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ABST forRGeotechnology,
ACT Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu 627 012, India ARTICLE INFO
Coastal hazards now become major problem especially for archipelago country like Indonesia. The Regency of Received
Karawang along the North-Coast of West Java Province faces the issues of coastal flooding, erosion and saltwater 22 June 2016
intrusion. About 13 thousand, 16 thousand and 15 thousand hectares of coastal productive areas below 15 km from Accepted
the shoreline were inundated during the 2007, 2008 and 2013 floods, respectively. Coastal erosion has made area lost 17 October 2016
about 14 ha/year and caused coastline retreat at average rates of 4 m/year. Total area loss during 27-year period has Available online
reached more than 400 ha and maximum retreat was found in the order of 400 m. Saltwater intrusion has 24 October 2016
contaminated the groundwater with salinity above 0.5 and 1.8 ppt at coastal area below 15 km and 7 km from the
shoreline, respectively. Coastal hazard management should be adopted to prevent more resulting damages to the
region by constructing hard protection measures, restoring wetland ecosystem and applying other required Keywords
approaches. Coastal hazard
Coastal management
Coastal flooding
Coastal erosion
2016 Journal of Coastal Sciences. All rights reserved North Coast
*Corresponding author, E-mail address: aziskemalfauzie@gmail.com West Java
Phone: +91 9620816030,
1. Introduction
History told that there are connections between natural beach volume over a long period of time by the impacts of many
disasters and coastal environments. Therefore, people should always factors like waves, tidal and littoral currents, weather, storm events
keep in mind that not only highlands and ail.com volcanoes, low lying and sediment dynamics (Prasad and Kumar 2014). Recently, erosion
regions like coastal areas are also prone to natural hazards, whether is regarded as one of important hazards due to it can displace public
in the form of floods, tropical cyclones or hurricanes, earthquakes infrastructure and disturb marine ecosystem. It has undermined the
and tsunamis, or changing deltas, dunes and coastlines due to road on the coastal side of Slapton beach in South Devon U.K. and
erosion and sedimentation (Dyl 2009). People should also remember made that vital tourist corridor became impassable (Trudgill 2009).
that even nature and hazard are contradictive each other, but their In U.S., coastal erosion has also undermined waterfront houses,
existences are inseparable. Both exist alternately at anytime. In one offices and public facilities, and brought the Cape Hateras lighthouse
time, nature shapes and recovers the environments, but then in other in North Carolina closer to the sea (Dunn et al. 2000). It was
time hazard will unexpectedly destroy them. suggested that effect of erosion on loss of houses in the U.S. east coast
Coastal disaster like Hurricane Katrina in August 2005 will cost half billion USD each year (Landry 2011). Erosion also
(Petterson et al. 2006) and Hurricane Irene in August 2011 (Prasad caused land loss of islands in Sundarbans, India (Chatterjee 2015)
2012) along the U.S. south and east coast, respectively, had destroyed and retreat of coastline in Ghana about 1 m/year (Jonah et al. 2016)
lots of public infrastructures, caused many deaths and missing and 600 m in two decades in Turkey (Kabdasli et al. 1996).
persons, and billions USD cost of damage (Avila and Cangialosi Saltwater intrusion also becomes major problem in coastal
2011), hence regarded as top-costliest catastrophe in the nations areas, for example in Shandong Province of China (Cheng and Chen
history (Blake et al. 2011). The Northeast and mid-Atlantic region is 2001; Shanzhong et al. 2007), Cape Flats of South Africa (Aza-Gnandji
also likely to have coastal flooding due to sea level rise and climate 2013), Wadi Gizan of southwest Saudi Arabia (Al-Bassam and
change (Kirshen et al. 2007). Coastal flooding and riverbank erosion Hussein 2008), Edremit Bay of Turkey (Irtem 2005), Everglades
occurred frequently almost four to eight times every year in coastal watershed of Florida U.S. (Kaplan et al. 2010; Jiang 2014) and coastal
riparian zones of Bangladesh, particularly during the last two regions of Bangladesh (Azam and Sarker 2012). Saltwater intrusion
decades, and caused lots of economic loss for the villagers (Karim is defined as the migration of saltwater into freshwater aquifers
2014). The flood erosion has eroded riverbank 8 km at certain points under the influence of groundwater development (Freeze and Cherry
annually (Alam 1990) and dislocated many villages and quarter 1979). The rate of intrusion will increase steadily when
million of households (Islam 1995). overexploitation of groundwater occurs continuously (Chen et al.
Coastal erosion hazard is not less dramatic than other hazards. It 1997). The impacts of saline water intrusion ranged from problems
is defined as the encroachment of land by the sea causing loss of
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in accessing safe drinking water to soil salinization and land from 30 to 35 km/hours and the duration of wind blow varied from 5
degradation required for agricultural farming purposes. to 7 hours per day. Located in Indonesian tropical rain forest,
Coastal hazards nowadays become global issue due to about a Karawang has high amount of rainfall varied from 1100 to 3200 mm.
billion of the worlds population live within 100 kilometres of the Rainfall in the specific area is mostly influenced by season, altitude
coastline (Kurt et al. 2010). In Indonesia, about 30,000 km long and cycling of airflow. Therefore, the volume of rainfall varied greatly
shoreline has already damaged (Pusdata 2008). It is highly terrifying by month. The average of rainfall in 2014 reached 2046 mm with
because as an archipelago country, almost 60 percent of Indonesian average of rainy days is approximately 100 days per year. In 2013,
population dwell coastal area and 80 percent of industrial zone also January has the highest rainfall of 758 mm and October has the
take place near the shoreline (Bakosurtanal 2003). As for example, lowest rainfall of 5 mm (BPS 2015).
centre of population, urbanization and industries in Java Island are
located in the north-side regions facing Java Sea. One of the major 3. Materials and Methods
natural hazards occurred in Indonesia was the tsunami on December
26, 2004 that had devastated coastal areas in Aceh Province and Data collection used in this study varies from different
caused large number of casualties including deaths, missing and techniques such as compilation of reports, field data sampling and
displaced persons (Doocy et al. 2007; Daly and Hor 2013). geographical information system (GIS) analysis. Data on
From many centuries, the North-Coast area of West Java infrastructure and area damages due to coastal flooding were
Province was popularly known as an agricultural basis of Indonesia collected from field reports, particularly from local government
and acknowledged by its important, long and dense historic national reports in Karawang Regency. The impacts of coastal erosion were
roadways. But after few decades, the area had been threatened by analyzed using GIS application. Satellite imageries and topographic
acute coastal damages. Many roadways infrastructure, public maps were used as the main source data in this study. Satellite
settlements, agricultural land, near shore fisheries and mangrove imageries were downloaded from U.S. Geological Survey website,
habitats stretched over the coastline had the effects of flooding, while topographic maps were obtained from the National Survey and
gradual inundation, coastal erosion, ecosystem disruption and Mapping Coordination Board. The satellite images were captured by
saltwater intrusion. The hazards were identified after a decade, but Landsat-5 TM on August 20, 1988 and Landsat-7 ETM+ on July 6,
the resulting factors may be appeared since several decades before. It 2015 on Path/Row 122/064 at the coordinates Lat: 05 47 10 S and
was postulated that coastal retreat and sedimentation have occurred Lon: 107 12 59 E. The resolutions of the Landsat-5 and Landsat-7
in this area and made the shoreline relatively unstable. Some area images are 7781x6951 pixels and 8081x7001 pixels, respectively.
had deficit sediments and some other got surplus or extra sediments. These images were then processed and compiled to estimate coastal
To prevent continual spread and occurrence of the hazards, erosion and accretion area and rates during this 27-year period.
many aspects should be identified including the level of hazard, cost The software employed for analysis of coastal erosion was
calculation of damages, and mapping of hazard-prone areas, so it can MapInfo Professional version 11.0 developed by Pitney Bowes
be basis for the city planners in formulating policy planning and Software Inc. It was started by registering the satellite images into
programme to cope with the problems. Therefore, the study is aimed the 2000 topographic maps. Registration of satellite images in this
to identify and assess the degree, rate and coverage of coastal work was kept at the errors of maximum 1 to 2 pixels by selecting
damages in Karawang Regency as a case study, including the hazard more number of registration points to avoid further miscalculation in
of coastal flood, erosion and accretion, and saltwater intrusion as the georeferencing of the coastline. After completing image
well as to provide options for coastal hazard management that can be registration, digitizing procedures were taken to draw the 1988- and
taken as immediate action by the local, provincial or even national 2015-coastlines from the satellite images as well as to draw the
government. administrative boundaries from the topographic maps. Overlaying all
these maps has resulted in distinct figures that can identify the
2. Study area shoreline changes. Loss or surplus of area from 1988 to 2015 can be
calculated directly in the software by selecting the region between
The study takes place in the Regency of Karawang, which is the 1988- and the 2015-shorelines. Total area loss or area addition
located in the north coast of West Java Province, Republic of divided by length of shoreline exposed to erosion or accretion has
Indonesia. Geographically, it lies from E 10702 to E 10740 and resulted in average coastline retreat or stride for 27 years. Width-
from S 556 to S 634. Java Sea faces on the north side of the region based erosion or accretion rate were then estimated by dividing the
with 73.65 km long shoreline. Total area of the region is 1,753.27 width of coastline retreat or stride by this time period, while area-
km2 or 175,327 hectares and number of population is 2,250,120 (in based erosion or accretion rate were calculated by directly dividing
the year 2014), so the population density is around 1,283 per km2 the area loss or addition by the time period.
(BPS, 2015). There are totally 30 sub-regencies and 309 villages in Assessment of saltwater intrusion was obtained after collecting
Karawang, but only 9 sub-regencies and 100 villages are located by groundwater samples from public bore-wells in different areas along
the coast and are dwelled by about half million people or 24.7% of the coastal region. Five points were selected as sampling locations in
the total regency population. Nineteen villages are precisely located Karawang area, i.e. in Batujaya (SA-01), Pakisjaya (SA-03), Cilebar
along the shoreline where most of the villagers live and work as (SA-04), Cikampek (SA-05) and Jatisari (SA-06) sub-regency. The
fishermen in either marine capture or nearshore fishery. geographical locations of the sampling points were noted using GPS
Morphologically, Karawang has flat land areas with a variation for further map analysis. Salinity of all groundwater samples were
between 0-5 m above sea level. Only few areas, which are undulating analyzed in the laboratory and the results were provided in parts per
hilly areas, have altitude reaching up to 1200 m above sea level. thousand (ppt) units, which converted to conductivity in mS/cm
Karawang has average air temperature around 27 oC, average air using online Salinity Conversion Calculator provided in the website:
pressure about 0.01 milibar, 66 percent illumination and 80 percent www.hamzasreef.com/Contents/Calculators/SalinityConversion.php,
humidity. Seaward monsoon usually occurs in January, while in June and then converted to Total Dissolved Solid (TDS) in mg/L using
the southeast monsoon usually comes. The wind velocity ranged online TDS Calculator provided in the website:
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www.chemiasoft.com/chemd/TDS. Conversion from conductivity their incomes as well as their working capital to continue their
(S/cm) to TDS (mg/L or ppm) can also be calculated by the business on the next growing season.
following equations: Sub- Agricul- Near House School Religious
regency ture field shore building building building
For conductivity between 0 717.5 S/cm and TDS between 0 (ha) fishery (unit) (unit) (unit)
372.76 mg/L (ppm): (ha)
Pakisjaya 1,072 340 1,987
TDS = 8.2336489905880910-3 + 0.500944688449521 S + Batujaya 1,252 3,125 20
4.994890124491910-5 S2 3.35124001610-8 S3 (Eq. 1) Tirtajaya 1,500 410 543 (Eq. 1) 3
Cibuaya 750 272 3 7
For conductivity between 717.5 111,900 S/cm and TDS between Pedes 1,741 85
372.76 74,551 mg/L (ppm): Cilebar 3,661
Tempuran 2,193 75 667
TDS = 32.0598990943585 + 0.564100864596031 S + Cilamaya 1,755
1.57382300937410-6 S2 5.88672910-12 S3 (Eq. 2) Kulon (Eq. 2)
Cilamaya 1,618
Wetan
where,
Total 15,542 825 6,679 23 10
TDS = Total Dissolved Solid (mg/L or ppm)
Table 1. Public area and facilities affected by inundation due to 2008
S = Conductivity of solution at 25 oC (S/cm)
coastal flooding
S2 = Conductivity raised to the power 2
S3 = Conductivity raised to the power 3 Recently, report in January 2013 found that flood has inundated
50 villages distributed among 14 sub-regencies (Table 2 and Fig. 1).
The geographical locations of the groundwater sampling points Almost 30 thousand hectare areas were affected and most of them
and their salt content data were then plotted in the Karawang digital are located on the riverbank of Citarum, the biggest river in West
map using MapInfo software and extrapolated to all sub-regency area Java Province. Five sub-regencies (i.e. Pakisjaya, Batujaya, Tirtajaya,
based on the seaward distances of the selected sampling points. Iso- Cibuaya and Pedes) and twenty villages of the flooded area take place
saline maps describing the spatial distribution of groundwater in coastal region. Even the whole area of Pakisjaya, the north-most
salinity in the region were generated using application provided by sub-regency in Karawang, got the impact due to the area lies
the software. precisely in the mouth of Citarum River as well as by the coastline.
The most notable figure is that even though the Regency of Karawang
4. Results and discussion covers area till the distance up to 57 km from the shoreline, but
nearly half of the flooded region was located only at a range below 15
4.1. Coastal flooding km.
Floods in coastal area may occur due to overflow of rivers or Sub-regency Total Number of Total area Flooded
ocean tides. Floods in Karawang area are mostly because of river number of flooded (ha) area (ha)
overflow sent from upstream. Catchment area lies from upper course villages villages
to lower course was unable to hold more water due to high degree of Pakisjaya 8 8 6,448 6,448
deforestation, logging and land pavement. Therefore, when rainfall Batujaya 10 2 9,189 1,771
has its highest magnitude especially in Indonesia occurred in early Tirtajaya 11 1 9,225 962
year catchment area in upper course was unable to play their role Cibuaya 11 3 8,718 3,280
causing huge amount of excess water flows downstream by the river. Pedes 12 6 6,084 2,842
Coastal areas located in the low-lying regions get the worst effect of Telagasari 14 3 4,572 950
water accumulation causing the so-called coastal flooding. Tirtamulya 10 3 3,506 827
Flood in almost all Indonesian cities usually occurs in the peak Kotabaru 9 2 3,045 901
period of rainy season from January to February almost every year. Cikampek 10 1 4,760 227
In early 2008 rain and flooding intensity was very high. Flood has Karawang 8 2 2,977 567
submerged 18,462 ha agriculture fields in Karawang, where 15,542 Timur
of them were on the coastal area at the distance below 15 km from Karawang 7 6 3,368 2,253
Barat
the shoreline. Level of the water on the rice fields varied from 20 to
Telukjambe 9 6 4,013 2,936
60 cm. Flood has affected 8,637 households by inundating 8,717 Timur
houses, where 6,679 of them are in coastal area. Level of the water Telukjambe 10 3 7,336 1,116
on the house buildings reached about 20 to 120 cm from the ground. Barat
Twenty-three schools and ten religious infrastructures (mosques) Pangkalan 8 4 9,437 5,844
have also been inundated with the level of 30 to 50 cm during that Total 137 50 82,678 30,924
period (Table 1). Table 2. Area and number of villages affected by 2013 flood
One year before on February 2007, flood has destroyed 13,193
ha nearshore fisheries with estimated loss more than IDR 21 billion.
About 4,760 ha of inundated fishery area was recorded in 4.2. Coastal erosion and accretion
Cemarajaya village of Cibuaya sub-regency only. The fisheries were Coastal erosion occurs when beach volume was reduced and
managed by 150 members and employed about 1,500 workers. scrapped by waves and rip currents. Coastal villagers get the adverse
When the flood came, the fishponds were about to harvest. As result, effect of the erosion. Erosion had taken many areas of their littoral
many cultivated fishes and shrimps escaped and the owners had lost lands such as aquaculture and agriculture lands, and damaged their
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Accretion or sedimentation occurs when there is addition in society, more attention to coastal erosion should be taken to
coastal land due to sediment transport carried by longshore currents. anticipate its long-term damage.
Similar to erosion, accretion also affects coastline instability. It
creates adverse effect to nearshore inhabitants by causing 4.3. Saltwater intrusion
sedimentation on the lower course, an entryway where fishermen Groundwater in Karawang coastal area is mostly shallow and
usually carry their boats to the ocean to capture fishes. This estuary saline. It is shallow because it can be easily extracted below 50 meter
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in depth by either high- or low-pressure bore-wells. However, the surface water in jerry cans delivered by tankers from upper course
actual condition is saline because of saltwater intrusion making the area. Sub-regencies at middle area (Jayakerta, Rengasdengklok,
extracted water from domestic wells contain high amount of sodium Kutawaluya, Rawamerta, Telagasari, Lemahabang, Banyusari, Jatisari,
and calcium salts, thus considered as not advisable for drinking Tirtamulya, Kotabaru, Cikampek, Purwasari, Klari, Majalaya,
water purposes. Almost all area in the regency faces the problem of Karawang Timur and Karawang Barat) have adequate content of
saltwater intrusion but in different concentrations. The higher salts in their groundwater with salinity ranged between 0.1 and 1.8
concentration of salt in groundwater was mainly found at the points ppt. A portion of Ciampel and Telukjambe Timur area has free of salt
below 7 km from the shoreline, whereas points with the distance content, whereas three sub-regencies, i.e. Telukjambe Barat,
above 30 km from the coast are considered to have saline-free Pangkalan and Tegalwaru, were considered to be absolutely free
groundwater (Fig. 4). from saltwater intrusion.
Fig. 3. Shoreline changes due to erosion and accretion. Insets are maps of Indonesia (bottom), West Java Province (left) and Karawang Regency (top-right)
All coastal sub-regencies (Pakisjaya, Batujaya, Tirtajaya, Cibuaya, 4.4. Coastal hazard maps
Pedes, Cilebar, Tempuran, Cilamaya Kulon and Cilamaya Wetan) Appelquist and Halsns (2015) has developed Coastal Hazard
were highly affected by saltwater intrusion at the salinity above 0.5 Wheel system to classify and assess any possible environmental
ppt or TDS above 541 mg/L (Table 4), and it exceeds the permissible hazards occur in coastal area as well as to provide options for its
limit for safe drinking water according to the Regulation of Health conservation and/or restoration management. According to the
Minister of the Republic of Indonesia No. 492/2010 that requires system, Karawang coasts fall to classification of coastal environments
drinking water to have TDS value not more than 500 mg/L. PL-14 and PL-16 due to the coasts have sedimentary plain, protected
Nearshore areas at the distance below 7 km from the shoreline have or low wave exposure, micro-tidal condition, intermittent mangrove
higher salinity above 1.8 ppt or TDS above 1925 mg/L. Most of the ecosystem, and no tropical cyclone activity. The only difference is PL-
villagers in those areas consume packed mineral water or processed 14 environment has balanced/deficit sediment, while PL-16 has
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Ecosystem disruption 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Gradual inundation 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Saltwater intrusion 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Erosion 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Flooding 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Fig. 5. Matrix of Inherent Hazard Level for Karawang coastal environments,
where hazard level 1 = low, 2 = moderate, 3 = high, and 4 = very high
Fig. 4. Iso-saline maps of western part (top) and eastern part (bottom) of
Karawang coastal area
4.5. Coastal hazard management options related management techniques such as groundwater management,
Along with hazard assessment, hazard management options are fluvial sediment management (both mentioned in the matrix),
also provided for all types of coastal environments (Fig. 7). The ecosystem-based management, and complete retreat of human
management options can be selected for mitigation and intervention from the shoreline.
rehabilitation purposes of one or more hazards, and can also be used According to the matrix, all coastal environments in Karawang
in combination scheme. However, the selection depends on many need to build dikes as standard minimum of hard protection measure
technical factors suited the field situation including budget costs, to prevent coastal flooding, gradual inundation and saltwater
simplicity and durability of the measures, flexibility over period of intrusion. Dikes are usually built for flood defence rather than for
time, availability of material, labour and equipment, and the related erosion protection, especially floods or land inundation due to
socioeconomic context and geographical location of the project. If the overflow of excess water from ocean when high tide occurs. Dikes
local government has more available budget, they can choose more are generally made of clay and constructed parallel to the shoreline
durable and stronger measure rather than stick on the simple and between mean tide level and highest astronomical tide (Masselink
standard-minimum project. and Hughes 2003). Dikes can also be combined with harder erosion
The hazard management strategies have three main options to protection structures such as revetments if wave attacks and degree
be taken i.e. hard protection measures, soft protection measures and of coastal damage were high like in Karawang coasts. Cost of dikes
accommodation approaches. Each has own strengths and construction depends on local labour and material costs, physical
weaknesses. The hard protection measures popularly well known in properties of the structure, and other local parameters. The example
coastal technology include the construction of breakwaters, groins, cost in Vietnam ranges from EUR 0.75 to EUR 1.2 million/km for
jetties, revetments, sea walls, dikes and storm surge barriers or every one metre of dike height in 2009 prices. Maintenance costs are
closure dams. The common techniques in soft protection measures estimated at a range around EUR 0.03 million/km/year (Hillen et al.
comprise beach nourishment, dune construction/rehabilitation and 2010).
cliff stabilization. The general types of accommodation approaches Wetland restoration should be taken as accommodation
consist of wetland restoration, flood warning systems, flood proofing approach to prevent all types of coastal hazards in Karawang, while
and coastal zoning. In addition, there are many types of other coast- for dealing with coastal flooding Karawang needs to apply flood
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warning systems and flood proofing. Wetland restoration can be impermeable to the flood at some extent of height (Linham and
carried out by transplanting the saplings or seedlings of indigenous Nicholls 2010).
plants of the area such as mangroves or other plants as well as by Coastal zoning is an effective and efficient technique to manage
elevating the affected areas using additional soil or sand to reshape different uses of coastal area and to prevent the hazard of ecosystem
and rebuild the ecosystem. Hard wood trees can prevent floods disruption. The approach highly depends on the coastal physical
because their roots can help to retain the sediment to hold water at conditions and is affected by local wisdom of the people in the area. A
longer time and consume it for their photosynthetic metabolism particular nearshore area can be divided into different zones with
process so less excess water will be discharged. Example cost for the different activities, such as allowed entry zone (for economic
mangrove restoration project in Vietnam is calculated about EUR development), allowed-with-permission entry zone (for tourism and
30/ha of new-planted mangrove areas in 2009 prices, including education) and forbidden zone (for conservation only). This division
planting, capital and recurrent costs, and subsequent thinning (Tri et is highly useful to protect fragile marine ecosystems in the area as
al. 1998). well as to create additional source of income for local public and
government.
inundation
inundation
disruption
disruption
Ecosystem
Ecosystem
Saltwater
Saltwater
intrusion
intrusion
Flooding
Flooding
Gradual
Gradual
Erosion
Erosion
Hazard management options
Breakwaters
Groins
Hard protection
Jetties
Revetments
Sea walls
Dikes
Beach nourishment
Soft pro-
tection
Dune construction/stabilization
Cliff stabilization
Wetland restoration
Accommodation
Flood proofing
Coastal zoning
Groundwater management
Flood warning systems are managed to provide an early Groundwater management used for preventing saltwater
detection and preparation of any possibility of flood events in the intrusion can be applied by reducing the overexploitation of
area by allowing the public and relevant local government or non- groundwater, especially for industrial and business purposes near
government institutions to take appropriate actions on time to coastal area. Any medium and high scale industries or corporations
reduce larger impacts of people and their property due to coastal that consume large amount of freshwater should be avoided to use
flooding. Flood proofing is designed to reduce the impacts of coastal free with groundwater. They should be limited by applying highly
flooding on physical structure and can be made in wet or dry strict permit and high tariff of groundwater extraction so that
approaches. Wet approaches are designed by allowing floodwater to shallow freshwater can only be used by domestic purposes. Local or
easily enter and exit a structure constructed by using flood-tolerant provincial government should strictly recommend existing and
materials or by lowering and elevating specific structural parts. Dry newborn private companies to shift the use of groundwater to
approaches are built by making the structures totally waterproof or surface water for their purposes. Rainwater harvesting and
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groundwater recharge by using water receptacles, infiltration wells Proceedings of the Seminar on People and Environment in Bangladesh.
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retreat was found in Cibuaya beach in the order of 400 m after 27 Daly, P., Hor, A., 2013. Similar Events, Different Disasters: A Comparative
years. Restoration of mangrove forests should be continuously Assessment of the Aftermath of the 2004 Indian Ocean and the 2011 Japan
activated as it is the best ecological approach to prevent coastal Tsunamis. Asian Journal of Environment and Disaster Management, 5(1):
43-63.
erosion. Hard protection measures can also be taken such as by
DLHPE, 2008. Inventarisasi Lahan Kritis Akibat Abrasi di Wilayah Pesisir
constructing dikes along the coasts combined with other stronger Kabupaten Karawang. Project Report, Environment, Mining and Energy
measure like revetments. Saltwater intrusion affects most of coastal Office of Karawang Regency, Karawang, unpublished (in Indonesian).
regions in Karawang. It affects more at the areas below 7 km from Doocy, S., Gorokhovich, Y., Burnham, G., Balk, D., Robinson, C., 2007. Tsunami
the shoreline. The groundwater is not safe anymore for drinking Mortality Estimates and Vulnerability Mapping in Aceh, Indonesia.
water purposes for public in the nearshore area. Therefore, American Journal of Public Health, 97(1): 146-151.
groundwater management efforts should be adopted by managing Dunn, S., Friedman, R., Baish, S., 2000. Coastal erosion: Evaluating the risk.
the extraction of groundwater more strictly and actuating Environment, 42(7): 36-45.
Dyl, J., 2009. Lessons from history: coastal cities and natural disaster.
groundwater recharge and rainwater harvesting by either public or
Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal, 20(4):
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Freeze, R., Cherry, J., 1979. Groundwater. Prentice-Hall, Engelwood Cliffs, NJ.
Acknowledgements Hillen, M.M., Jonkman, S.N., Kanning, W., Kok, M., Geldenhuys, M.A., Stive,
M.J.F., 2010. Coastal defence cost estimates case studies of the Netherlands.
Author is thankful to the Public Relation Section of Government TU Delft, New Orleans.
of Karawang Regency and the Regional Disaster Mitigation Board for Irtem, E., Kabdasli, S., Azbar, N., 2005. Coastal Zone Problems and
Environmental Strategies to be Implemented at Edremit Bay, Turkey.
the helps in providing flood reports of Karawang. A part of this work
Environmental Management, 36(1): 37-47.
was carried out on a project initiated by Environment Management Islam, M.Z.A., 1995. Environmental Adaptation and Survival Strategies of the
Board (BPLH), formerly known as Environment, Mining and Energy Riverbank Erosion Displacees in Bangladesh: A Study of Two Villages in
Office (DLHPE), Government of Karawang Regency. Author would Nawabganj District. PhD Thesis of IBS, Rajshahi University, Rajshahi,
like to acknowledge the Regional Environment Control Board unpublished.
(BPLHD) of Government of West Java Province, and the Research and Jiang, J., deAngelis, D.L., Anderson, G.H., Smith III, T.J., 2014. Analysis and
Development Centre on Geology and Oceanography for the Simulation of Propagule Dispersal and Salinity Intrusion from Storm Surge
assistance in preparing basic maps regarding the research in coastal on the Movement of a Marsh-Mangrove Ecotone in South Florida. Estuaries
and Coasts, 37: 24-35.
area of West Java, Indonesia.
Jonah, F.E., Mensah, E.A., Edziyie, R.E., Agbo, N.W., Adjei-Boateng, D., 2016.
Coastal Erosion in Ghana: Causes, Policies, and Management. Coastal
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