14,.

v~~_ / P,, /ig 775'

Image Processing and Video Synthesis

Electronic Videograp'.lic Techniques

by Stephen Beck

television
I. Electronic imaging techniques as applied to
expand it
utilize the inherent plast=city of the medium to
representational
beyond t2 . s .rictly photogra :_ic/realistic,
general .
: c .iarizte_i "zes the :history of television in
as-Dect whit
been constructed
A wide variety of electronic instruments have
collaborations in
by engineers, artists, and engineer-artist
with TV sets
the "past several _years which operate specifi tally
system which has
as primary display or "canvass" . Each imaging
technical capabilities
been developed reflects the artistic and
accord. ing to distinctly
of its originators, and tends to be utilized
cases the resultant image
differen-t aesthetic theories . In some
-~
circuit designs of a given instru,_en
is largely due to the inherent
:
utilized to produce an image ::it'
In other cases, the instrument is
affect, the elctronic aspect t=in
a specific visual . .or psychological
realisation .
more of a means than an . end to the
usage of particular in-
Regardless of the specific aesthetic
by examining the structural
struments, some insig'at may be obtained
typical video synthesizers
differences and similarities between
some of the basic circuitry
and image ?rpcessors, as well as
every case, the video synt :le%ter
which is used ,in these devices . In
Uof electronic technology &
may be viewed as a'%ip of the iceberg
the transistors,
visual :arts . vast armies of individuals make
comprise
resistors, capa ors, amd integrated circuits .rtich
properl3 ap_applied under the design
a synthesising instr ~ent, when
artists .
of visually inclined electronic
=I . Categorioal distinctions of electronic video instruments .
Just as in t'I!~ science of biology many classific -tions of life-
there are several genre of video = ;-nthesizer .
r
lorms exist, In
u . .n sense t a sy~; t :es~~zer
C n 7`
in R7ene _al is some -i
_ . ng whAq com-

bines Parts to form a Wiole entity, gust ao-ut a!l video instruments
could be classified as such . However, in teams of structural
details some clarification can be made . I have listed several
sate ories of video i.~a-e instruments accordinV .o unique qualities

cf t -_air rinciple of operation, along ;pit -: some criteria for

ma =it-=- t ::z distinction, and artists and engineers in the video
art field ::ho are using; these methods .

1 . Ca._era image processor types . These types include such

techniques as colori zOrs whic', add c hrom _nance signal to black

and 'rrhi to ( mono chrome ) signal from TV camera ; k_eyeer~s and

cuartizers whic :: separate value levels in a scene and allow
other -rocesses
- to take dace
1140
i  tv_e scene- add synthetic color,
dace another iW^age in certain places of the original, obtain
matte effects ; modifiers which doNS't alter the geometry of the
image cut ra`her hwi~_ affect its grey scalq such as polarity

inversion, or which generate and edge around eleMents of the

image, or .-hich -aix by - superimnosItlon .several-

image; sources,
Some systems which are essentially of the image processor
type
describe : include those buill by : Paik/4be, Siegle
(CVS ),
Templetc-n, Saadeen, Hearn, Vasulkas, and others .

2. Direct Video synthesizer types . These tyres are in principle

-onceive4 to operate without the use of any camera image,
though
some of them can also perform the processing operations
described
above . 'Basically, a complete TV signal is formed from
electronic
generators which comprise the synthesizer circuits,
which include
ciruitry suc as color aeneretors Wnich Produce chromincance

signals accordin to either I-Q methods, Hue-saturation We t : .od's,

or Red-Green-Blue methods ; form 7enerato -rs w 1ni ch establish t :e

necessary pulse vibrations to produce shapes, planep, lines,

or points and to move them in various ways by use of -cticn

modulators either simile electronic waves sucn as ramps,

sines, or triangles, or .:,ore com .ilex curves, or even with audio

frequency sound signals ; texture amplifiers which aloes fc,-

color manipulation to ac~^iieve shading, caarascuro, "airbrush",

or gr?.nu?ated effects, roughly could be tnou :Vht of - a5 electronic

brush effects . Instruments using the Direct iideo proces7,

include those by Beck ( Direct 'Iideo Synthesizer ), SieJle ( 717S

Dupouy ( Movicolor ), EMS ( Spectron ), and others .

3 . Scan modulation/ Re-scan types . These types rely on t^:e

principle of a TV camera viewing an oscilloscope or television

screen which displays the image from another TV camera . T:,e

image on the screen can then be manipulated geometrically

( stretched, squeezed, rotated, reflected, etc . ) by means of

deflection modulation , either magnetically or electronically .

The second TV camera then transforms this image into one bearing

a proper TV scan relations_A p, and may then be colorized or

processed by techniques outlined in section 1 . These systems

can also be used without an input camera where the image then

consists only of the manipulation of the raster, producing

Lissaious type images . systems using this method include those

by Harrison ( Computer Image ), Paik/Abe, Rutt/Etra, and others .

 . Non- VTR recordable .types . These types are included

for completeness and encompass th-se video displays w'_-=ich

do not actually produce a standard TV sip=a1 wavefcrm and

can hence only be utilized on one set w~ .c is specially nre=

Dared, and cannot be directly recorded on ma g netic video tape .

Most are based primarily upon magnetic distortion of the

nornal TV scsn .atter, or else they utilize a color picture

tube as -f it Mere an oscilloscope screen . Such indiv-.duals

-ra -i
as Paik, Tadlock ( Arc etror~ ), and earn ( Vidium '"have

ututilized these tec --iniques in tteir video soul ptureg .

I have not included it this categorization the studio switcher

and special effects }generator to be found in most teleproduction

studios, which include processing and wipe generation, or the

emerging video game box w_:ic is in principle a direct video

signal generator of very s :ecif ic configuration . nor -ve I

alluded to video feedback tec=niques, which all systems are

capable of sustaining in ore of its various forms .

In every case the individual approach to video instruments

encompasses a wide variety of circuit .designs and processes .

Some require cameras, others do not ; some utilize -a form . .,_

of voltagelcontrol w'sich permits color changes, image size,

or movement *Fate, for exam :-~les, to be changed by some other

circuit, in a6dition to being changed by an operator . This

factor indroduces an interesting dilemma into the realm of

electronic images : how much is the image a product of the

instrument rather than of the instrumentalist?

 n s 1i "11c : .
__ v yaeo synt iesize r can b e s e ., t7 co nQ1t
t

ipcr~; , ns
image ..fter i::~aTe for hours upon ,
the e wer . But in
Inter stir , perhaps net- depends upon
C=-SE the images have their composition Jr:
t :',e circuit
tai5
instrument . Or the image may
design and programming of the
by someone playing the video
be altered and shaped temporally
have tar-e r composition
sy nt esizer, in which case the imagef
with the circuit
in t o m=ntal image of the :,layer, interactin-

as a generative device
Cne can conceive of a synthesizer
a process of ass eMblage
w'aich forms t:-l-e resultant ?icture by
conceive Cf it as a filtration
of electronic pulsation, or one can
selection of numerous
device . in whic'i, due to the proper
.-_e infinity of
t
elect=~nic conditions, a given image out of
Giordono Bruno in his
possit'~.e i-a7es results as a picture .
bus postulates
thesis -e imm en= o, Innumerabilius et Infigurabili
- are perceived b .- r a selective
an infinite =tuber of universes which
process to form a reality distinctly unique to
and Marconi
the viewer . T'_-:us it is that a video synthesizer
very different images- each
Mafk T color studio carera reveal
criteria- neither one
is filtering according to -very different

mope or less valid, Just different .

sufficiently, many will
When visual literacy." has advanced
image as a by-product of
no longer consider the synthesized
of its own,
television tec'-,nology, but as a visual reality
photographic
distinct from the terms of a representational,
literal .
image, an image which is more glyphic that
 .
III . Two examples of videc y :t je~s1z-r circ - :it structures
tyuical
In order to illustrate in more detail some
:7e processor
techniques utilized in vi=ee cyntnesizer and ima

circuits T_ shall mention com ,arator circuit and color zirT

techniques .
keyers,
The ecunarator is a ver;7 r-ereral circ,-it used in
It is sybolize
quantizdrs f wil)e generator-, and fore: `enera tons .

elec ironically as a tr'an ehclosin ; a question mwrk :

T :here are two inputs and ore output . The inputs can be

voltages from, say, a scale of 0-10 . The output

continuous
The . :^ropriat
however is allowed only twc conditions : CN or OFF .
inputc .
condition is determined by comparing the values of the t;;c
e_t ~ r ~L -ie - i nr.
__ ut value __
If the + input value is ;_r :
-511-an

the
output is ON ; If the + input is the same as or less than

- input tfie output- i s CFF . A typical circuit used for 41.11 11s

function is the u710 inte -rated circuit, about the size cf a

dime .
;;':yen the contiguous voltage to one input comes from a

monochrome TV camera the value 0 represents any black areas in

the image, while the value 10 represents the brightest white

areas in the-picture, with value 5 representing an area of

medium grey . Imagine the image to be a white cross inside

a grey square surrounded by a black backround . the image

could be depicted schemat 2--lly as

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
00555500
00599500
0 9 ? 9 9 0 0
C C 5 9 9 5 0 0
Oct-5955 0 0
 comes f ::j a fixer!
If the other input to the comparatof ,
then ti- r-~lt=r_t o
value so "arce, called the threshold,
picture
is a s-,jple keyer . mho out-ut will be OFF wheneyer the
will be C ~ whenever ":e
:
element is less t'lan the threshold and
.
picture element is more tnan the threshold
be , colorized by settle'
For example, the white cross could
connectir~c the output of the
the thresrol" to say value 7 and
. C.nly ;-; "leg= the
com,aratoito a color! zor a^tivate circuit
color be turned cn ,
picture value exceeds value 7 will the
cross . If ancther comPnratc_'
in the region ocou :icd o :
value 4 then the
were introduced wit :: its L"-reshold set to
by t ::e grey box = c
output would be 0!t in the region occupied
control a second
the white cross, and it could be used to
Light be ccmbi~.~^
colonizer producing a colored square, which

with the colorized cross . If the two in-cuts to comparatcr

be inserted into .._
were exchanged, then t"-,,e ^c' or could
surrounding the `hey square .

Jlearly this exam Ile ce n -e extended to many chan  els, S or

the basis for quantizing
even 16 not being uncommon, and forms
by some video artists .
colonizers and multiple level keyers used
traverses each line of
Bear in mind that the scann ; ng process
of a second, with each:
picture elekments in some 52-millionths
seconds ( billinnthe
element being occupied for only 250 nano
be performed very fast .
of a second ) .'so that the ee=parison must
20 nanoseconds . But
The u710 can make a compwrison in less than
and threshold levels are
at this high speed, and when the picture
of a volt ) the output
almost eaual ( within a Fe: . thoudandths
forth for a time, pro-
often is undecisive, oscill= tingCD bac~.c and
" torn" edge characteristic of keying .
the speculated or
 ;ors
Colori inP- . In televisiS': color three types of

are applied to the inside urface of the picture tube .chic ::

excited by electrons
each e-it a differing color li-ht when
and blue,
scanning over them . The three colors are red, green,
clusters of tiny dots, or in
and are applied in either triadic
vie:: in T distances the
very thin strips, so that a normal
as such, but tend to
individual phosphors are not discernible
subje .+iv :: process of color
fuse their colors acccr inn- to t :.e
can be varied in intensitY
vision . Each of the primary colors
intensity of the electron
from zerg to 100;4 by modulating the
polyc ,:zromatic re roduc t-cn
streams exciting them . In this manner,
admixture of taree primary colors,
is achieved Ay contrell'n` t'=ie
involves the mixture
Since the color process is additive and
excited in equal a--gun is
oe emi ,ted light all three colors when
. ';:-ion just t'..-.e
nroduc_ the sensation of white or grey values
a yello:r color Is sense ;:,
red and the izreen colors are stimulated
result .
or when red and blue are excited,pur^les
hue - w_a t is the
The three properties of color include
opposed to green or blue)
wavelength of the color ( i .e . yellow as
brightness or
saturation- how intense or vivid is the hue ; and
by the a, ditic
value - how much is the color diluted or made pastel

of white o-r gey . Any video colorizor must determine each of

the three properties . In black and white television ( more

entirely
properly known as monchrome ) the picture is composed
nature . This
of various intensities of light of a bluish-white
luminance signal .
signal is known in television terminology as the
color television an
It conveys information of values . With
the
additional information bearing signal is used to convey
chrominance signal
hue and saturation inform. ti on, called the

or chromes .
 `,-r , in the .l0c=of I. color
This c'-_'"o."''-nance signal
vibrates at 3,579,549 cycles -.pr second .
subcarrier w' ich
sat-
is ," pried acccrdin~ to the
Its jr; ;,ensi.ty or a :~-litude
color, and its phase i s varied according to
ur~~ ion of the
f Chas modulation
the hue of the color . This t c'::riques o
si ;pal to su ; ply
requires presence of a pilot or reference
the color burst-
the phase an :vle reference, '_known as
be vis=;alized as oe-
In essence, the color spectrum may
The center circle
:- a circular distrib-atien,
cup ;; in
the
any distance but ,ard from
re presents . n o saturation,w1aile
saturated colors with the
center re .resent progreasIvely more
the hue of the color . _ tact there are
direction representing
of t' .e color subcarrier which can be con-
actually two elements
components,
color ; the I and
trope to produce synt'_:etic
.
ot'-'T d~=for innhas- and cuadrature
hue-saturation principle
simrles+ eolori4rs operate on the
of the color subcarrier
with. one control affecting the phase
green, cyan, blue, or magenta
thus determining red, yelllww ;
the amplltude of the sub-
hues while the other control affects
saturation of the desired
carrier determining the vividness or
in .roduce a luminance
hue . n additional control may be used to
added electronically to an
value, or the subcarrier can be
from a camera .
ex_stin~ monochrome signal derived
modulating the intensity
Aro11h_er~type of color izor operates by
com?onents- The combined effect of
of the I and'` Q subcarrier
both hue and saturation
two independent modulations generates
both beirg affected simul-
information, wit:z the two variables
vividness of a given hue both
taneously . Thus to change the
.
controls Must be chanted together
 is the Red-Green-P~ue
A tlird type of celorizer circuit

encoding method . Three contrcls determine the saturaticn

waic ^ then mix
levels of red, green, aand blue primaries,
:~inance,,and chromanance signals
in the encoder to produce lu
Beisdes operatin in a graphic
of the standard video signal .
adaptable to other
mode this type of cclorizer is readily
of encoding circuitry . The
TV systems in use by substitution
ne-'ally require different
I/Q and Hue/Saturaticn -ethcds
system used .
techniques for eac : ty :e cf television
screen color or
Many colonizers are 11::! red to full
This allows for basically
quantized color type of operation .
synthesizer I have
hard edge color . In t_e Bec :~_ Direct Video
this limitation
been particularly interested in surmounting
contouring .
and achieving a full range of color

. In the strict
IV Video synthesis =n- 0c_-uter graphics
but a large collect-"On
sense of the word a digital computer is
operate on binary bits
of electronic switches arranged to
video synthesizers do not
of information . As such, most
computer, with op-
qualify as computers ; althcug'the analog
and amplifiers more closely
amps, differentiators, integr=torn,
. Computer
resembles the structure of video synt'_gesizers
1
oscilloscope displays
graphics generally has been done with
newer systems do generate
under cemputer,control, t':ou_z some
. We can expect
images on color television .:=splay directly
the control of video
to see the use of digital computers in
analog converters .
synthesizers via means suc':: as digital to
images ( 4,200,000
When one compares the bandwidth of video
s^eeds ( 500,000
cycles per second ) with com uter processin^
bits per second typically ) cr with audio signals ( 20,000
 output speeds
cycles per second ) the gap between computer
a moving
and t . e necessary inforniat' on rates to gener,:

video iwa7e become apparent .

esizers and
i n terms of circuit devices most video synt
and some types of
imam processors utilize discrete transistors
t :e emergence
integrated microcircuits . We can expect to see
I designed
.-,' two or three years of video integrated circuits
display .
s~;ec= f ;cally for the imaging functions of television
watts
Video synthesizers consume electrical power of from 50
spot-
to several hundred watts- far less than even a single
studios . They
li :~zt utilized by the dozen in standard camera
to
also require far fewer personnel to operate them compared

standard teleproduction .: - Both of these factors

from an
make video synthesized television images appealing
economical perspective .

instruments such as
V, The appearance of electronic imaging
new
the video synthesizer and image processors ushers in a

language of the screen ; non-representational and departing

methods will
from the conventional television image, these
. Any
stimulate the awareness of new images in the culture
contingent
growth of the video synthesized image will be
proficient in
on the ability of video artists to become
.
techniques of.:composi$g and presenting synthesized imagery
the
The instruments themselves will not perform without
artistic consciousness of a skilled operator .

Stephen Beck

Submitted August 18, 1975

Image Processing an : 1ideo Synthesis
techniques .
Booklist and Reference :; for additional reading on

1 . Direct Video : nr iectrcnic art-=for .J o 1r Television

Center for
by Stephen Beck, 1972, Reports, National
Experiments in Television .
Beck, 1972 . Produced
2 . Methods from Synt'nesis tape by Stephen
Television, available
by National Center for Elperiemnts in

from Electronic Ilrts T_nte-Mi7, II .Y .

. 1964,
3 . Fundamentals of Television by Walter H . Buchsbai4m

John F . Rider, Inc .

Me Gra,.; -Hill .,
4 . Television Broadcasting by Howard A . Chims, 1953,
i~ Vs t- I"aint?inance by Harold E .Ennes, 1967,
5 . Television i

Howard Sams Co ., Inc .

Glass.-Cord,
6 . Fundamentals of Television Engineering by Glenn M .

1955, Mc Graw-:all .
7 . Musi /Im age Won
- ks op by Ron Hays, 1974, WGBH Educational
k sho
-
Foundation .
by Gerald
8 . Introduction . to 3olid State Television Systems

L . Hansen, 1969, Prentice-Hall, Inc .

1970,
9 . Handbook of Maynetic 2,eccrding by Finns Jorgensen,
Tab Books .

10 . Co Television Fundamentals BY Milton S . Kiver, 1955,

McGraw-Hill, Inc .

11 . Television . Sim ", lified, 6t Edition, by Milton 3 . Kiver,

1962, D . Van Nostrand Co ., Inc .

Howard . W .
12 . TV Servicing glade Easy b-' -1Tayne Lemmons, 1971,

Sams do CO .
13 . Television and 3- epairing by John Markus, 1961 9

Mc craw - Hill .
14, Independent Video b : en Marsh, 1974, Straight Arrow Books .
Judson
15 . (idea 'n' Videolor,y :Nam June Palk , .edited by
rosebush, 1974, Everson Museum of Art .
yndustr by V .K, zworykin, 1958,
16 . 7alevision in science

john viley & Sons, Inc .

Abstract : Image processing and Video Synthesis

:electronic Videographic Techniques
by Stephen Heck
between
This article demarcates the structural distinctions
vzri :: .:s instrumen is constructed and used by video artists .
colorizors
In addition t:o typiaal circtits, the comparator and

are d=scussed . The intent is to clarify for the viewer

the a-proacaes to electronic video image making presently in

use .

Stephen Beck holds---a- degree in electrical engineering from

the University of '43alifornia, J erkeley o and also studied at

the University of IIlinois, .Urbana in electronics and electron

music . He constructed his first direct video synthesizer

in 1969, and . .another synthesizer while affiliated with the

r

National Center :or Experiments in Television, San Francisco .

with
His videograph~c work include many compositions realised

the direct video synthesizer on video tape, live performances

and videofilms . Presently he works from a studio in Berkeley

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