This article was downloaded by: [Florida Atlantic University]

On: 28 August 2015, At: 13:49

Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: 5 Howick Place,
London, SW1P 1WG

Geosystem Engineering
Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tges20

Influence of collector dosage and pulp chemistry on

copper flotation
a
Asghar Azizi
a
Department of Mining, Petroleum and Geophysics, University of Shahrood, Shahrood, Iran
Published online: 12 Jan 2015.

Click for updates

To cite this article: Asghar Azizi (2014) Influence of collector dosage and pulp chemistry on copper flotation, Geosystem
Engineering, 17:6, 311-316, DOI: 10.1080/12269328.2014.994787

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/12269328.2014.994787

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of all the information (the Content) contained
in the publications on our platform. However, Taylor & Francis, our agents, and our licensors make no
representations or warranties whatsoever as to the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the
Content. Any opinions and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and views of the authors, and
are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The accuracy of the Content should not be relied upon and
should be independently verified with primary sources of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for
any losses, actions, claims, proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other liabilities whatsoever
or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with, in relation to or arising out of the use of
the Content.

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic
reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, or distribution in any
form to anyone is expressly forbidden. Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at http://
www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
 Geosystem Engineering, 2014
Vol. 17, No. 6, 311316, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/12269328.2014.994787

Influence of collector dosage and pulp chemistry on copper flotation

Asghar Azizi*
Department of Mining, Petroleum and Geophysics, University of Shahrood, Shahrood, Iran
(Received 30 September 2014; accepted 1 December 2014)

This study was aimed to examine the influence of collector dosage, pH, solid content and water type of flotation pulp on
copper recovery. The results indicated that recovery was strongly affected by these factors and their influence on the best
composition of copper grade and recovery was in the order of water type . solid percentage . collector dosage . pulp pH.
As the value of collector dosage, pH and solid content increased to a certain value, the copper recovery was enhanced to a
peak and thereafter decreased. This may be due to the balance between reagent concentrations with pH and solid percentage.
Copper recovery significantly increased with changing the water type from tap water to distilled water. The best
combination of grade and recovery obtained was 7.26% and 81.09% in flotation tests with tap water.
Downloaded by [Florida Atlantic University] at 13:49 28 August 2015

Keywords: flotation; pulp pH; collector dosage; solid percentage; copper recovery

1. Introduction processes and interactions, and is not completely under-

Flotation is an important and versatile mineral processing
step used to achieve selective separation of minerals and
gangue. It is a physiochemical process which exploits the
differences in the electrochemical properties of mineral
surfaces. It utilizes the hydrophobic (aerophilic) nature of
mineral surfaces and their propensity to attach to rising air
bubbles in a water ore pulp as the basis for separation.
Flotation depends directly on the nature and properties of
mineral water interface. Two factors are important: (1) the
interaction of water molecules with the mineral surface,
both in liquid and gaseous environments, and (2) the
electrical double layer at solid water interface (Davenport,
King, Schlesinger, & Biswas, 2002; Fuerstena, 1982; Wills
& Napier-Munn, 2006). This process is based on the
wettability of mineral particles to recover the mineral
species of interest and depress unwanted gangue. The
chemical reagents used in the flotation process to recover
valuable minerals are collectors, depressants, activators,
modifiers and frothers that condition mineral pulp in order
to produce metal (e.g. copper) concentrate and tailings.
Each type of reagent plays a different role in the flotation of
minerals (Herrera-Urbina, 2003).
In the mineral industry, chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) is the
most abundant copper sulphide mineral and is the major
commercial source of copper. Selective flotation of
Copper sulphide minerals (chalcopyrite, chalcocite,
bornite) from Fe minerals (pyrite, pyrrhotite) is usually
done with xanthate, dithiophosphate or thionocarbamate
collectors; burnt lime (CaO) for pH control; and branch
chain alcohol frothers (Davenport et al., 2002).
The theory of froth flotation is complex, involving
three phases (solids, water and froth) with many sub-
stood. Flotation process depends on a number of factors
which include particle size, pulp density, reagent dosage
and pH. These factors strongly affect froth stability and
floatability (Wills & Napier-Munn, 2006; Zanin, Gredelj,
& Grano, 2008; Zanin, Wightman, Grano, & Franzidis,
2009). Therefore, the effects of these variables should be
fully determined to obtain an acceptable flotation process.
Hence, this study was aimed to investigate the influence of
collector dosage and importance of pulp chemistry (i.e. the
role of pH, solid content and water chemistry) on copper
rougher flotation recovery.
This study was carried out on the Sarcheshmeh
porphyry copper sulphide ore which mainly consists of
chalcopyrite. The Sarcheshmeh copper ore is the largest
producing copper plant in Iran which is located body in
Kerman province, at 60 km distance of the Rafsanjan city.
This mine contains 1 billion tons, averaging 0.70% copper
and 0.03% molybdenum. In the Sarcheshmeh processing
plant after three stages of crushing, the ore with a F80 (80%
passing size) of 12.7 mm is fed to eight parallel ball mills
in closed circuit with cyclones to produce a product 70%
finer than 75 mm. This product is transferred to rougher
flotation cells. The rougher flotation cells comprise eight
rows of flotation machines, divided into two sections.
Each section consists of four rows of flotation cells. The
combined rougher flotation circuits are designed to receive
ground ore at a rate of 43,360 dry metric tons per day. The
concentrate of the first stage of flotation reground and the
tailings are discarded to the final tails. The cleaning and
re-cleaning stages produce copper concentrate. The
collectors of Nascol 1451 (dithiophosphate mercapto-
benzothiazole), Z11 (sodium isopropyl xanthate), frothers

*Corresponding author. Email: azizi.asghar22@yahoo.com

q 2014 The Korean Society of Mineral and Energy Resources Engineers (KSMER)
 312
Table 1. Mineralogical composition and chemical analysis of the feed of the flotation circuit (wt.%).
Product Mineralogical composition
Feed of flotation Quartz, illite, biotite, chlorite, orthoclase, albeit,
muscovite, pyrite, chalcopyrite and chalcocite
of Dow 250 (polypropylene glycol methyl ether) and
methyl isobutyl carbonyl (MIBC) are the reagents used
in the flotation circuit (Banisi & Farzaneh, 2004;
Barkhordari, Jorjani, Eslami, & Noaparast, 2009).
2. Materials and methods
2.1 Materials
Downloaded by [Florida Atlantic University] at 13:49 28 August 2015
The copper ore samples used in this study were prepared
from the ball mills feed of the Sarcheshmeh concentrator
plant. The samples were prepared after two stages of
laboratory comminution including crushing and milling.
First, the samples were crushed in a jaw crusher (Fritsch
01.703, Idar-Oberstein, Germany). As input feed to ball
mill was in range of 250 2000 mm in the Sarcheshmeh
concentrator plant, this size fraction was collected for
experiments of grinding, thereafter samples were then
homogenized and sealed in polyethylene bags. Samples
were chemically analysed and their chemical compositions
are presented in Table 1. Then, the grinding experiments
were conducted on 1460 g representative samples by a
laboratory ball mill (the standard bond ball mill) at
grinding time of 7.5 min. Samples were ground with 20 kg
ball in mixing of 12.7, 19.05 and 25.4 mm in diameter by
steel balls such as 70% of particles were finer than 75 mm
in diameter.
Sodium hydroxide was used as pH modifier to
maintain the pH at the targeted value during grinding.
Lime (CaO) was also used as modifier of pH in the
flotation process.
Z11 (sodium isopropyl xanthate) and mercaptoben-
zothiazole were used as collector, and MIBC and F742
(polypropylene glycol) were applied as frother. These
mixed chemicals are used in rougher flotation circuit of the
Sarcheshmeh copper concentrator plant. Hence compo-
sition of these chemicals was applied.
Two types of water (tap water and distilled water) were
also applied in flotation experiments, and chemical
analysis of tap water is given in Table 2.
Table 2. Chemical analysis of tap water used in flotation tests
(ppm).
Compositions Cl2 Ca2 SO22
4 Fe
Tap water 37.8 24.3 40 0.03
A. Azizi
Chemical composition (wt.%)
Cu Fe Mo S SiO2 Al2O3
0.74 4.34 0.032 3.05 55.07 14.35
2.2 Flotation
After grinding, the pulp was transferred to a 5 l flotation
cell. Flotation tests were conducted using a Denver
flotation machine at the impeller speed of 1400 rpm. The
pulp density was adjusted to 28% solids by volume at the
beginning of each test. CaO was used to adjust the slurry
pH to 11.8. Then 40 g/t collectors of Z11 (15 g/t) and
mercaptobenzothiazole (25 g/t) were added to the cell, and
after 1 min, 30 g/t frothers of MIBC (15 g/t) and F742
(polypropylene glycol) (15 g/t) were added to the cell and,
finally after 2 min, air was opened and flowed inside the
cell and the collecting of the froth was started. The
concentrated froth samples were collected at the intervals
of 0.5, 2, 4 and 8 min. The flotation froth was scraped
every 10 s. Finally, the concentrate and tailing samples
were filtered, dried and assayed. Also, water type and the
values of pH, solid percentage and collector dosage for
different experiments changed, but other parameters were
constant.
3. Results and discussion
Since the recovery at the rougher stage has a significant
effect on the overall copper recovery, the effect of some of
the operating parameters including collector dosage, water
type, pH and solid content of flotation pulp on copper
recovery and performance of rougher cells was investi-
gated. Recovery of Cu was calculated using the mass
balancing method described by Wills and Napier-Munn
(2006) by the following formula:
Cc
R 100; 1
C Tf
where R is percentage recovery of Cu, C is dry weight of
concentrate, c is percentage grade of concentrate, T is dry
weight of tailing and f is percentage grade of feed.
3.1 Effect of solid content
It is well known that the solid content of the flotation pulp
is an important parameter in the flotation of sulphide ores,
so flotation experiments were carried out at different solids
Mg2 concentration (15 40%) in the Denver flotation cell to
determine its effect on the Cu recovery and grade.
4.03
Experiments were performed at pH 11.5, the value of

100
y = 0.0626x2+4.1869x+13.9133
R2= 0.9835
Cu Recovery (%) 90
80
70
60
50
10 20 30 40
Solid percentage
Figure 1. Influence of solid percentage on Cu recovery.
Downloaded by [Florida Atlantic University] at 13:49 28 August 2015
collector dosage 40 g/t, the value of frother dosage 30 g/t
and conditioning time 3 min with tap water. Results of
flotation experiments are plotted in Figure 1. As can be
seen, when the solid percentage increases from 15% to
30%, the Cu recovery (%) increases from 63.42% to
84.89%, respectively. Increasing solid percentage to 40%
results in reducing the Cu recovery.
According to Mehrotra and Singh (1995) and Singh
and Sinha (2005), increasing recovery at higher solids
concentration could be to enhanced recovery of coarse
particle and also the higher probability of collision of
particles with air bubbles. In reality, an excessive high
solid concentration causes over-crowding of particles, and
this hinders effective flotation and affects the selectivity.
Also, an increase in solid concentration lowers the
combustible content of the product. This is attributed to
the decrease in dispersion of particles resulting in loss in
selectivity of adsorption of reagents and also the enhanced
gangue recovery by the entrainment and entrapment
phenomena (Mehrotra & Singh, 1995).
3.2 Effect of pulp pH
The pH is one of the most important factors in flotation
or depression of minerals. pH affects the surfaces of the
solids (hydration, excess charge density, zeta potential and
surface coating), the ionization or solubility of a reagent,
the concentration of inorganic ions, the electrochemical
potential and the corresponding oxidation reduction
potential (Leja, 1983). The extent of ionization and
hydrolysis of reagents, i.e. their adsorption at the ionized
solid liquid interfaces, affects the selectivity of flotation.
Also, the pH determines hydrolysis and precipitation of
metal ions in solution and at the solid liquid interfaces by
changing the concentration of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions
(Leja, 1983; Yarar & Dogan, 1987).
Geosystem Engineering 313
100
y = 0.9439x29.2711x16.281
R2= 0.959
90
Cu Recovery (%)
80
70
60
50
50 6 8 10 12 14
pH
Figure 2. Influence of pH on Cu recovery.
Wills and Napier-Munn (2006) believe the pulp
alkalinity plays a very important role in flotation. They
also point that in practice, the separation is selectively
dependent on a delicate balance between reagent
concentration and pH. Therefore, the rougher flotation
behaviour of the Sarcheshmeh porphyry copper ore as a
function of slurry pH was investigated from pH 7 to 12,
and the results obtained are shown in Figure 2.
Experiments were carried out at 28% (solids) pulp
concentrate, the value of collector dosage of 40 g/t, the
value of frother dosage of 30 g/t and conditioning time of
3 min with tap water. It indicated that with the increase of
the pH values from 7 to 11, the Cu recoveries increased,
while recovery at pH 12 reduced. The variation change of
recovery of copper is probably because of reducing the
collection capacity of collectors (xanthates) when they
become more stable at higher pH values (pH 12).
In addition, the slow formation rate and decreased stability
of dixanthogen in the more alkaline solutions are
responsible for the drop in chalcopyrite recovery. Since
dixanthogen is the effective hydrophobic species for
chalcopyrite, anything that would decrease its effective
concentration or rate of formation would decrease the
floatability of chalcopyrite (Ackerman, Harris, Klimper,
& Aplan, 1987a, 1987b). On the other hand, increase of
recovery in pH 11 can also be attributed to the chemical
type used in the experiments. Sulphide minerals flotation
is enhanced at alkaline pH in the presence of sodium
isopropyl xanthate, as xanthate molecules decompose at
highly acidic pH and iron sulphide minerals are depressed
in alkaline pH. Therefore, in alkaline pH good selectivity
is obtained for copper sulphide minerals (Bulatovic, 2007).
As can be considered in Figure 2, the condition of the
flotation is directly dependent on pH. As observed, the
optimum pH is 11. This indicates the balancing of reagents
suites with pH occurs in pH 11.
 314
3.3 Effect of collector dosage
The types and quantity of the reagents are the most
important factors of the flotation process. In commercial
plants, the control of reagent additions is the most
important aspect of the flotation strategy (Bulatovic,
2007).
Reagent schemes used for the treatment of porphyry
copper ores are relatively simple and usually include lime
as a regulator, xanthate as the primary collector and a
secondary collector that involves dithiophosphates,
mercaptans, thionocarbamates and xanthogen formates.
The frothers, such as MIBC, TEB (alkoxy paraffin and
pine oil), Dow 250, Dow 1012 (glycols), HP700 and
HP600 (alcohols in amine oxide), are typically used in the
flotation of porphyry copper ores (Bulatovic, 2007).
In copper flotation plants, an increase of 1 2% in recovery
Downloaded by [Florida Atlantic University] at 13:49 28 August 2015
and/or grade is economically remarkable (Vazifeh, Jorjani,
& Bagherian, 2010). Among the reagents, the collector
dose is a critical parameter in the flotation. Adjusting the
collector dose can change the surface characteristics of
the particles and thereby influences metal recovery and
separation efficiency in the flotation process. On the other
hand, it has been shown that the use of mixtures of
collectors can have benefits over the use of pure collectors
(Bradshaw, Harris, & OConnor, 1998; Bradshaw &
OConnor, 1994, 1996; Rao & Forrsberg, 1997). These
benefits include lower dosage requirements, improved
selectivity, rates and recovery, and an increase in the
recovery of coarse particles. It has been proposed that
these benefits derive from the differences in the behaviour
of the collectors on mineral surfaces (Bradshaw &
OConnor, 1996). Thus mixture of two collectors was
used in experiments and their effects on flotation of copper
were investigated. The effect of collector on copper
recovery of flotation is shown in Figure 3.
90
y = 0.0523x2+4.4413x13.6489
R2= 0.966
85
Cu Recovery (%)
80
75
70
65
30 40 50 60
Collector dosage (g/tonne)
Figure 3. Influence of collector dosage on Cu recovery.
A. Azizi
Experiments were carried out at 28% (solids) pulp
concentrate, pH 11.5, the value of frother dosage of 30 g/t
and conditioning time 3 min with tap water. It is seen that
40 g/t collector dosage gives the best results for copper
recovery, while with a further increase in the amount of
collector, recovery reduces. According to Sis and Chander
(2003), the reason could be explained by the interactions
between bubble and solid. When the bubble is in contact
with the solid surface, the local surface concentration and
hydrophobic character of the surface increase. This is due
to the penetration of collector and frother molecules at the
air liquid interface into the diffuse monolayer of the solid.
The attachment of particles to air bubbles thus becomes
stronger with a slightly more condensed mixed monolayer
at the liquid air interface. If the solid is completely
covered with an immobilized collector monolayer, then
the frother molecules cannot penetrate, and consequently
the bubble adhesion is suppressed.
3.4 Effect of water type
Water represents 80 85% of the volume of mineral pulp
processed in flotation circuits (Levay, Smart, & Skinner,
2001). Water is a medium in which flotation takes place
and flotation efficiency is strongly dependent on water
quality (Castro & Laskowski, 2011; Liu, Moran, & Vink,
2013). Bc ak, Ekmekc i, Can, and Ozturk (2012) showed
that water chemistry had a significant effect on froth
stability and surface chemistry of the flotation. In order to
evaluate the influence of water chemistry on the recovery
of copper, two types of water including tap water and
distilled water were employed in the flotation experiments.
The experimental conditions are presented in Table 3.
Table 3 indicates that copper recoveries in distilled
water are higher than in tap water. As observed, when
experiments of flotation are performed with tap water,
recovery of copper reduces with increasing pH from 11 to
12, but when distilled water was used as fluid in flotation
tests, copper recovery increases in this range of pH. This
may be due to the presence of metal ions in the pulp when
experiments on flotation are done with tap water. Because
metal ions in flotation water can alter the surface charge of
particles and consequently affect interactions between
particles and waste gangue or between particles and
Table 3. Experimental conditions of flotation tests.
Solid Collector Copper
pH (%) Water type dosage (g/t) recovery (%)
8 28 Tap water 40 69.93
11 28 Tap water 40 82.03
12 28 Tap water 40 81.09
8 28 Distilled water 40 75.93
11 28 Distilled water 40 89.31
12 28 Distilled water 40 92.33
 Geosystem Engineering
50 Solid percentage
pH
Collector dosage
Cu Recovery (%)
60
70
80
90
5 6 7 8 9 10
Cu Grade (%)
Figure 4. Influence of collector dosage, pH and solid
Downloaded by [Florida Atlantic University] at 13:49 28 August 2015
percentage on Cu grade recovery curve.
collectors. This could affect particle bubble attachment
and also formation of stable particle bubble aggregates
(Ali, Gauglitz, & Rossen, 2000; Johansson & Pugh, 1992;
Moolman, Eksteen, Aldrich, & Van Deventer, 1996)
3.5 Effect of parameters investigated on grade
recovery curve
The curves of Cu grade recovery were used to investigate
the influence of parameters studied on separation
efficiency of flotation, and the results are presented in
Figures 4 and 5. Figure 4 presents Cu recovery versus Cu
grade for different values of pH, solid percentage and
collector dosage, when experimental conditions were
constant and only one factor varies.
According to Wills and Napier-Munn (2006), the best
separation efficiency of rougher flotation cells (i.e. the best
separation of the valuable mineral from gangue) is to achieve
both high grades and recoveries. As can be observed, the
influence of solid content (pulp density) is higher than in
collector dosage and pulp pH. It is also seen that the best
combination of grade and recovery obtains 7.26% and
81.09%, respectively. This optimum condition was obtained
when flotation tests were performed with tap water. While
separation efficiency is improved by using distilled water.
Figure 5 indicates the influence of the two types of water,
including tap water and distilled water on grade and recovery
of copper. It is considered that water type significantly affects
the grade and recovery of copper and consequently results in
the higher grades and recoveries.
4. Conclusions
A series of batch scale flotation experiments were carried
out on samples of the Sarcheshmeh porphyry copper ore to
315
60
Tap water
Distilled water
70
Cu Recovery (%)
80
90
100
5 6 7 8 9
Cu Grade (%)
Figure 5. Influence of water type (tap and distilled water) on Cu
grade recovery curves.
investigate the influence of pulp chemistry of flotation
(pH, solid content and water type) and the amount of
collector dosage consumption on copper recovery and
separation efficiency of flotation. The conclusions
indicated that (1) the collector dosage, pH and solid
content were strongly effective on copper recovery and
separation efficiency of flotation, (2) copper recovery
increased with increasing pH from 7 to 11, while
increasing pH to 12, copper recovery reduced. This was
due to its balancing with reagent dosages to improve
recovery, (3) in range solids concentration investigated,
the best recovery of copper obtained in solid percentage
30, (4) with increasing collector dosage, the copper
recovery increased up to 81.09% with 7.26% Cu grade at
40 g/t collector dosage. In addition, a further increase in
collector dosage decreased the recovery since very high
collector concentrations are detrimental for the flotation
process, (5) the higher compositions of grade and recovery
were achieved with changing of water type from tap water
to distilled water, (6) the influence degree of factors
studied on the best composition of copper grade and
recovery was obtained in the order of solid percentage .
collector dosage . pulp pH when flotation experiments
were conducted with tap water, and finally the results
obtained from this study provide useful guidance for
modification of the Sarcheshmeh processing plant circuit.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Funding
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Sarcheshmeh copper
mine (Research and development division) funded by National
Iranian Copper Industries Company, for supporting this research.
 316 A. Azizi
References
Ackerman, P. K., Harris, G. H., Klimper, R. R., & Aplan, F. F.
(1987a). Evaluation of flotation collectors for copper
sulphides and pyrite, I. Common sulphydryl collectors.
International Journal of Mineral Processing, 21, 105 127.
Ackerman, P. K., Harris, G. H., Klimper, R. R., & Aplan, F. F.
(1987b). Evaluation of flotation collectors for copper sulphides
and pyrite, III. Effect of xanthate chain length and branching.
International Journal of Mineral Processing, 21, 141156.
Ali, S. A., Gauglitz, P. A., & Rossen, W. R. (2000). Stability of
solids-coated liquid layers between bubbles. Industrial &
Engineering Chemistry Research, 39, 2742 2745.
Banisi, S., & Farzaneh, M. (2004). Effect of ball size change on
the performance of grinding and flotation circuits. The
European Journal of Mineral Processing and Environmental
Protection, 4, 194 202.
Barkhordari, H. R., Jorjani, E., Eslami, A., & Noaparast, M.
(2009). Occurrence mechanism of silicate and aluminosili-
cate minerals in Sarcheshmeh copper flotation concentrate.
Downloaded by [Florida Atlantic University] at 13:49 28 August 2015
International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy and Materials,
16, 494 499.
Bc ak, O., Ekmekc i, Z., Can, M., & Ozturk, Y. (2012). The effect
of water chemistry on froth stability and surface chemistry of
the flotation of a Cu Zn sulfide ore. International Journal of
Mineral Processing, 102 103, 32 37.
Bradshaw, D., & OConnor, C. T. (1994). The flotation of pyrite
using mixtures of dithiocarbamates and other thiol collectors.
Minerals Engineering, 7, 681 690.
Bradshaw, D., & OConnor, C. T. (1996). The flotation of low-
grade pyrite ores using mixtures of collectors. In Proceedings
of hidden wealth: Unlocking values from low grade and
refractory ores and wastes (pp. 89 95). Johannesburg: South
African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.
Bradshaw, D., Harris, P. J., & OConnor, C. T. (1998).
Synergistic interactions between reagents in sulphide
flotation. Journal of the South African Institute of Mining
and Metallurgy, 98, 187 192.
Bulatovic, S. M. (2007). Handbook of flotation reagents:
Chemistry theory and practice Flotation of sulfide ores
(Vol. 1, 1st ed). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Castro, S., & Laskowski, J. S. (2011). Froth flotation in saline
water. KONA Powder and Particle Journal, 29, 4 15.
Davenport, W. G., King, M., Schlesinger, M., & Biswas, A. K.
(2002). Extractive metallurgy of copper (4th ed.). Oxford:
Pergamon.
Fuerstena, D. W. (1982). Principles of flotation: Mineral-water
interfaces and the electrical double layer. In R. P. King (Ed.),
IMME, Series no. 3 (pp. 17 30). Johannesburg: South
African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.
Herrera-Urbina, R. (2003). Recent developments and advances in
formulations and applications of chemical reagents used in
froth flotation. Mineral Processing and Extractive Metal-
lurgy, 24, 139 182.
Johansson, G., & Pugh, R. J. (1992). The influence of particle size
and hydrophobicity on the stability of mineralized froths.
International Journal of Mineral Processing, 34(1 2), 1 21.
Leja, J. (1983). Surface chemistry of froth flotation. New York,
NY: Plenum Press.
Levay, G., Smart, R. St. C., & Skinner, W. M. (2001). The impact
of water quality on flotation performance. The Journal of the
South African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 101,
69 75.
Liu, W., Moran, C. J., & Vink, S. (2013). A review of the effect of
water quality on flotation. Minerals Engineering, 53,
91 100.
Mehrotra, S. P., & Singh, R. (1995). Role of forth processes in
flotation. Metals, Materials and Processes, 6, 195 216.
Moolman, D. W., Eksteen, J. J, Aldrich, C., & Van Deventer, J. S.
J. (1996). The significance of flotation froth appearance for
machine vision control. International Journal of Mineral
Processing, 48, 135 158.
Rao, K. H., & Forrsberg, K. S. E. (1997). Mixed collector
systems in flotation. International Journal of Mineral
Processing, 51, 67 79.
Singh, R., & Sinha, S. N. (2005). Influence of operating variables
on flotation of high ash coking. International seminar on
mineral processing technology (MPT), Indian School of
Mines, Dhanbad (pp. 259 266).
Sis, H., & Chander, S. (2003). Improving froth characteristics
and flotation recovery of phosphate ores with nonionic
surfactants. Minerals Engineering, 16, 587 595.
Vazifeh, Y., Jorjani, E., & Bagherian, A. (2010). Optimization of
reagent dosages for copper flotation using statistical
technique. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of
China, 20, 2371 2378.
Wills, B. A., & Napier-Munn, T. J. (2006). Mineral processing
technology: An introduction to the practical aspects of ore
treatment and mineral recovery (7th ed). Boston, MA:
Butterworth-Heinemann.
Yarar, B., & Dogan, Z. M. (1987). Mineral processing design.
Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff.
Zanin, M., Gredelj, S., & Grano, S. R. (2008). Factors affecting
froth stability in mineral flotation and implications on
minerals recovery: A case study. Proceedings of Procemin
2008, Santiago, Chile (pp. 197 206).
Zanin, M., Wightman, E., Grano, S. R., & Franzidis, J. P. (2009).
Quantifying contributions to froth stability in porphyry copper
plants. International Journal of Mineral Processing, 91, 1927.