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Midterm Activity
Thanh Phan
Due Date: October 15th, 11:55 PM

I. Introduction
Distance Education has become an important educational format that provides more
opportunities for people regardless of race, age, location and genders to pursue their educational
dreams. The study of the foundations of distance education frames the overall pictures of DE for
any teachers/educators who wish to work in the field. I consider this course as the blueprint for
learners to gain in-depth understandings about the field. The first half of the course covered the
Historical background and theories of DE, Research in DE, and Technology tools in DE. This
paper will briefly present the insights gained from the texts as well as additional sources
recommended from Module 2 to Module 5.
II. Historical Background (Module 2: Chapter 1&2)
1. Chapter 1: Foundations of Distance Education
In Chapter 1, Simonson et al. (2012) discuss the status of DE and also explain what DE
is as compared to traditional education, and present the field's impact on education and training.
The story of "Chemistry at a distance" was used as an introduction to DE in which
telecommunications technology was employed to make learning happened at a distance (p.3). It
was described that "The course became more like real chemistry-chemistry practice to solve
actual problems outside the school, involving experts from a number of areas brought together
because of their expertise , without regard for geography or time" (Simonson et al, 2012, p.4).
DE has become a major topic in education in the recent years, including both pros and cons
issues. There have been conflicting pressures on distance educators, i.e., students prefer to learn
in a classroom, but demand to be permitted to learn at a distance (p.5). DE has been existing in
different formats which are mostly known as online courses, blended or hybrid courses, and
virtual schools. The Florida Virtual School (late 1990s), the Arkansas Virtual School (2007),
Indiana University High School and the University of Missouri's Columbia High Schools are
examples of virtual schools.
The discussion about the effectiveness of DE showed that "distance education can be as
effective as any other category of instruction" (p.9). Simonson et al. (2010) stated that "The keys
to successful distance education are in the design, development, and delivery of instruction, and
are not related to geography or time". Media has been utilizing in DE with the purpose of
improving the quality of DE outcomes. However, arguing about the contributions and impacts of
media in DE has been a topic for debates. In earlier debates about media and DE, Clark (1983)
strongly proposed with his "mere vehicles" and "give up your enthusiasm" arguments that media
and technology did not directly affect learning (Simonson et al., 2012, p.13). Back in the 1960s,
Finn (1964, cited in Simonson, 2010, p.13) advocated that practitioners should attempt to
identify unique approaches for change by using new technologies in new ways.
The chapter also discusses the status of DE. The text stated that DE has a major and
varied impact worldwide. Simonson et al. (, p14-15) provided five examples of countries where
DE has been implemented. According to Simonson et al. (, p.14), Whereas politics and
economics influence how DE is employed, a strong demand exists in the world for DE
opportunities."
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Anadolu University in Turkey (1981): 500,000 DE students which makes it the largest
university on Earth (Demirary, 2005; Macwilliams, 2000, cited in Simonson et al., , p.14)
The Open University of Hong Kong (1989): The Open University accepts all applicants
In sub-Saharan African, though DE has the potential to contribute to national
reconstruction by providing economically feasible educational opportunities to many people, it
does not yet have a wide impact due to lack of funding.
China: In the 1980s, in order to meet the higher education needs of the expanding
population, a national radio and TV classes throughout the country and employed almost 25,000
academics. However, in recent years, student numbers have significantly decreased due to the
changes of socialeconomic factors.
Europe: DE has had a long history in European countries. In some countries, open
distance teaching universities offer the majority of the countrys online education programming.
Spains Universidad Nacional de Educacion a Distancia is Europes largest distance
teaching university, with current enrollment of about 130,000 students. France has no national
distance teaching universities, but offers higher DE through 22 offices within traditional
universities. Distance instruction in the European Union uses a wide variety of media to deliver
courses.
The last part of the chapter focuses on introducing the notion of "Telemedicine".
Telemedicine is defined as medicine at a distance (p.19). Grigsby and Sanders (1998, cited in
Simonson, 2010) defined telemedicine as the use of electronic information and communications
technologies to provide and support health care when distance separates the participants. There
are four major applications for telemedicine: remote consultation, remote monitoring, remote
education, and telementoring. However, the application of telemedicine encounters five concerns
that prevent and slow the growth of telemedicine: professional licensure; malpractice liability;
privacy, confidentiality, and security; payment policies; and regulation of medical devices.
2. Chapter 2: Definitions, History, and Theories of Distance Education
a. Definitions
Distance Education was defined as institutional-based, formal education where the
learning group is separated, and where interactive telecommunications systems are used to
connect learners, resources, and instructors (Chapter 1). The U.S. Department of Education's
Office of Educational Research and Improvement defines DE as "the application of
telecommunications and electronic devices which enable students and learners to receive
instruction originates from some distant location" (2006, cited in Simonson et al, 2012, p.34-35).
The French government (1971) defined DE as education that either does not imply the physical
presence of the teacher appointed to dispense it in the place where it is received or in which the
teacher is present only on occasion or for selected tasks (p.35). DE covers the various forms of
study at all levels that are not under the continuous, immediate supervision of tutors present with
their students in lecture rooms or on the same premises but which, nevertheless, benefit from the
planning, guidance, and teaching of a supporting organization (Borje Holmberg, 1985, cited in
Simonson et al. 2012, p.35).
Although there have been different ways to define DE, in general the definitions cover
some very common characteristics. DE is believed to be one of the most dramatic of the recent
technology-based innovation influencing education (Simonson et al., , p.4). In DE, content
knowledge is delivered online without obligation of face-to-face meeting because learners and
instructors are not supposed to be in the same classrooms at the same time. The keys to
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successful DE are the design, development, and delivery of instruction, and are not related to
geography or time (Simonson et al., , p.4). Schlosser and Simonson (2009, cited in Simonson,
2012, p. 7) defined DE as institutional-based, formal education where the learning group is
separate, and where interactive telecommunications systems are used to connect learners,
resources, and instructors. DE exists in two main formats: synchronous and asynchronous.
b. Brief History of Distance Education
This section in the text offers a brief history of DE, from correspondence study, to
electronic communications, to distance teaching universities.
Correspondence Study
According to Simonson et al. (2012, p.37), "the roots of distance education are at least
160 years old". Simonson et al. (2010) describe:
"An advertisement in a Swedish newspaper in 1833 touted the opportunity to
study "composition through the medium of the post". In 1840, England's newly
established penny post allowed Isaac Pitman to offer shorthand instruction via
correspondence. Three years later, instruction was formalized with the founding of
the Phonographic Correspondence Society, precursor of Sir Isaac Pitman's
Correspondence Colleges" (p.37).
In 1873, Correspondence study crossed the Atlantic when Anna Eliot Ticknor founded a
Boston-based society to encourage study at home. The Society to Encourage Studies at Home
attracted more than 10,000 students in 24 years. From 1883 to 1891, academic degree were
authorized by the state of New York through the Chautauqua College of Liberal Arts to students
who completed required summer institutes and correspondence courses. Correspondence study
was integral to the University of Chicago in 1891, and created a university extension as one of
its five divisions, the first such division in an American University. The extension division was
divided into five departments: lecture study, class study, correspondence teaching, library, and
training. In 1891, at the University of Wisconsin, a program of correspondence study led by
eminent historian Frederick Jakson Turner was announced. At the same time, Thomas J. Foster,
editor of the Mining Herald, a daily newspaper in eastern Pennsylvania, began offering a
correspondence course in mining and the prevention of mine accidents. In 1901, Moody Bible
Institute, founded in 1886, formed a correspondence department that continues today, with a
record of over 1 million enrollments from all over the world. In 1920s, DE began to enrich the
secondary curriculum. Students in Benton Harbor, Michigan, were offered vocational courses in
1923, and six years later, the University of Nebraska began experimenting with correspondence
courses in high schools.
Electronic Communications
In Europe, DE expanded steadily without radical changes in structure. Audio recordings,
and laboratory kits were used in all large-scale distance teaching organizations which were
private correspondence.
In the U.S., at least 176 radio stations were constructed at educational institutions in the
1920s, thought most were gone by the end of the decade (p.39). In the early 1930s, experimental
television teaching programs were produced at the University of Iowa, Purdue University, and
Kansas State College. Until 1950s, broadcast television was used, and in 1960s, satellite
technology was developed and launched. Satellite was considered "cost-effective" in the 1980s,
which enabled the rapid spread of instructional television. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the
development of fiber-optic communication systems allowed for the expansion of live, two-way,
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high-quality audio and video systems in education (p.40). Then, distance education opportunities
were quickly growing through the use of computer-mediated communications and the Internet.
Distance Teaching Universities
- University of South Africa (1962)
- Open University of the United Kingdom (1971)
- Similar institutions in industrial nations: West Germany, Japan, and Canada, and in
lesser-developed nations as Sri Lanka and Pakistan.
- The German Fern Universitat (1975)
c. Theories of Distance Education
The Need for Theory
Simonson et al. (2012, p.41) stated that "Theory is important to the study of distance
education because it directly impacts the practice of the field". This part briefly described seven
theories mentioned in the text:
1. Theory of Independent Study - Charles Wedemeyer
This theory focuses on the independence of the student (Wedemeyer, 1982, cited in
Simonson et al., 2012). Wedemeyer set forth a system with 10 characteristics emphasizing
learner independence and adoption of technology as a way to implement that independence
(p.43). According to Wedemeyer (1981), "Key to success of distance education was the
development of the relationship between student and teacher".
2. Theory of Independent Study and Theory of Transactional Distance - Micheal
Moore
Moore's theory of distance education is a classification method for distance education
program which examines two variables in educational programs: the amount of learner
autonomy and the distance between teacher and learner. According to Moore (2007, cited in
Simonson et al., 2012), distance education is composed of two elements: dialog and structure.
He classified distance education programs as autonomous (learner determined) or
nonautonomous (teacher determined).
3. Theory of Industrialization of Teaching - Otto Peters
Otto Peters of Germany proposed that distance education could be analyzed by
comparing it with the industrial production of goods. Peters (1988, cited in Simonson et al.,
2012) proposed new categories for the analysis of distance education, including: rationalization,
division of labor, mechanization, assembly line, mass production, preparatory work, planning,
organization, scientific control methods, formalization, standardization, change of function,
objectification, and concentration and centralization. Peters (1988) concluded that for DE to
become effective, the principle of the division of labor is a constituent element of distance
teaching. The teaching process in his theory of industrialization is gradually restructured through
increasing mechanization and automation (Simonson et al., 2012, p.47).
4. Theory of Interaction and Communication - Borje Holmberg
Holmberg (1985, cited in Simonson et al., 2012) stated that his theory had explanatory
value in relating teaching effectiveness to the impact of feelings of belonging and cooperation as
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well as to the actual exchange of questions, answers, and arguments in mediated communication
(p.45). According to Holmberg (1985), the core of teaching is interaction between the teaching
and learning parties, involving the emotion, motivation, decision making, tone, access and
effectiveness of teaching. It was believed that distance teaching will support student motivation,
promote learning pleasure, and make the study relevant to the individual learner and his or her
needs. Holmberg (1995) significantly broadened his theory of DE (Simonson et al., 2012, p.49).
5. Andragogy - Malcolm Knowles
Knowles's work is considered a theory of DE because "most often adults are involved in
DE, and andragogy deals with frameworks for programs desgined for the adult learner"
(Simonson et al., 2012, p.50). The androgogical process consists of seven elements (p.50).
Knowles's andragogy suggests a number of characteristics needed in distance education systems
designed for adults (p.50-51).
6. A Synthesis of Existing Theories - Hilary Perraton
"Perraton's (1988) theory of DE is composed of elements from existing theories of
communication and diffusion, as well as philosophies of education" (p.51). The theory includes
fourteen statements, or hypotheses, in which the first five statements concern the way distance
teaching can be used to maximize education, the next four statements address the need to
increase dialog, and the last five statements deal with methods.
7. Equivalency Theory: An American Theory of Distance Education
This theory is about the equivalent value of learning experience that distant students
achieve in comparing to local students (Schlosser and Simonson, 2009). It was believed that
distance education should be based on the equivalency of learning experiences. "The more
equivalent the learning experiences of distant learners are to those of local learners, the more
equivalent will be the outcomes of the educational experiences for all learners" (Simonson,
Schlosser, & Hanson, 1999).
A Theoretical Framework for Distance Education - Desmond Keegan
Keegan (1996) recommended that the theoretician had to answer three questions before
developing a theory of DE: 1) Is DE an educational activity?; 2) Is DE a form of conventional
education?; and 3) Is DE possible, or is it a contradiction in terms? According to Keegan (1996),
"Successful DE requires the reintegration of the two acts: 1) the intersubjectivity of teacher and
learner, and 2) reintegration of the act of teaching at a distance.
Fordism, Neo-Fordism, Post-Fordism: A Theoretical Debate
Simonson et al. (2012) stated that "Fordist DE is administered centrally and involves
mass production of curricula for mass consumption". The post-Fordist approach to DE would
focus on the consumer rather than the product. And the neo-Fordist strategy extends the Fordist
system by allowing much higher levels of flexibility and diversity, and by combining how
volumes with high levels of product and process innovation (Simonson et al., 2012, p.55). It was
concluded that "the debate about Fordism is intricate, heated, and tied in with differing political,
economic, aesthetic, ethical, and educational perspective" (p.57).
III. Research in Distance Education (Module 3: Chapter 3)
This module aims at discussing the focus of DE research, learning outcomes regarding
the trends and the myths in DE research, learner perceptions and attributes, interaction, the
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barriers to DE, and DE technology. With the foundational understandings about research in DE,
I had an opportunity to search for the major journals in the field and created an annotated
bibliography posted on my website http://ngocthanhphan.weebly.com/
The focus of DE research:
The focus of DE research has been shifted from examining achievements to investigating
learner attributes and perceptions as well as interaction patterns and how these contribute to the
overall learning environment (Simonson et al., 2012, p.64). Holmberg (1987, cited in Simonson
et al., 2012) suggested that the structure of DE research should include:

- Philosophy and theory of DE

- Distance students and their milieu, conditions, and study motivations

- Subject-matter presentation

- Communication and interaction between students and their supporting organization

(tutors, counselors, administrators, other students)

- administration and organization

- Economics

- Systems (comparative DE, typologies, evaluations, etc.)

- History of DE

Among the recent research in DE, Hirumi's (2005) findings were most noticeable when
examining a significant portion of the DE literature and analyzing e-learning guidelines "in
search of quality" (cited in Simonson et al., 2012). Hirumi (2005) claimed that "Education
guidelines focus on the quality of e-learning courses and programs, but industry develops
standards in order to promote reusability and interoperability of learning object.
Learning Outcomes:
In a recent summary of the research reviewing 51 studies, Evaluation of Evidence-Based
Practices in Online Learning: A Meta-Analysis and Review of Online Learning Studies, it was
found that "on average, students in online learning conditions performed better than those
receiving face-to-face instruction" (cited in Simonson et al., 2012). The report's authors affirmed
that "Apparently online students spent more time, had access to more material, and collaborated
differently than did the traditionally taught comparison students - no wonder online students
tended to achieve better" (p.67).
In a review summarizing the research on online teaching and learning, Tallent-Rennels et
al. (2006, cited in Simonson et al, 2010) found that "there did not seem to be a comprehensive
theory guiding the design of courses taught online and used when research is conducted, which
is a critical weakness of the field". Additionally, according to Clark (1994, cited in Simonson et
al., 2012), "the delivery system affects no inherent difference in achievement, therefore future
research needs to examine what factors do, indeed, contribute to this difference in achievement".
Also mentioned in this part is the myths regarding DE research. Simonson et al. (2012)
defined 'a myth' is an invented story, and it does not always begins with "Once upon a time". The
myth of the impacts of media on learning outcomes has been discussed for decades. Clark
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(1983) is famous for his comparison media merely as 'a delivery truck' and showing no effects
on learning. There are three other myths about DE deserving the same fate:

- Myth 1: The more interaction there is in a distance education class, the better.

- Myth 2: Instructor training is required for anyone planning to teach at a distance.

- Myth 3: Using instructional technology in teaching is e-learning, and this is the

same as DE.
Learner Perceptions and Attributes
Learn perceptions has been an important area of research on DE (Seok, DaCosta,
Kinsell, & Tung, 2010, cited in Simonson et al., 2010). It was stated that "Distance learner
satisfaction is an important dimension in understanding the success of interactive telecourses"
(Simonson et al., 2012, p.70). Biner, Dean, and Millinger (1994, cited in Simonson et al., 2010)
indentified students' satisfaction with seven factors:

- Instructor/instruction

- Technology

- Course management

- At-site personnel

- Promptness of material delivery

- Support services

- Out-of-class communication with the instructor.

Jegede and Kirkwood (1994, cited in Simonson et al., 2010) found that anxiety felt by
DE learners played a higher role in attrition than previously considered. Fact (1995) showed that
"The majority of critisim (60%) from the remote-site students focused on problems with
interaction". The students in Fact's (1995) study disliked the lack of opportunity to interact one-
on-one with the instructor (p.71). Hence, interaction is also a topic to be studied in DE. Dille
and Mezack (1991, cited in Simonson et al., 2012) supported the idea that "the less concrete
one's learning style, the better suited one is to learn in the telecourse format". Simonson et al.
(2012, p.76) concluded that the distance learner and the local learner are not generally different
from each other.
Barriers to DE:
The strongest barriers to DE found in Berge and Muilenburg (2000, cited in Simonson et
al., 2012) are as follow:
1. Increased time commitment
2. Lack of money to implement DE programs
3. Organizational resistance to change
4. Lack of shared vision for DE in the organization
5. Lack of support staff to help course development
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6. Lack of strategic planning for DE

7. Slow pace of implementation
8. Faculty compensation/incentives
9. Difficulty keeping up with technological changes
10. Lack of technology-enhanced classrooms, labs, or infrastructure
IV. Communication Tools (Module 4&5: Chapter 4)
Module 4 and 5 concentrate on exploring and experiencing the synchronous and
asynchronous communication tools used in DE. The group work (pairs) was instructed to help
learners increase their collaboration in working in cyber environment. I think the activities are
meaningful and practical in the way that my partner and I had to be cooperative and mindful in
our selections of the tools. We worked in timely manner and be supportive to each other and
came up with choosing Skype and Viber as synchronous tools, and zoho and Google Groups as
asynchronous tools. In addition, I also learnt about other tools provided in the instructions of the
modules as well as tools coming across when searching.
The knowledge base for selecting the tools is the information presented in the Chapter 4
of the textbook. The entire part will shortly summary the key points I gained from the readings.
Chapter 4: Technologies, the Internet, and Distance Education
A Model of Communication
Communication is defined as a process occurring when two or more individuals wish to
share ideas (Simonson et al., 2012). The figure 4-1 (p.91) illustrates A Model of Communication
for DE, including two major fields: field of experience of the sender (sender, encode, channel)
and field of experience of the receiver (receiver, decode, channel). Noise is also a part of the
communication process. The two fields overlap at the channel which sending and receiving the
noise so that feedback is given. According to Simonson et al. (2012), "the media used to connect
the learner, teacher, and learning resources must be capable of conveying all necessary
information".
The Cone of Experience
Edgar Dale (1946, cited in Simonson et al., 2012) introduced a cone of experience
adapted to help organize the media used in DE systems (Figure 4-2). The levels of abstraction
rank from least abstract to most abstract that learners gain from doing, observing and
symbolizing.
A Taxonomy of Distance Education Technologies
Figure 4-3 (Simonson et al., 2012) presents a variety of techniques needed to provide
learning experiences for all students, which are:
1. Correspondence study
2. Prerecorded media
3. Two-way audio
4. Two-way audio with graphics
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5. One-way live video

6. Two-way audio/video
7. Desktop two-way audio/video
Distance Education Classrooms
"Video-based distance education requires a classroom or studio that is equipped with the
technology needed for recording and displaying video and listening to sound" (Simonson et al.,
2012). The two-way Video/Audio Classrooms was introduced as examples of DE classrooms
which need recording, instruction, and display equipment. There are different technologies tools
that can be utilized in DE classrooms: Push-to-talk microphones, Visual presenters, computer,
DVD players, LCD television monitors. Simonson et al. (2012) remind that "The key to success
in an online classroom is not which technologies are used, but how they are used and what
information is communicated using the technologies". They suggested four steps in selecting
appropriate technologies for online instruction:

- Step #1: Assess Available Instructional Technologies

- Step #2: Determine the Learning Outcomes

- Step #3: Identify Learning Experiences and Match Each to the Most Appropriate
Available Technology

- Step #4: Preparing the Learning Experiences for Online Delivery

What is the Internet, and Why Does it matter?

Internet is a meta-network of interconnected networks that share a common language,
TCP-IP (transmission control protocol/Internet protocol) (Simonson et al., 2012). The structure
of the internet in the U.S. includes:
1. Tier 1: Backbone Networks and Internet Exchange Points
2. Tier 2: Regional Networks
3. Tier 3: Internet Service Providers
4. Tier 4: Organizational and Home Networks
Internet-Based Distance Education: Foundations, Technologies, Pedagogies
Foundations:
In order to teach and learn effectively in an online environment, we must understand the
concepts of student-centered learning and distributed learning (Simonson et al., 2012). The
authors supposed that "Successful faculty in online learning environments are able to "think out
of the box" and set aside the traditional teacher-centered instructional model" (p.123).
Distributed learning displays how the learner-centered educational model is being
implemented in today's schools and colleges (Simonson et al., 2012). It is also called hybrid or
blended courses.
Technologies:
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The key technologies used in DE are Web 2.0, tools, including Blogging, Wikis, Other
Forms of Content Creation, Social Bookmarking, Social Networking, Virtual Worlds.
Pedagogies:
E-learning Adoption Cycles (Zemsky and Massy, 2004, cited in cited in Simonson et al.,
2012):
1. Cycle 1: Enhancements to traditional course/program configurations
2. Cycle 2: Course management systems (CMS)
3. Cycle 3: Imported course objects
4. Cycle 4: New course/program configurations
Fundamentals of Teaching Online:

- Avoid "dumping a Face-to-face Course onto the web

- Organize the Course and Make the Organization and Requirements Clear to Students

- Keep Students Informed Constantly

- Think about Course Outcomes

- Test Applications, Not Rote Memory

- Integrate the Power of the Web into the Course

- Apply Adult Learning Principles with Nontraditional Students

- Extend Course Readings Beyond the Text (or to Replace the Text)

- Train Students to Use the Course Website.

Reference:
Simonson, M., Smaldino, S., Albright, M., & Zvacek, S. (2012). Teaching and learning at a
distance: Foundations of distance education (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon