8

Angular Measurement and Circular Division

8.1.Introduction
Measurement of any angle precisely is one of the most important human activities. It is only
because of precise angular measurement that ships and aeroplanes can navigate confidently without
the help of the sight of the land. The relation of the stars and their approximate distances are also
computed in astronomy by means of angular measuring devices. In workshop also, so often we come
across problems involving angular measurements. This is rather indispensable in workshops for the
manufacture of interchangeable parts, jigs, dies, etc.
As in linear measurement, where two kinds of standards (viz., end standard and line standard) are
used; so also in angular measurement we have two types of tools. They are angle gauges
corresponding to slip gauges and divided scales corresponding to line standard. The difference in the
linear and angular measurement is that no absolute standard is required for angular measurement.
The angle is defined as the opening between two lines which meet at a point. If one is moved
around a point in an arc, a complete circle can be formed and d is from this circle that units of
angular measurement are derived. The basic unit in angular measurement is the right angle. It is
defined as the angle between two lines which intersect so as to make the adjacent angles equal. Angle
is also defined in terms of radian which is the angle subtended at the centre by an arc of a circle of
length equal to its radius. For engineering purposes, the angular units are defined in sexagesimal
system (degrees, minutes, seconds). If a circle be divided into 360 parts, each part is called a degree
(J. So angle is such a thing which can be just generated very easily, requiring no absolute standard,
and it is the precision with which the circle can be divided to get the correct measure of angle. Each
degree is further divided into sixty parts called minutes ('), and each minute is further sub-divided
into 60 parts called seconds (").
In this chapter, we will be dealing with angular measurement and circular division which form an
important part of Metrology, Angular measurement is generally concerned with the measurement of
individual angles on gauges, tools as well as small angular changes and deflections etc. Circular
division deals with the measurement and continuous division of a circle.

8.2.Vernier and Optical Bevel Protractor

It is probably the simplest instrument for measuring the angle between two faces of component. Il
consists of a base plate attached to the main body, and an adjustable blade which is attached to a
circular plate containing vernier scale. The adjustable blade is capable of rotating freely about the
centre of the main scale engraved on the body of the instrument and can be locked in any position. \\\
acute angle aftachement is provided at the top; as shown in Fig. 8.1 for the purpose of measuring
acute angles. The base of the base plate is made Hat so that il couid be laid flat upon the work and
any type ol angle measured. It is capable of measuring from 0 to 360.
491
 The vernier scale has 24 divisions coinciding
with 23 main scale divisions. Thus the least
count of the instrument is 5'. This instrument is
most commonly used in workshops for angular
measurements till more precision is required.
A recent development of the vernier bevel
protractor is optical bevel protractor. In this
instrument, a glass circle divided at 10' intervals
throughout the whole 360 is fitted inside the
main body. A small microscope is fitted through
which the circle graduations can be viewed. The
adjustable blade is clamped to a rotating member
which carries this microscope. With the aid of Fig. 8.1
microscope it is possible to read by estimation to
about 2\
8.2.1.Universal Bevel Protractor. It is used for measuring and laying out of angles accurately
and precisely within 5 minutes. The protractor dial is slotted to hold a blade which can be rotated
with the dial to the required angle and also independently adjusted to any desired length. The blade
can be locked in any position.
8.2.2.Bevel Protractors as per Indian Standard Practice. The bevel protractors are of two
types, viz.,
(a) Mechanical Bevel Protractor, and

(b) Optical Bevel Protractor.

The mechanical bevel protractors are further classified into four types; A, B, C and D. In types A
and B, the vernier is graduated to read to 5 minutes of arc whereas in case of type C, the scale is
graduated to read in degrees and the bevel protractor is without vernier or fine adjustment device or
acute angle attachment. The difference between types A and B is that iype A is provided with fine
adjustment device or acute angle attachment whereas type B is not. The scales of all the types are
graduated either as a full circle marked 090090 with one vernier or as semicircle marked 0
900 with two verniers 180 apart. Type D is graduated in degrees and is not provided with either
vernier or fine adjustment device or acute angle attachment.
In the case df.optical bevel protractor, it is possible to take readings upto approximately 2
minutes of arc. The provision is made for an internal circular scale which is graduated in divisions of

Fig. 8.2. Universal Bevel Protractor.

10 minutes of arc. Readings are taken against a fixed index line or vernier by means of an optical
magnifying system which is intergral wjth the instrument. The scale is graduated as a full circle
marked 090090. The zero positions correspond to the condition when the blade is parallel to
the stock.
Fig. 8.3. Mechanical Bevel Protractor with Vernier and acute angle attachment.
Fig. 8.4. Mechanical Bevel Protractor without Vernier and acute angle attachment
Provision is also made for adjusting the focus of the system to accommodate normal variations in
eye-sight. The scale and vernier are so arranged that they are always in focus in the optical system.
The principle of optical scales has already been discussed in details in chapter 6.
8.2.3. General
of
Description
of Various Components Bevel
Protractors
Body. It is designed in
such a way that its back is
flat
land there are no projections
beyond its back so that when
the
i bevel protractor is placed on
its
back on a surface plate there
shall be no perceptible rock. The
flatness of the working edge of
| the stock and body is tested by
1 checking the squareness of blade
jwith respect to stocck when Fig. 8.5. Optical Bevel Protractor.
blade is set at 90.
Stock. The working edge of the stock is
about 90 mm in length and 7 mm thick. It is
very essential that the working edge of the
stock be perfectly straight and if at all
departure is there, it should be in the form of
concavity and of the order of 0.01 mm
maximum over the whole span. Fig. 8.6. Using bevel protractor for checking the inside
Blade. It can be moved along the turret bevelled face of a ground surface.
throughout its length and can also be reversed.
It is about 150 or 300 mm long, 13 mm wide
and 2 mm thick and ends bevelled at angles of
45 and 60 within the accuracy of 5 minutes
of arc. Its working edge
 should be straight upto 0.02 rnm and parallel upto 0.03 mm over the entire length of 300 mm. It can
be clamped in any position.
8.2.4. Acute angle attachment It can be readily fitted into body and clamped in any position.
Its working edge should be flat to within 0.005 mm and parallel to the working edge of the stock
within 0.015 mm over the entire length of attachment.

Fig. 8.7. Use of bevel proractor for checking of vee block.

Fig. 8.8. Use of Vernier protractor for measuring acute angle.
The bevel protractors are tested for flatness, squareness, parallelism, straightness and angular
intervals by suitable methods.
8.2.5. Use of Bevel Protractors. Figs. 8.6 to 8.8 shows the use of bevel protractors for different
applications.
8.3. Divided Circles
These correspond to the line standards in length measurement. The lines are ruled out into glass
discs defining the angular positions.
8.4. Optical Dividing Head
Optical dividing head consists of a circular scale, suitably calibrated in degrees and fractions
and fitted concentrically to the axis of the machine spindle. The scale is viewed through a
microscope. It can measure directly upto 12"of arc and readings can be estimated upto V of arc. Fig.
8.9 shows the diagrammatic arrangement of the optical system employed in optical dividing head. It
would be noted that the light passes through a system of lenses and illuminates the divided scale
(mounted on the main spindle) thus projecting the readings on a ground glass screen. This
arrangement thus dispenses with the focusing eyepiece and errors due to parallex are eliminated. The
spindle on which the glass divided circle is mounted, runs in hardened and lapped plain bearings.
The worm which is used only for rotation purposes is mounted in bearings independent of those for
the main spindle. The worm wheel is driven by the worm, which is connected to a hand-wheel, and a
lever is provided for engaging or disengaging the drive. If handle is turned against the locked
spindle, it would simply override. In order to make a rough check on the required angle, an indexing
ring graduated in degrees is provided at the end of the spindle.
8.6. Sine Principle and Sine Bars
The sine principle uses the ratio of the length of two sides of a right triangle in deriving a | given
angle. It may be noted that devices operating on sine principle are capable of "self generation." i The
measurement is usually limited to 45 from loss of accuracy point of view. The accuracy with
Fig. 8.10
diameter are attached at the ends. The axes of these two cylinders are mutually parallel to each other
and also parallel to and at equal distance from the upper surface of the sine bar. The distance between
the axes of the two cylinders is exactly 5 inches or 10 inches in British system, and 100, 200 and 300
mm in metric system. The above requirements are met and maintained by taking due care in the
manufacture of all parts. The various parts are hardened and stabilised before grinding and lapping.
All the working surfaces and the cylindrical surfaces of the rollers are finished to surface finish of 0.2
|um Ra value or better. Depending upon the accuracy of the centre distance, sine bars are graded as of
A grade or B grade. B grade of sine bars are guaranteed accurate upto 0.02 mm/m of length and A
grade sine bars are more accurate and guranteed upto 0.01 mm/m of length.
Although there are several forms of sine bars, but the one shown in Fig. 8.10 is most commonly
used. Some holes are drilled in the body of the bar to reduce the weight and to facilitate handling.
However, from the point of view of ease in manufacturing to ensure an exact distance between
the cylinders, the form shown in Fig. 8.11 is preferable. Also this type of sine bar can be set to a steep
angle without the slip gauges fouling the underside of the bar. But this point is immaterial as the
accuracy of setting appreciably decreases with steep angles and from the point of stability also we
generally do not use sine bars for steep angles.
Before using any sine bar for angular measurement work, for accuracy and precision, it is better
to ensure whether the folowing accuracy requirements and tolerances as specified by I.S. 5359-1969
for 100 mm sine bar are met with :
Characteristics Permissible Tolerance
Flantess of upper and lower surfaces 0.001 mm
Parallelism of upper and lower surfaces w.r.t. datum
surface when resting on it 0.001 mm
Flatness. of side faces 0.005 mm
Squareness of side faces to upper surface 0.003/25 mm
Parallelism of side faces to the axes of rollers 0.01/25 mm
Flatness of end faces 0.003 mm
Squareness of end faces to the upper surface 0.003/25 mm
Parallelism of end faces to the axes of the rollers 0.01/25 mm
Straightness of individual rollers and freedom from lobing and
uniformity in diameter 0.002 mm
Mean diameter of rollers 0.002 mm
Distance between the roller axes 0.003 mm
Roller axes:
(/) In a common plane over the length of either roller 0.003 mm
(ii) Parallel to and equidistant from the upper surface over the
length of either roller 0.003 mm
Flatness of the bearing surface of the setting foot 0.003 mm
Various types i.e., different designs of sine bars required for different applications are shown in
Fig. 8.10. Fig. 8.11 also shows the nomenclature of sine bars as recommended by IS: 53591969.
As already pointed, sine bar shown in Figs. 8.10 to 8.14 is more preferred form as the distance
between the rollers in this case can be adjusted exactly.
This type of sine bar can be easily set on steep angle without the slip gauges fouling the
underside of the sine bar; of course, the accuracy of setting decreases with steep angles.
 Fig. 8.12

Fig.
8.11.
Sine bar shown in Fig. 8.12 is most commonly used form in which the rollers are so arranged that
their outer surfaces on one side are level with the plane top surface of the sine bar.
The form of sine bar shown in Fig. 8.13 has hollow rollers whose outside diameter is equal to
width of sine bar and is used where the width of the sine bar enters into calculation of work height. -

Fig. 8.13
Fig. 8.14
The form of sine bar shown in Fig. 8.14 is used where ordinary type can't be used on the top
surface due to interruption.
The accuracy of sine bar depends on its constructional features and on maintaining these.
These features are: (0 The two rollers must have equal diameter and be true cylinders. (ii)
The rollers must be set parallel to each other and to the upper face. (Hi) The precise centre
distance between the rollers must be known.
(iv) The upper face must have a high degree of flatness. The various characteristic tolerances
have already been indicated above.
Fig. 8.15 shows the various types of sine bars as recommended by BS : 3064.
The accuracy requirements for sine bars as specified by British standard BS : 3064 are
(i) Flatness of whole of the upper surface of bar (and also of lower surface if it is working
surface): 0.0015, 0.002 and 0.003 mm respectively for 100, 200 and 300 mm bars.
(ii) Parallelism of lower and upper surfaces-Same tolerances as for (i) above.
(Hi) Flatness of side faces of bars: 0.004, 0.005 and 0.006 mm for 100, 200 and 300 mm bars
respectively.
(iv) Squareness of the side faces to the upper surface of bar: 0.0025 mm per 25 mm.
(v) Squareness of the side faces to the axis of the hinge roller : 0.013 mm per 25 mm.
 (vi) Flatness of end horizontal. One of the cylinders or rollers of
faces (if to be used as sine bar is placed on the surface
working surfaces) : within
0.0025 mm.
(vii) Squareness of end
faces (if to be used as
working surfaces) to the
upper surface of the bar:
within 0.0025 mm per 25
mm.
(viii) Parallelism of end
faces to the axis of the hinge
roller: within 0.013 mm per
25 mm.
(ix) Uniformity of
radius and straightness over
length of setting and hinge
rollers : within 0.002 mm.
(JC) Equal sizes of
setting and hinge rollers
to be within 0.0025 mm.
(xi) Accuracy of
distance between roller
axes : 0.0025, 0.005 mm,
0.008 mm for 100, 200 and
300 mm bars.
(xii) Additional
requirement of rollers. The
roller axes should lie in a
common plane within 0.002
mm over the length of either
roller. Further the upper
surface and lower surface (if
working surface) should be
parallel to the plane tangent
to the lower surface of the
rollers within 0.002 mm.
(xiii) Flatness of end and
side faceswithin 0.005
mm.
8.6.1. Use of Sine Bar.
(1)
Measuring known angles or
locating any work to a given
angle. For this purpose the
surface plate is assumed to
be having a perfectly flat
surface, so that its surface
could be treated as
 Type 1
Type 2
Type 3
Type 4
Fig. 8.15
' plate and other roller is placed on the slip
gauges of height h. Let the sine bar be set
at an angle q. Then sin 6 = M, where /
is the distance between the center of the ] rollers.
Thus knowing 0, h can be found .out and any
work could be set at this "angle as the top face of
sine bar is
inclined at angle 6 to the surface plate.
The use of angle plates and clamps could
also be made in case of heavy
components. For better results, both the
rollers could also be placed on slip gauges Fig. 8.16
of height hj and h2 respectively. Then
sin 8 = (A2 - hx)IL
(2) Checking of unknown angles.
Many a times, angle of a component to
be checked is unknown. In such a case,
it is necessary to first find the angle
approximately with the help of a
bevel
protractor. Let the angle be 0. Then
the
sine bar is set at an angle 0 and
clamped
o an angle plate. Next, the work is
placed on sine bar and clamped to
angle
plate as shown in Fig. 8.17 and a dial
indicator is set at one end of the work
and moved to the other, and deviation is
noted. Again slip gauges are so adjusted
(according to this deviation) that dial
indicator reads zero across work surface. Fig. 8.17
If deviation noted down by the dial indicator is Sh over a length /"of work, then height of slip
gauges by which it should be adjusted is equal to = bh x ///'.
 (3) Checking of unknown angles of
kavy component. In such cases where
components are heavy and can't be
mounted on the sine bar, then sine
bar is
mounted on the CQmponent as
shown in
Fig. 8.18. The height over the
rollers can
then be measured by a vernier
herght
gauge; using a dial test gauge
mounted on
the anvil of height gauge as the fiducial Fig. 8.18
indicator to ensure constant measuring
pressure. The anvil on height gauge is
adjusted with probe of dial test gauge
showing same reading for the topmost
position of rollers of sine bar. Fig. 8.18
shows the use of height gauge for
obtaining two readings for either of the
roller of sine bar. The difference of the two readings of height gauge divided by the centre distance
of sine bar gives the sine of the angle of the component to be measured. Where greater accuracy is
required, the position of dial test gauge probe can be sensed by adjusting a pile of slip gauges till
dial indicator indicates same reading over roller of sine bar and the slip gauges.
8.6.2. Limitations of Sine Bars. The establishment of angle by the sine principle is
essentially a length measuring process. Thus the accuracy, in practice, is limited by measurement
of centre distance of two precision rollers. The geometrical condition involved in measuring the
exact, effective centre distance existing between two rollers of the sine bar to a certainty of fraction
of a |im is an infinitely complex problem. This fundamental limitation alone precludes the use of
the sine bar as a primary standard of angle.
Devices operating on the sine principle are fairly reliable at angles less than 15, but become
increasingly inaccurate as the angle increases.
Sine bars inherently become increasingly impractical and inaccurate as the angle exceeds 45.
The sine bars inherently become inreasingly impractical and inaccurate as the angle exceeds
45 because of following reasons :
The sine bar is physically clumsy to hold in position.
The body of the sine bar obstructs the gauge block stack, even if relieved.
Slight errors of the sine bar cause large angular errors.
Long gauge stacks are not nearly as accurate as shorter gauge blocks.
Temperature variation becomes more critical.
A difference in deformation occurs at the point of roller contact to the support surface
and to the gauge blocks, because at higher angles, the weight load is shifted more toward
the fulcrum roller.
The size of gauges, instruments or parts that a sine bar can inspect is limited, since it is
not designed to support large or heavy objects.
8.6.2CPrecautions in use of sine bars, (i) The sine bar should not be used for angle greater
than 60 because any possible error in construction is accentuated at this limit. (Also refer Prob.
8.2).
(ii) A compound angle should not be formed by mis-aligning of workpiece with the sine bar.
This can be avoided by attaching the sine bar and work against an angle plate.
(Hi) Accuracy of sine bar should be ensured.
(iv) As far as possible longer sine bar should be used since many errors are reduced by using
longer sine bars.
8.6.4. Sine Table. This is the development of the sine bar and the procedure of setting it at any
angle is same as for sine bars. The sine table is the most convenient and accurate design for heavy
workpieces. The table is quite rugged one and the weight of unit and workpiece is given p fuller and
safer support. The gauging platforms are self-contained and can be highly refined. The ei table may
be th
safely swung to any angle from 0 to 90 by pivoting it about its hinged end. Two sets of sturdy
non-influencing clamps are provided for supporting the table on both sides over the whole range of
/<^
sine table. It may be noted that the table is a long level which bends and twists when put through ^
various angles while supporting all sorts of shapes, sizes and weights of workpieces. The clamping ^
mechanism of the sine table may also cause distortion, varying the angle set slightly. However the ^
errors due to these are not generally large. ava
The sine table is capable of exceptional accuracy if user uses it properly, construction principles
27' and all elements of sine table are correct, the gauge block stack is correct and at same
temperature
) is sine table. The sine table should be elevated or lowered, using the fine adjustment feature to
attain 5 k desired "feel" between the gauge blocks and pins on both sides separately.
A further development of this is the compound sine table in which two sine tables having their ixes
of tilt set at right angles to each other are provided. These two tables are mounted on a common l
base and the table can be set at compound angle by resolving this compound angle into its individual
i jingles in two planes at right angles to each other :nd setting each table accordingly.
The "double sine" principle employs gauge pins rather than gauging platform in both table and i
ise of the sine table. This design allows angular settings to a full 90, and minimises the errors i
lormally inherent in a sine table at greater angles.
8.6.5. Sine Centre. Sine centre
js basically a sine bar with
block lolding centres which
can be idjusted and rigidly
clamped in any position.
These are used for
inspection of conical objects
(having
male and female centres)
between entres. These are
used upto iclination of 60.
Rollers are lamped firmly to Fig. 8.19. Sine Centre.
the body without b play.
This is a very useful pice
for testing the conical work
(entered at each end. The
principle f setting is same as
of sine table.
17. Angle Gauges
The first set of
combination of igle gauges
was devised by Dr. iilinson
of N.P.L. With thirteen
barate gauges used in
conjunction ith one square
block and one pllel
straight-edge, it is possible
to It up any angle to the
ng
Fig. 8.20. Sine Centre.
ny to a high degree of accuracy arid flatness like slip gauges. These gauges are about 3
-v inch 12 mm) long, 5/8 inch (15.87 mm) wide with their faces lapped to within 0.0002 mm
y and angle been the two ends to 2 seconds. The secret of this system in having any angle in
m step of 3" is t adoption of a mathematical series of the values of the angles of various
d gauges of the set. The teen gauges can be divided into three series; degrees, minutes and
be fractions of a minute. The gauges filable in first series are of angle 1, 3, 9, 27 and 41.
dy Second series comprises 1', 3', 9'and "angle gauges and this series has 0.05', O.r, 0.3'and
of 0.5'(or 3", 6", 18" and 30") angle gauges. All
ig
h
in