Geomorphology 46 (2002) 203 222

www.elsevier.com/locate/geomorph

Seven landslide dams of old seismic origin in

southeastern Sicily (Italy)
Pier Giorgio Nicoletti a,*, Mario Parise b,1
a
CNR-IRPI, Via C.B. Cavour, 87030 Roges di Rende CS, Italy
b
CNR-CERIST, c/o Istituto di Geologia Applicata e Geotecnica, Via E. Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy
Received 1 August 2000; received in revised form 12 November 2001; accepted 22 November 2001

Abstract

This paper focuses on origin, morphology and evolution of seven landslide dams in southeastern Sicily. These landforms are
part of a set of 146 landslides recently recognised in this area, which was hitherto considered to have little or no slope instability.
Southeastern Sicily consists of a plateau (the Hyblaean Mountains) incised by canyons and surrounded by lower lands. It is
underlain mostly by subhorizontal, moderately to well-lithified carbonate rocks. Relief is low. Several lines of evidence justify
the assumption of a seismic trigger for the landslides in this area: (1) the geo-climatic environment is not favourable to
landsliding, (2) low-angle basal shear surfaces are very frequent, (3) landslide distribution is consistent with the known
magnitude distance relationships for earthquake-induced landslides, (4) historical documents testify to earthquake-triggered
slope instability and (5) a specific landslide can be exactly dated. The phenomena illustrated here include six rock slides (one
with a debris-flow component) and one rock fall. Slip surfaces are mostly non-circular. Landslide volume ranges from about
50  103 to 34  106 m3. With reference to the Costa and Schuster [Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 100 (1988) 1054] classification of
landslide dams, five cases belong to type II (spanning the entire valley), and two to type IV (failures from both valley sides, with
frontal or side contact between failed masses). With reference to Crozier and Pillans [Catena 18 (1991) 471] classification of
landslide lakes, all cases show a main valley lake while tributary valley, back and supra lakes are sporadically present. One
damming is attributable to the 1693 earthquake with certainty; another damming, to the same earthquake with high probability.
Three dams were reincised, one breached or reincised, one is slightly reincised and two more or less intact; correspondingly,
five silting up deposits were reincised, one is being reincised at present and two are still under formation. D 2002 Elsevier
Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Landslide; Earthquake; River blockage; Hazard; Sicily

1. Introduction emplacement evolution, and estimates the hazard

This paper illustrates seven landslide dams in terms
of morphology and morphometry, origin, and post-
* Size, shape and longevity of damming depend on
Corresponding author. Fax: +39-984-835319.
E-mail addresses: pgn@irpi.cs.cnr.it (P.G. Nicoletti),
cerimp06@area.ba.cnr.it (M. Parise).
1
Fax: +39-80-5567944.
possibly still present.
From narrow gorges to broad alluvial valleys,
practically all physiographic environments in which
a stream of water flows can be dammed by landslides.
landslide type, material and size, and on the relation-
ship between these and such valley characteristics as
cross-section at the damming site, area of the sub-

0169-555X/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 6 9 - 5 5 5 X ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 7 4 - 0
204 P.G. Nicoletti, M. Parise / Geomorphology 46 (2002) 203222
tended watershed and hydrologic regime. In general
terms, landslide dams are more common in steep-
walled and narrow valleys, because generally, these
possess higher landslide susceptibility and may be
easily blocked even by comparatively small debris
masses. As concerns longevity, resistance to erosion is
the key factor, and is favoured by materials consisting
of large and well-graded particles (Swanson et al.,
1985; Schuster and Costa, 1986; Schuster, 1993).
Landslide dams have been recognised all over the
world, and more or less detailed lists or descriptions
exist for many areas. Without pretending to compile an
exhaustive review, we may mention: the cases from the
United States, Pakistan, Canada, Japan and China,
collected in a book edited by Schuster (1986); the 38
landslide-dammed lakes, with a very broad age range,
in a list from New Zealand (Adams, 1981); the Pleis-
tocene occurrences in the Argentine Cordillera, dis-
cussed by Trauth and Strecker (1999); many cases from
the Alps mentioned or described by Abele (1974), and
Eisbacher and Clague (1984); and the almost 100 cases
from the Italian Alps, described by Pirocchi (1991). A
large catalogue of 463 cases from around the world has
been compiled by Costa and Schuster (1991).
Results of systematic analysis, concerning both
geological and engineering aspects of the matter, are
mostly contained in the papers by Schuster and Costa
(1986), Costa and Schuster (1988), and Schuster
(1993, 2000). These authors proposed a classification
of landslide dams into six types (cf. Fig. 3 in Costa
and Schuster, 1988) that will be used also in the
present paper:
type I dams which do not span the valley from side
to side;
type II dams which do span the valley and may run
up the opposite slope;
type III dams which span the valley and, in addition,
move considerably up- and downvalley;
type IV dams which are formed by contemporaneous
failures from both valley sides, followed by
frontal or side contact between the two
masses;
type V dams which are caused by multiple lobes of a
given landslide;
type VI dams which occur when failure surface(s)
extend(s) under the streambed, which is then
raised when the landslide moves.
The most common types by far are type II (61%)
and type III (28%); all other types account for 2 3%
each.
The types of landslides that form dams were also
examined: results show that dams derive commonly
from rock and earth slumps and slides (50%), debris,
mud or earth flows (25%), rock or debris avalanches
(19%), while sensitive-clay failures, and rock and
earth falls account for the remaining 6%.
As concerns the triggering processes of dam-form-
ing landslides, rainfall and snowmelt account for
about 60%, earthquakes for about 30%, volcanic
activity and other causes for the rest.
Size of landslide dams varies in an enormous
range. There may be dams only 1 or 2 m high, and
there is the 570-m-high dam emplaced across the
River Murgab (Tajikistan) by the 2 2.5  109-m3
Usoy rock slide/rock avalanche in 1911, behind which
still extends a lake 500 m deep (Gaziev, 1984;
Zolotarev et al., 1986). Also, the largest failure known
on dry land, a prehistoric, 20  109-m3 rock ava-
lanche in SW Iran, dammed rivers. Along the R.
Seymareh (often spelled Saidmarreh), from which
the landslide took its name, a lake almost 40 km long
and 130 m deep was formed, and a smaller lake was
formed along the left-hand tributary Kashgan (Harri-
son and Falcon, 1938; Watson and Wright, 1967;
Shoaei and Ghayoumian, 1997).
Landslide dams may fail. We leave apart, for the
sake of brevity, the mechanisms of failure, for which
reference can be made to the aforementioned papers
by Schuster and Costa (1986), Costa and Schuster
(1988) and Schuster (1993). In terms of hazard, dam
failure represents the most hazardous process linked
with landslide dams (Costa, 1988), the secondary
hazardous process being backwater flooding. Of the
dams that failed, 89% did so within 1 year, and 11%
lasted more. Cases of failure after 28, 40, and even
131 years are cited in Schuster (1993). Catastrophic
flood waves may result if dam breaching progresses
quickly and a big mass of water is stored in the lake.
Backwater flooding may be a slow process, depending
on the volume of basin and rate of inflow, but may
cause further instability of valley sides and great
economic losses.
Southeastern Sicily is a seismically active area,
and consists basically of a plateau incised by can-
yons. So, bearing in mind the reference picture out-
 P.G. Nicoletti, M. Parise / Geomorphology 46 (2002) 203222
Fig. 1. Landslide dam (L) and lake-fill sediments (S) along an unnamed tributary of Fiume Irminio (dam no. 7 in the text), SE Sicily. The
sheer landslide scar is visible in the background. Note the subhorizontal rock stratification, which is typical of the considered territory. Cf.
with Fig. 10.
lined above, the presence of landslide dams is by no
means exceptional (Fig. 1). However, so far, the
valuable clues provided by historical records had
gone practically unobserved and only a pair of these
landforms had previously been mentioned in the
modern literature (ESE, 1951; Campisi, 1961), even
though without link to historical information. A re-
cent survey has revealed the certain existence of 7
landslide dams, dealt with here, and the possible
existence of 12 more.
Southeastern Sicily is among the four Italian
regions where, according to a recent seismological
study based on analysis of historical and instrumental
seismicity (Boschi et al., 1995a), the probability of
occurrence of crustal earthquakes with magnitude
equal to or greater than 5.9 is high. A better under-
standing of paleoseismic evidence would obviously
help in managing the resulting hazard (Mc Calpin and
Nelson, 1996). To this aim, landslides, and above all
landslide dams and lakes, with records of paleoearth-
quakes hopefully stored in their silting up deposits,
could be of great use.
2. Geologic and climatic setting of the area
The central plateau of southeastern Sicily, the
Hyblaean Mountains, attains its maximum elevation
of 986 m about 40 km inland. Slopes are seldom of
more than 200 250 m in relief, and relief ratio of the
205
drainage basins averages only 0.025, indicating that
relief is generally low. However, canyons are often
deeply incised, and their flanks, though not particu-
larly high, may be steeply sloping. The plateau is
surrounded by lower lands.
In lithological terms (Fig. 2), moderately to well-
lithified clastic carbonate rocks and marlstones under-
lie most of the Hyblaean Mountains; thin claystone
layers are locally present. In the northern sector, these
materials are mantled by, or locally interbedded with,
extrusive basic rocks of both subaerial and submarine
origin. Around the Hyblaean Plateau medium- to fine-
grained, unlithified to moderately lithified clastic
rocks crop out (Lentini, 1984, 1986; Beccaluva et
al., 1993; Grasso, 1997). Both in the Plateau and
around it, dip of strata is generally in the range 0
10j, and steeper only locally. Jointing is overall
moderate. Most of southeastern Sicily belongs to a
foreland area, which accounts for this relatively uni-
form and undisturbed geology.
Climate is typically Mediterranean, viz. hot-tem-
perate with dry summers. Annual precipitation ranges
from 400 mm in some coastal localities to 600 mm in
the outer rim of the Hyblaean Plateau and, gradually
increasing, to 1000 1100 mm in two small, summit
areas inland (Adorni and Aureli, 1989). Almost 80%
of annual precipitation falls between October and
March, and rainstorms are frequent. The dammed
watersheds are small, so that streams are prone to
flash floods.
 206
P.G. Nicoletti, M. Parise / Geomorphology 46 (2002) 203222
Fig. 2. Geologic sketch of SE Sicily (simplified after Lentini, 1984). The core of the area consists of a plateau attaining a maximum altitude of 986 m and radially incised by valleys
often showing a canyon morphology: these are the Hyblaean Mountains, in which most landslides lie. The territory surrounding the Hyblaean core presents hilly to plain morphology
and a limited landslide presence. Numbered sites are those dealt with in this paper. Seismogenic structures suggested by various scholars as being responsible for the main historical
earthquakes (Table 2) are shown in the inset. Whatever the case, landslides cannot be more than 100 km far away of seismogenic structures and, actually, distance is often much
smaller.
 P.G. Nicoletti, M. Parise / Geomorphology 46 (2002) 203222 207

Table 1
Earthquake-triggered landslides in southeastern Sicily: typological distribution
Type Slide Lateral spread Fall Flow Multitypea Uncertain Total
n (%) 132 (90.4%), of which: 77 (52.7%) 3 (2.1%) 2 (1.4%) 1 (0.7%) 6 (4.1%) 2 (1.4%) 146 (100%)
upon circular surface, 43 (29.5%)
upon listric or planar or bi-planar
surface, 12 (8.2%) upon a surface
of complex or uncertain shape
a
Slope movements involving a combination of two or more types.

As it may be easily inferred from the description
above, landslide susceptibility must be low, as long as
static conditions are considered. In fact, literature on
SE Sicily hardly mentions landslide activity (cf.
reviews in Agnesi and Lucchesi, 1988; Nicoletti et
al., 1999a). However, historical sources provide evi-
dence of some seismically induced instability.
3. Landslides and earthquakes in southeastern
Sicily
3.1. Landslide features
A reconnaissance survey performed in southeastern
Sicily identified with reasonable probability 146 land-
slides, which could be attributed to seismic triggers
(distribution is shown in Fig. 2). Nearly all of them
were previously unknown (Nicoletti et al., 1998,
1999a,b, 2000; Nicoletti and Catalano, 2000).
Landslide characteristics are now illustrated
(nomenclature follows Cruden and Varnes, 1996),
and the reasons for the attribution to seismic triggers
are discussed.
(1) Slide is by far the most common type (90%;
Table 1).
(2) In most cases, the style of activity is multiple,
and very rarely complex or composite.
(3) The material is moderately to well-lithified rock
in 128 cases, poorly lithified to unlithified rock in the
remaining 18 cases (Fig. 2).
(4) Slip surfaces of both circular and listric forms
are common. Listric surfaces, in particular, are fre-
quent in the larger landslides. A paramount point is
that, whatever their shape, slip surfaces are commonly
of low angle. The ratio H/L between crown toe
height difference and planimetric length is shown in
Fig. 3: more than 70% of cases are inclined less than
20j, and more than 90% less than 30j.
(5) Size is large (50  103 to 100  106 m3).
(6) Age is old.
(7) The present state of activity is dormant. Age
and state cause morphology to be often subdued.
Probably, they also explain, at least partly, why most

Fig. 3. Angular diagram of H/L ratios of the 141 cases in which data are available (of these, 129 are slides). Angular values (a = arctan H/L)
show the actual gradients. Note that more than 70% and 90% of cases are inclined less than 20j and 30j, respectively. Between brackets, L
values per unit H are also given.
208 P.G. Nicoletti, M. Parise / Geomorphology 46 (2002) 203222

Table 2 NE SW trending structural depression in the north-

Main earthquakes in southeastern Sicily after AD 1000a eastern part of the area; e.g. Gruppo di Lavoro CPTI,
Date Magnitudeb,c Epicentral intensity Epicentral 1999), or to a blind strike-slip fault called EBT 78
[dd/mm/yyyy] [MCS scale]b,d area
(Sirovich and Pettenati, 1999), and the review is not
04/02/1169 5.6 (0.8)e X Eastern Sicily complete. Suggested epicentral locations are also
scattered.
10/12/1542 6.6 (0.4) X Syracuse area
As far as the effects upon landsliding are con-
09/01/1693 6.1 (0.3) VIII IX SE Sicily cerned, it seems that only two points can be reason-
11/01/1693f 7.4 (0.1) XI Eastern Sicily ably fixed, which fortunately is sufficient to bring our
a
Data after Boschi et al. (1995b, 1997). argument one step forward: (a) all structures sug-
b
Estimates. gested as being responsible for the important histor-
c
Equivalent macroseismic magnitude as defined by Gaspar- ical earthquakes are in the eastern or, at the most,
ini and Ferrari (1997). Between brackets, the error in the estimate.
d towards the central part of the study area, but (b) in no
Mercalli, Cancani and Sieberg scale (Sieberg, 1932). It is
almost coinciding with MM and MSK scales. case is the distance of landslides from the fault rupture
e
As concerns this magnitude figure, Gasperini and Ferrari zone greater than 100 km and, in most cases, it is
(1997, p. 62) stated that it probably results highly underestimated considerably smaller (Fig. 2). This maximum distance
as a consequence of the method employed. In the former edition of less than 100 km is interesting because if we plot the
the same catalogue (Boschi et al., 1995b) this magnitude had been
magnitude and distance data for SE Sicily in the
estimated at 8.3, which made it the strongest earthquake of the
Italian area in historical time. In a very recent parametric catalogue Keefers (1984) diagrams (Fig. 4), we find a high
(Gruppo di Lavoro CPTI, 1999), it has been raised to 6.6. compatibility between earthquakes and landslides in
f
This earthquake seems to have lasted as much as 4 min. the area.

of these landslides have long remained unknown. The

shape of slip surfaces makes reactivation possible at
most sites, with obvious hazard implications.

3.2. Seismicity

Since AD 1000, southeastern Sicily has had three

main earthquakes (Table 2), with important effects
both in terms of devastation and victims and, partic-
ularly important here, of morphogenetic capability
(see below). Of course, many comparable events must
have taken place in earlier times, and must have left
their imprint upon the landscape, but no useful infor-
mation exists on them (Finley, 1968; Guidoboni et al.,
1994). One of the aims of this research is simply to
obtain information on seismicity of Sicily prior to AD
1000.
Opinions as to the structures responsible for the
earthquakes in Table 2 are rather widely diverging and
still a matter of debate among seismologists (Fig. 2).
These shocks have been variously attributed to the Fig. 4. Magnitude distance diagram for earthquake-triggered
Malta Escarpment (an important normal fault separat- landslides (modified after Keefer, 1984). Curve (A) is the envelope
for disrupted slides and falls, curve (B) for coherent slides (by far
ing, some kilometres offshore in the Ionian Sea, the the more common type in SE Sicily) and curve (C) for lateral
foreland from the Ionian Basin; e.g. Azzaro and spreads and flows; dashed field indicates magnitude and distance
Barbano, 2000), or to the Scordia-Lentini Graben (a ranges of SE Sicily landslides.
Table 3
Main features of the seven landslide dams
No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Locationa Noto Antica Noto Antica Noto Anticab Avola Antica Costa S. Nicola Contrada Utra Contrada Monte
Dammed stream Cava S. Giuseppe Unnamed canyon Cava S. Calogero Torrente Pisciarello Fiume Anapo Rio Amerillo Unnamed left tributary

P.G. Nicoletti, M. Parise / Geomorphology 46 (2002) 203222

north of the former and Cava Carosello of Fiume Irminio
Landslide typec Rock slide Rock slide Rock slide Rock slide Rock fall Rock slide Rock slide
(see main text)
Slip surface Circular Listric Listric Planar Not applicable Listric Planar
Type of landslide damd IV IV II II II II II
Watershed area [km2] 0.6 2.8 5.6 + 4.6 6 90 12.1 6.4
Type of lake basin(s)e Main valley l. Main valley l. Main valley l. and Main valley l. Main valley l. Main valley l. Main valley l.;
tributary valley l. and perhaps occasional supra
tributary valley l. and back l.
Present state of dam Reincised Reincised Reincised Nearly intact; Breached or Slightly reincised Intact
some instability gradually reincised
in downstream side
Infilling Reincised Reincised Reincised In progress Reincised Complete and In progress
slightly reincised
Date of damming Unknown; possibly Unknown; possibly Unknown; possibly 1693 Probably 1693 Unknown 5000 years BP?
repeated dammings repeated dammings repeated dammings
Site shaking ?, VIII, X XI ?, VIII, X XI ?, VIII, X XI ?, VIII IX, X X?, VIII IX, ?, VIII IX, X?, VII VIII?, X
intensity in 1169, X XI X XI
1542, 1693 [MCS]f
a
Avola Antica and Noto Antica are the sites wherein the towns of Avola and Noto were respectively located prior to the 1693 earthquake; as a consequence of the damage
undergone, they were both moved elsewhere.
b
Here, two streams were dammed at their confluence by the same landslide.
c
After Cruden and Varnes (1996) classification.
d
After Costa and Schuster (1988) classification.
e
After Crozier and Pillans (1991) classification.
f
After Boschi et al. (1997).

209
210 P.G. Nicoletti, M. Parise / Geomorphology 46 (2002) 203222
3.3. Historical records
The seismic catalogue of Boschi et al. (1995b,
1997) contains CD-ROMs with a rich list of, and
ample quotations from, sources coeval with the earth-
quakes listed in Table 2, particularly with the 1693
event. Only some of those sources paid attention to
the environmental effects, however, and their lan-
guage lacks precision in both describing and locating
such effects. Nevertheless, they report beyond doubt
the occurrence of landslides (followed, in a few cases,
by valley damming), liquefactions, and long crevi-
ces. The following example, though generic, in our
opinion is worth a quotation (Anonymous, 1693;
translation is ours): Many mountains were shaken,
and while opening up were thrown in the air, and
having then fallen down onto the plain, filled the beds
of huge rivers, and these being unable to have their
natural courses, it is assumed, on good grounds, that
by those waters will soon befall a new sort of very
notable damage. Unfortunately, only in few cases is
the historical documentation sufficient for locating
specific events either with certainty (cf. the landslide
dealt with below under dam no. 4, exactly dated 1693)
or with high probability (cf. the landslide under dam
no. 5, which probably also occurred in 1693).
Most of the 146 landslides identified seem to have
never been mentioned either in the historical record or
in modern documents, but this is not surprising
inasmuch as they result from a largely unknown
history many millennia long. However, we suggest
that at least several long crevices were symptoms
of landsliding (Richter, 1958). Many landslides, par-
ticularly the larger ones, possess listric slip surfaces,
and the crevices can represent the symptoms of sliding
along those surfaces; this was not perceived as land-
sliding by the contemporary, land-based observers
simply because those landslides were, and still are, so
large, but limited in relief, that their real nature can be
grasped only through air photographs (e.g. dam no. 6
below). In any case, the information provided by
historical sources, though handed down through time
by many seismological catalogues, had never been
methodically checked.
For the landslides specifically examined here,
Table 3 lists available site-shaking intensities from
historical earthquakes. Site intensity ranges from a
minimum of VII VIII to a maximum of X XI. This
is sufficient for landslide triggering because, in both
MCS and MM scales, intensity threshold for small
landslides is VII and for large landslides is X. There-
fore, (a) these specific landslides are fully compatible
with seismic triggers, and (b) since they are rather
scattered over the territory (Fig. 2), compatibility
extends to the whole terrain.
3.4. Seismic origin of landslides
Summing up, the seismic origin of these landslides
of SE Sicily is supported by both geological and
historical evidence, as follows.
(1) Landslides susceptibility in the context of local
environment is low in relation to predominant
lithologies, structural setting and climate, and
this should be seen against
(2) attitude of basal shear surfaces, which are
generally of low angle;
(3) High compatibility with the known earthquake
landslide relationships;
(4) Historical documents testify to earthquake-
induced landsliding and valley damming;
(5) One landslide and the resulting blockage have
been exactly related to the 1693 earthquake
by documentary evidence (see dam no. 4 below).
In particular, the landslides dealt with here are
compatible with estimated site-intensities from histor-
ical earthquakes, and their distribution suggests a
wider territorial compatibility.
4. Landslide dams
Locations of the seven landslide dams are shown in
Fig. 2, main data on dams and lakes in Table 3. Dams
were classified according to the Costa and Schuster
(1988) types, listed in the Introduction. The informa-
tive elements indicated by Schuster and Costa (1986,
p. 18) as important for investigating landslide dams
were sought. These elements are:
(1) location and date of formation of the landslide
dam;
(2) type and characteristics of landslide forming the
dam;
 P.G. Nicoletti, M. Parise / Geomorphology 46 (2002) 203222
(3) surficial/bedrock geology in the source area of
the landslide;
(4) initial cause of the landslide;
(5) height, width, length, and volume of landslide
dam;
(6) length, width, depth, and volume of impound-
ment;
(7) physical characteristics of geologic materials
making up the dam;
(8) presence of seepage, piping, or slope failure on
faces of dam;
(9) longevity of landslide dam and impoundment;
(10) mechanism of failure of landslide dam;
(11) characteristics of the breach;
(12) estimation or measurement of peak discharge;
(13) attenuation of flood wave downstream.
Not all elements are yet known and in any case,
several points, particularly, but not exclusively, the last
four, are hardly applicable to the dams dealt with
here.
Lakes were distinguished following the classifica-
tion by Crozier and Pillans (1991):
(1) back lakes, which are located between displaced
mass and back scarp;
(2) supra lakes, located in depressions on the
displaced mass;
(3) main valley lakes, blocked by debris within the
same valley from which the slide originated;
(4) tributary lakes, formed as the toe of the landslide
blocked the exits of tributaries to the main valley.
Due to the small extent of watersheds and the
precipitation regime, all lakes, except that in site no.
5, are and were ephemeral in character.
Italian site names, after 1:25 000 topographic maps,
have been retained in the descriptions that follow. A
few definitions will help the reader: cava is a local term
for a narrow canyon with steeply inclined to subvertical
walls; fiume means river; rio and torrente indicate an
ephemeral stream; contrada is a term indicating a
country area; costa indicates here a steep slope.
4.1. Dam nos. 1 and 2
These landslide dams are described together since
they are located on the opposite valley sides of Cava
211
S. Giuseppe (Fig. 5), and dammed the confluence
between the cava itself (watershed: 0.6 km2), and an
unnamed left tributary (watershed: 2.8 km2). Failures
affected slopes underlain by subhorizontally bedded
limestone and marly limestone, with thick calcarenite
layers at the top.
The southern rock slide (no. 1) is 1.8  106 m3 in
volume, is about 250 m long, about 500 m wide, and
an estimated 30 40 m thick. The inclination of the
head is only slightly smaller than the inclination of the
source slope and no graben-like form is present, so that
this rock slide should possess a circular, low-curvature,
slip surface. The northern rock slide (no. 2) volume is
1  106 m3. It is about 300 m long and 400 m wide;
displaced material is subhorizontally bedded, and is an
estimated 30 m thick. In this case, the presence of a
crest in the slide head indicates that a graben-like
structure formed as a consequence of displacement
along a listric slip surface. Secondary failures charac-
terise the distal portion of both accumulations.
With reference to the aforementioned classifica-
tions, this blockage belonged to the rare type IV, and
both lakes were main valley lakes.
Discontinuous terraces, which at least partly repre-
sent remnants of lake-fill deposits after reincision, are
visible for a length of about 200 m in the Cava S.
Giuseppe, and for about 800 m in the unnamed
tributary (Fig. 5). Their maximum width is about 50
m. Waterfalls link the terraced segments of the two
valleys to the segment that follows their confluence.
Since terraces are located at different levels, and land-
slides are and were suitable for reactivation, a multiple
sequence of damming infilling reincision may have
taken place. Because of possible reactivations, rural
settlements in both sites are at risk, including agricul-
tural and some residential structures, plus a small
aqueduct at site no. 2. The blockage, totally reincised,
has no more storing capability and presents no risk.
4.2. Dam no. 3
Dam no. 3 was caused by a rock slide of about
1.5  106 m3 emplaced at the confluence of Cava S.
Calogero (watershed: 5.6 km2) with its left-hand
tributary Cava Carosello (watershed: 4.6 km2) (Fig. 5).
The landslide is now about 400 m long and 600 m
wide; maximum thickness is about 40 m. Also in this
case, the presence of graben-like structures suggests
212 P.G. Nicoletti, M. Parise / Geomorphology 46 (2002) 203222

Fig. 5. Geomorphological sketch of site nos. 1 to 3 (encircled numbers for location). Contour interval is 100 m.
 P.G. Nicoletti, M. Parise / Geomorphology 46 (2002) 203222 213

that motion developed along a listric slip surface.
Secondary slope movements occurred along the accu-
mulation toe. Geology is as in cases nos. 1 and 2. The
displaced material still preserves subhorizontal bed-
ding.
The accumulation is not in contact with the oppo-
site valley side, but silting up deposits upstream from
the landslide body indicate that such a contact existed
in the past; therefore, damming was of type II.
Discontinuous terraces, at least partly consisting of
silting up sediments, extend upstream from the dam-
ming site for about 1000 m in the Cava S. Calogero,
200 m in the Cava Carosello, and have a maximum
width of 40 50 m. The terraced valley segments end
with waterfalls (Fig. 5).
Similarly to site nos. 1 and 2, and for the same
reasons, a multiple sequence of damming infilling
reincision seems likely. There was a main valley
lake in Cava S. Calogero and a tributary valley
lake in Cava Carosello.
If landslide reactivation were to occur, there could
be a degree of hazard for a rural settlement and a
Foresters hut located upon the rock-slide body, and
perhaps also an archaeological site of ancient tan-
neries in the Cava Carosello (Ragonese, 1972, 1976
1977) could be at risk. No blockage failure can occur,
due to complete reincision.
4.3. Dam no. 4
This blockage along the Torrente Pisciarello (water-
shed: 6 km2) was caused by a translational rock slide
(Fig. 6) involving a volume of 2  106 m3 of subhori-
zontally bedded calcarenite and marly limestone. It

Fig. 6. Stereogram (year 1966) and section of landslide dam no. 4, in the Torrente Pisciarello valley. The planar slip surface of the landslide, as
well as the silting up deposits still in a comparatively early stage, can be readily appreciated. Average scale is about 1:30 000. Published by the
permission of the Italian Air Force (Concessione Aeronautica MilitareR.G.S. no. 207 del 23.06.1998).
214 P.G. Nicoletti, M. Parise / Geomorphology 46 (2002) 203222
had a heavy impact upon local economy because, apart
from destroying three mills and killing the occupants,
it interrupted the water supply to sugar cane planta-
tions and a sugar factory downstream. This is likely to
be the reason why, unlike other cases, this specific
landslide was well remembered. It is documented in a
book of local history published by a reliable author (Di
Maria, 1745), who provides the following description
while dealing with the 11 January 1693 earthquake (p.
129 130, translation is ours): [the mountain] split
across and nearly half of it, after detaching rampa-
geously, plunged into the valley bed. . .and three mills
with all people inside remained beneath its portentous
bulk. Notice in Fig. 6 the planar slip surface, fully
justifying the sudden development described by Di
Maria. The landslide is further documented by archival
papers concerning the channel system soon built in
order to by-pass the blockage and take again the water
to plantations and factory (Gringeri Pantano, 1996),
and by the plan of an aqueduct, drawn in 1887, which
specifically mentions the 1693 landslide (Gringeri
Pantano et al., 2002). Since the detached mass is in
contact with the opposite slope of the canyon, this
blockage is attributable to type II.
The accumulation, about 250 m wide and 370 m
long, is about 60 m high above the valley bottom; it
retains subhorizontal bedding, even though the rock in
it is highly fractured. The accumulation presents a
short outlet, presumably dug artificially, some 20 m
above the valley bottom. Water flowing in it triggers
erosion on the downstream portion of the blockage,
and the eroded materials are redeposited just down-
stream from the dam (white elongated spot in Fig. 6).
Erosion also seems to have been responsible for the
trigger of a secondary mass movement on the down-
stream side of the accumulation.
Silting up deposits are still accumulating and, so
far, extend almost 500 m upstream from the blockage.
Their estimated maximum thickness is 20 25 m, and
maximum width, just behind the accumulation, is
about 80 m. Estimated volume of the deposited sedi-
ment is 0.18  106 m3.
According to local witnesses, the lacustrine basin,
also here a main valley lake, is subject to flooding
following the major rainfall events (for example,
during the 1995 1996 winter).
This landslide has reached the position of mini-
mum potential energy, so that it cannot be reactivated.
New failures from the same source area, if occurring,
may be hazardous for a hut and for agricultural
activity. As concerns the possibility of dam failure,
it can be observed that material is well-lithified rock
still retaining original structures (though fractured),
the watershed is small, the outlet is only about 20 m
higher than the silting up sediments, and no seepage
or piping seems present; all in all, probability of
failure seems low.
4.4. Dam no. 5
In this site, the Fiume Anapo was dammed by a
rock fall coming from the northern valley flank (Fig.
7). The event has not been dated with certainty, but
the evidence provided by a historical source indicates
that it occurred in 1693 (Boccone, 1697, p. 19; trans-
lation is ours): Not far from the territory of Cassaro,
two very great rocks detached from two prominences
at the ends of two mountains, between which a river
streamed through a long valley. Both rocks plunged
down, and stopped in the defile of the valley and,
coming in contact to each other, clogged the passage
of the water to such an extent that it, being unable to
flow out either underground or laterally, filled the
valley to the elevation of the rocks accumulated, and
then overflowed, leaving a lake 3 miles around and
considerably deep.
The stereogram of Fig. 7 seems to show most of
the elements mentioned by Boccone. Cassaro is on the
left, two rock prominences across the Anapo valley
are on the right, one rock fall which clogged the valley
is clearly seen and, finally, the plain formed by the
lake-fill deposits is evident. We add also that excava-
tions and borings made for founding the constructed
dam met many metres of lacustrine clay (ESE, 1951;
ENEL, unpublished stratigraphic data). However, the
second rock fall is missing, but it may have been of
minor size and be no longer detectable; for example,
the saddle marked by an arrow in Fig. 7 may have
formed due to the failure of the part of the crest. In
conclusion, the elements described by Boccone seem
to be present here (and nowhere else in the area), so
that dating this landslide dam at 1693 seems a
reasonable inference.
According to Boccone, overtopping occurred soon
after dam emplacement, but the dam (consisting of
limestone blocks and boulders) must have lasted long,
 P.G. Nicoletti, M. Parise / Geomorphology 46 (2002) 203222 215

Fig. 7. Stereogram (year 1966) and section of landslide dam no. 5, across the Fiume Anapo. The landscape shown seems to match satisfactorily
the description by Boccone (1697); a possible source for the second rock fall (not visible anymore; see main text) is shown by an arrow. The
blocky nature of rock-fall accumulation can be seen, together with the plain formed by the lake-fill deposits and the constructed dam built in
mid-XX century. Scale about 1:30 000. Published by the permission of the Italian Air Force (Concessione Aeronautica MilitareR.G.S. no. 207
del 23.06.1998).

so that a remarkable amount of sediments could be
deposited. Much of blockage is now missing, and the
large blocks have been redeposited downstream (Fig.
7) indicating that the dam was reincised, but it is not
known whether this occurred gradually, by retrogres-
sive erosion, or suddenly, by breaching. In any case,
part of the sediment body upstream was consequently
removed, and the void was filled by a reservoir
constructed in mid-XX century.
The landslide involved calcarenite and calcirudite
and is presently about 200 m long and 200 m wide;
the accumulation alone is about 150 m  200 m, and
has an estimated volume of about 50  103 m3.
The watershed area is by far the greatest among
those considered: 90 km2. Silting up deposits seem to
extend upstream for about 800 m, with a maximum
width of about 200 m. The lake was basically a main
valley lake, which seems however also to have
flooded tributary valleys.
This rock fall is unlikely to move again, though
minor settling due to undercutting is possible. How-
ever, the source slope seems to show symptoms of
instability and the possibility of new failures should be
considered, particularly in seismic conditions. Ele-
ments at risk would be the constructed dam, the service
building (presently not in use) and a secondary road.
4.5. Dam no. 6
This blockage across the Rio Amerillo (watershed:
12.1 km2) was caused by a rock slide (Figs. 8 and 9)
that moved along a strongly listric slip surface, as is
evidenced by the pronounced horst-and-graben mor-
phology. Estimated landslide volume is 34  106 m3.
The affected slope is formed by an alternance of
subhorizontally bedded limestone and marly lime-
stone overlain by calcarenite, marly calcarenite and
calcareous marlstone. The displaced material is in
216 P.G. Nicoletti, M. Parise / Geomorphology 46 (2002) 203222

Fig. 8. Stereogram (year 1966) of site no. 6 in the Rio Amerillo valley. This strongly listric rock slide has perhaps also blocked a tributary
coming from right, but the real situation is not clear. Two more rock slides (L1 and L2) are visible, respectively, up- and downstream from
landslide dam no. 6. Scale about 1:30 000. Published by the permission of the Italian Air Force (Concessione Aeronautica MilitareR.G.S. no.
207 del 23.06.1998).

contact with the opposite slope, so determining also is more than 1000 m long, about 1200 m wide, and
here a blockage of type II. The landslide is about 1200 presumably 70 m thick. Displaced material still retains
m long and 1100 m wide; elevation difference subhorizontal bedding, but is more fractured than
between crown and toe is 230 m. The accumulation local bedrock.
 P.G. Nicoletti, M. Parise / Geomorphology 46 (2002) 203222 217

Fig. 9. Geomorphological sketch and section of site no. 6. In the lower part of drawing, the Contrada Piano degli Angeli landslide (L1 in Fig. 8)
can be seen. Uncertain silting up deposits are marked with U. Contour interval is 100 m.
218 P.G. Nicoletti, M. Parise / Geomorphology 46 (2002) 203222

Fig. 10. Stereogram (year 1966) and section of landslide dam no. 7. Debris crossed the valley and ran up the base of opposite slope (note the
hummocky surface of debris mass): this was probably an embryonic rock avalanche and, in any case, a rapid, planar rock slide. Dammed basin
is not yet filled, and there is no outlet: probably no overtopping has ever occurred. Shadow emphasises the steep failure surface, which seems to
continue, though less steep, under the rotational rock slide (Rrs) contiguous to the SW. Evolution is complete in the planar rock slide, but tension
cracks (arrows) upslope of the scar indicate that future failures are possible. The rotational rock slide is far from stable, and has a considerable
potential for further development: rural estates with scattered houses are at risk, together with a railway, along the landslide toe, and a state road,
below the toe. Average scale is about 1:30 000. Published by the permission of the Italian Air Force (Concessione Aeronautica MilitareR.G.S.
no. 207 del 23.06.1998); security reasons prevent the provision of a more complete image.
 P.G. Nicoletti, M. Parise / Geomorphology 46 (2002) 203222
The landslide dammed the Rio Amerillo, and
perhaps one of its right-bank tributaries (the evidence
is not fully convincing). In the Rio Amerillo valley,
lake-fill deposits extend about 2000 m upstream from
the blockage, have a maximum width of 200 m and an
estimated maximum thickness of 40 m, so that esti-
mated volume is about 4.4  106 m3. Silting up of
lake was completed in an unknown time in the past,
and since then, a limited reincision of both the distal
rim of the accumulation and the plain of silting up
deposits has begun (Fig. 8). This was of course a
main valley lake, but a tributary lake may have
been also present.
Nicoletti and Terranova (1998) presented a tenta-
tive estimate of the duration of the lake in the Rio
Amerillo valley. By comparing the volume of silting
up sediments and average annual sediment yield, they
obtained a minimum duration of 6500 years.
The upstream portion of the lake-fill deposits in the
Rio Amerillo is in contact with the displaced material
of another landslide that occurred on the same valley
flank (Contrada Piano degli Angeli landslide, L1 in
Figs. 8 and 9; Nicoletti et al., 1998).
In this site, several estates are at risk, also including
residential structures. Given the geomorphological
configuration, a new damming seems unlikely. Sud-
den failure of the dam can be excluded because no
storing capability remains.
4.6. Dam no. 7
This translational rock slide at Contrada Monte
completely dammed an unnamed left tributary (water-
shed: 6.4 km2) of the Fiume Irminio (Fig. 10). It
moved along a planar and steeply inclined slip sur-
face. Accumulation is hummocky, spans the entire
valley width and rests partly on the opposite slope
(see also Fig. 1). These characteristics, and in partic-
ular the run up on the opposite valley side, which
requires high velocity of the moving mass, suggest a
complex mechanism in the occurrence of the land-
slide, with a translational slide evolving into an
extremely rapid and presumably dry debris flow. This
could have been a rock avalanche, whose full devel-
opment was however prevented by the early impact
against the opposite slope.
Rock-slide volume is about 14  106 m3. The
failed slope consists, from the base upwards, of: (a)
219
limestone and marly limestone, (b) calcarenite and
calcirudite, and (c) calcarenite alternating with calca-
reous marly sandy layers. All are subhorizontally
bedded. The landslide crown developed following
the boundary between (b) and (c). Overall, the land-
slide is about 800 m long and 1100 m wide, and the
accumulation is about 550 m long and 1100 m wide.
Maximum thickness is an estimated 60 70 m. The
landslide dam bears no trace of a surficial outlet.
Blockage belongs to type II.
The presence of a main valley lake is evident,
but supra lakes and back lakes can form sporadi-
cally in the concavities between hummocks or be-
tween accumulation and back scarp. Silting up of
main valley lake is advanced, but not complete.
Deposits extend about 1000 m upstream (Fig. 10),
have a maximum width of about 200 m and an
estimated maximum thickness of 60 m, so that esti-
mated volume of the sedimentary body is 2.2  106
m3. Also, this case was analysed by Nicoletti and
Terranova (1998) and the result was a minimum
duration of 5000 years. Since at Contrada Monte
the basin is not totally infilled, this figure represents
also a tentative dating for the occurrence of the land-
slide.
At this site, rectilinear cracks can be seen upslope
of the crown (shown by arrows in Fig. 10), indicating
that the slope is still deforming and that future failures
are likely. Such cracks are presently about 150 m long
and several metres wide, and monitoring would obvi-
ously be opportune. In case of failure, some rural
estates are at risk, also including residential structures,
and a railway, clearly seen in the stereogram, may also
undergo damage. The possibility of a sudden dam
failure seems very remote, because the watershed is
small and the dam is large, flat and composed of well-
lithified rock with very coarse to blocky grain size;
moreover, the absence of an outlet suggests that no
significant overtopping has ever occurred and, finally,
this dam seems to have already withstood a very
prolonged testing.
5. Conclusions
This study pointed out a peculiar aspect of land-
sliding features in an area that was hitherto considered
to be almost landslide-free. In the overall population
220 P.G. Nicoletti, M. Parise / Geomorphology 46 (2002) 203222
of 146 landslides identified in SE Sicily, 7 resulted to
have caused with certainty blockage of streams. This
corresponds to a percentage of blockage-forming
landslides of about 5%.
Damming occurred more frequently in narrow, deep
valleys (at least five cases out of seven). Six dams were
formed by rock slides, which are the most common
class of landslides that form dams, and one by a rock
fall, which is the rarest dam-forming landslide process
(Schuster, 1993). Five belong to the very common type
II (classification by Costa and Schuster, 1988), and
two to the very rare type IV. Four were overtopped and
reincised at some stage of their existence; one is
presently undergoing gradual reincision along its distal
edge; one has a short outlet (presumably artificial); and
one is intact. In broad statistical terms, this agrees with
what has been observed in the other parts of the world.
All blockages generated main valley lakes (Crozier
and Pillans, 1991), and other lake types are sporadi-
cally present. Their age ranges between a minimum of
circa 300 years and a maximum of possibly several
millennia.
If compared to the size of many landslide dams that
can be observed all over the world (see Introduction),
size of landslide dams in SE Sicily is certainly not
spectacular, as it was to be expected in an area of
limited relief and incised by relatively small canyons
and valleys. Therefore, they may represent a contri-
bution to the exploration of the lower end of the field
of existence of these landforms, viz., the conditions
under which given combinations of lithostructural
characteristics, site morphology, and hydrology,
may, or may not, produce a long-lasting blockage
(cf. for example the diagrams watershed area/block-
age volume proposed by Swanson et al., 1986 and by
Pirocchi, 1991). What makes these Sicilian landslide
dams even more interesting, though not spectacular in
absolute terms, is that their settingresulting from
rather good mechanical properties of rocks, subhor-
izontal bedding, little jointing, and low relieftesti-
fies eloquently to the energy that earthquakes may
release in the area.
Owing to possible landslide reactivations or to new
failures, all described sites present a degree of hazard
for human interests. Site no. 7 presents particularly
worrying conditions, due to long crevices suggesting
that a failure process has already begun, even though
it may be temporarily suspended.
Acknowledgements
We thank warmly Pietro Traina, Michele Rendina
and Gaetano Di Prima, all at ENEL (Italian National
Electric Power Agency), Direzione Produzione Idroe-
lettrica Basso Appennino, Palermo, for kindly provid-
ing unpublished documents concerning design and
construction of the dam along the Fiume Anapo, and
Luigi Aceto and Daniela Niceforo (CNR-IRPI) for the
helpful assistance.
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