was initially a three-domed mosque with octagonal corner towers, the middle dome larger than
the others. During the renovation, a northern extension was added with two more domes, which were completely
irrelevant to the entire structure. Both the interior and the exterior of the mosque are highly decorated with colored
tiles in various geometric patterns. Imported Japanese materials and China tiles were used for the ornamentation.
Contemporary Mosque Architecture
With the partition of the subcontinent in 1947, Bangladesh (then East Pakistan) entered into a new era of
development. Building activities during this period have been mostly utilitarian. Mosques have experienced two
major trends in their architectural methods and developments, which can be characterized as mosques erected by
the common people, and mosques designed by formally trained architects.
Mosques Erected by the People
Mosques are a part of the social life of the people of Bangladesh. They act as a community center and are a
landmark for a community. To meet the religious requirement of congregational prayers five times a day, residents
of a community need a mosque within walking distance. This necessity encourages them to take initiatives to erect
mosques within each locality. These community mosques may be supported by wealthy local people, but all other
members of the community contribute toward the construction, according to individual capability and desire. In most
cases the builder or the designer of the mosque is guided by general religious norms for the mosque design.
Because of economic constraints, scarcity of land, and the absence of the involvement of trained designers,
architectural features and forms in most of the cases, are neglected. Such mosques are usually constructed in
stages depending on the availability of funds. Construction starts with building a simple shelter of temporary or
semi-permanent nature, and gradually develops to the final stage with additions of different architectural
components. A tall minaret is often considered essential as it makes the mosque a landmark for the locality.
These neighborhood mosques often expand vertically due to limitation of land. As they are initially developed in
response to a common necessity and develop through different phases of construction, the planning and design
issues are not well considered. As a result, the final product often lacks aesthetic appeal. In most instances, domes
and minarets are not placed in what would be considered the proper place in the view of professionally trained
architects. Minarets, sometimes springing from the roof, are visually isolated from the remaining structure. Baitus
Sajud Jami Masjid is one such example (Fig. 9). Though the architectural and formal aspects of these mosques are
not appealing, most are highly decorated with geometric and formal patterns and calligraphic inscriptions on their
exterior facades, minarets, semi-transparent screens, window bars, and floors.
[Figure 9 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
These mosques are far more than merely a place of worship and the product of the participatory efforts of the
common people. Architecturally, they feature elements from Mogul styles and exploit the contemporary building
technology and materials. These mosques, being a symbol of the society, represent the spirit of the common people,
and are a spontaneous expression of the people's notion of architecture.
Mosques Designed by Formally Trained Architects
In recent years, an increasing number of mosques have been designed by formally trained architects. Analysis of
these mosques reveals the architects' interpretation of the archetype. They are generally guided by concepts
evolved from religious perspectives. Architects emphasize the sequence of spaces according to the function, axiality
in plan, and openness and clarity of the forms of a mosque. A simple and rational approach to the interpretation of a
mosque is the contemporary trend initiated in the early 1960s when the Baitul Mukarram Mosque was built (Fig. 10).
Its plan was modeled on the holy Kaaba and also shows many fascinating features of Moorish architecture such as
tall, slender pillars and horseshoe arches. The four-story prayer hall is designed as a cube and set on a high podium.
This monumental religious structure is a significant landmark in Dhaka.
[Figure 10 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
At the present time, professional architects are more concerned with the concept of form and space and the scale of
the structure, rather than surface ornamentation. Fragmented exterior surfaces designed with familiar elements are
employed to bring the building down to human scale, instead of a monumental or overwhelming exterior treatment.
Savar Memorial Mosque in Dhaka District is a good example of such practices (Fig. 11). Another structure, Purto
Bhaban Mosque in Dhaka explores the plastic nature of concrete and plays with clarity of space and quality of light
and shade as well (Fig. 12). Other examples may be found where architects abandon the well-established norm of
dome and minaret. Damra Factory Mosque near Dhaka and the mosque at the Bangladesh Rice Research Institute
at Gazipur show such avoidance of traditional approaches.
[Figures 11-12 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
On the other hand, some contemporary architects are exploring traditional architecture in terms of form, features,
and the use of material and construction methods for designing mosques. The Rural Development Academy Central
Mosque at Bogra and Bakshi Bazaar Mosque at the Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology in Dhaka
are built with exposed bricks, which is an indigenous material of architecture of this region. Different experiments
with the archetype reveal various aspects through which architects are trying to explore the available resources and
at the same time consider the traditional and fundamental concepts of mosque architecture. The role of professional
architects is encouraging because they are dealing sensitively with an archetype with 800 years of history.
Conclusion
This brief discussion of the evolution of mosque architecture in Bangladesh identifies certain factors that initiated the
changes of architectural approaches over the course of time. During the pre-Mogul and Mogul periods, political
power was the driving force for architectural development. Additionally, the need to adapt to local conditions can be
seen clearly.
The Sultans of Bengal were sympathetic to local tradition, art, and culture, which helped the building art of that
period to flourish with a regional identity. Both mosques and temples were excellent examples of using local
materials, skilled technology, and forms. The Muslim Sultans blended consciously and delicately the imported West
Asian Islamic styles with the well-established regional practice and enriched the architecture of that time.
The Moguls, following the Sultanate period, erected their best works in Delhi, Agra, and Fatehpur Sikri, neglecting
Bangladesh, which was a remote eastern part of India. In fact, the trends and developments in regional sensitivity
and indigenous approaches were interrupted with the advent of the Moguls. The imported Indo-Islamic style of the
Moguls abandoned the highly developed terracotta decoration, curved cornices, and use of multi-domes in mosque
architecture. But nonetheless, the Moguls did construct impressive mosques, tombs, and mausoleums.
With the introduction of the British colonial period, secular structures drew major attention. The different and
opposite religious beliefs of the ruling class were another reason which discouraged the development of mosque
architecture at this period.
As in any other field of architecture, mosque construction in the contemporary period has been influenced by the
recent availability of varied building and finish materials. The modern building technology also has profoundly
influenced development trends, although the climate of the region plays a vital role in shaping the spatial and formal
pattern of mosques. Introduction of semi-open verandas, enclosed prayer spaces instead of only open courtyards,
openness within the structure, cross ventilation, and recessed windows with adequate shading from sun and rain are
appropriate responses of the architects towards the local climatic demands. In the case of contemporary mosque
architecture, the desire and aspiration of the common people and their acceptance of innovative features offers a
challenge to the skill, consciousness, and training of the local architects.
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Ishrat Islam is a doctoral student in Planning at the University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325.
Allen G. Noble is Distinguished Professor of Geography and Planning, University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325.
-Publication Information: Article Title: Mosque Architecture in Bangladesh: The Archetype and Its Changing
Morphology. Contributors: Ishrat Islam - author, Allen G. Noble - author. Journal Title: Journal of Cultural
Geography. Volume: 17. Issue: 2. Publication Year: 1998. Page Number: 5.