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    Control of Diesel Engines PDF

    Enviado por

    Mahmoud Reda ElSherif

    Direitos autorais:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Baixe no formato PDF ou leia online no Scribd
    Sinalizar o conteúdo como inadequado
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    L. Guzzella and A. Amstutz his article is tended to give contol engineers an overview ‘of models and contols of Diesel engines. The main empha sisis onthe engine's torque generation, including all necessary ancillary devices (turbocharger, njection-system, et.) and po Jutant emission. Other system components ike power-teain ele ments, vehicles, generators, ete, are not discussed. Other ‘important topes that are not included are diagnosis, noise, vibra tions and controller hardware. Moreover, theatcle focuses only ‘on model-based controls. ‘The article is organized as follows, The next section gives 3 ‘viet introduction ofthe basic Working principles and the salient features of Diesel engines (ie, compresion-igitedreciprocat- ing internal combustion engines) and their main differences to ‘Oto (gasoline or spark-ignitedenginesare shown, The most im: portant control tasks fe then identified and thie implications on engine performance are analyzed inthe following section. nthe following ection an overview ofthe current state-of the-art in Industrial Diesel control applications s given, The next Wo se ea ection ge ‘ions discuss modes forthe simulation of transient macroscopic effets, and how these models canbe simplified tbe useful for controller synthesis. large numberof publications on the sub- ject of Diese engine controls i available and some ofthis work is teviewed in the penultimate section, The paper closes with an ‘outlook on possible future contol isszes ad thee role in Diesel engine evolution Basics Diesel engines are the mosteiient intemal combustion en- ines [14]. Large low-speed 2-sroke Diesel engines achieve ‘over 50% efficiency and canbe fueled with low quality liquidhy. Arocarbons, inluding bunker-oil (Le. the remaining crude oil fraction aftr raffination of gasoline and diesel) Smalle4-stroke direct injection turbocharged Diesels can reach efficiencies of approximately 40%. These engines are atthe moment one ofthe ‘ost likely prime-movrs forthe efficient cary of the Future (the ‘0 miles per gallon” of "3 liter per 100 km" cas) he authors are with the Swiss Federal Insttate of Technology (ETH), Zurich, Switzerland, October 1998 0272. 1708198181000 199STEEE Two key factors are responsible for this: «The thermal efficiency of al internal combustion engines increases with increasing compression ratio €. Unavoid- bly by compressing any working fluid its temperature i {noreased, such that there sa naturel limit for ignitable Mu- ids (or ait-gasoine-mixtures typically around e = 12) The Diese engine avoids all selt-ignition problems (*knock" or "detonation”) by compressing ar only int eyltnders. The fuel is injected at Ue desired crank angle int the eylinder and ignites spontaneously and (almost immediatly ‘The torque (or “load”) of Diesel engines is contaled by changing the A/F-ratio of the mixture to be burned (its “ quality"). Due tote extremely ht airin the eylinder (700 and mare), very lean mixtures are possible (elatve A/F: ratios typically between I and 7) such that throting of the intake air can be completely avoided. Consequently, purt-load efficiencies of Diese! engines do not deteriorate as much as iis the ease with Oro engines Isis interesting to note thatthe technically realizable Diesel cycle does no differ substantially from the thermodynamically ideal one. Using Pontryagin's Minimum Principle the later was analyzed in [9} where relative efficiency improvements on the ‘order of only 10% (say from 40 to 44% engine efficiency) were predicted. Moreover, his ideal eycle pracuces mach higher peak temperatures, which would cause problems with nitric oxygen (N0,) emission (see below). ‘The most importantdrswhacks of Diesel engines are heirlow power density (since the mixture is always lean Fes fuel can by induced ina given cylinder volume at atmospheric conditions; in audition, engine top-speeds are lower due to mechanical imita- tions) and their problematic exhanst-gs purification, “The frst problem can quite easily be eliminated by super. charging the engines (freing more sr into the cylinder and thus allowing more fuel tobe burbed inthe same volume). Although having considerably lower pollutant ras-rnissions than Otto en- ines, the Dieses working principe, viz its inherently lean oper- ation, renders ancificient exhaust gas purification by three-way catalysts impossible (TWCs can operate efficiently a soichio- metric air-fuel mixtures, only). In particular, nitic oxygen is presentin larger quantities the Diese’s exhaust, The develop- ‘ment of devices forthe reduction of this substance under Tean conditions has begun only recently. Exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) is therefore so far the most promising approach to reduce Incylinder NO, formation. By adding this “thermal ballast" to the cylinder charge, peak temperatures during combustion (which are ze influencing factor in NO, formation} can be sub- stantially Lowered. ‘A modern diesel engine is a complex system that includes, in addition to the reciprocating pat, many other modules, In Fig. 1 schematic overview ofa possible configuration is shown using the following abbreviations (the symbols introduced inthis pic ture willbe used later inthe pape. Basically, st-uel ratios are defined with, temperaures with 9, pressures with p, mass flows with i, angular velocities with o and inpots with). ‘© VOR Intake and Outlet Receiver, the manifolds determin. ing the engine's boundary conditions * COM Compressor, on a fixed shaft with the trbine,rotat- ing a speed ‘© VNT Variable’ Nozzle goometry Turbine, ie. a carbine ‘whose inet can be adapted to handle large and siall mass: Flow rates eficienty 9 1C Inter Cooler, removes the compression heat from the inflowing ai, i. increases the density and thus the mass of air inthe cylinder. © BGR Exhaust Gas Recirulation system, including «vo controllable valves + CRCommon-Railnjectionsystem, consisting of acontol- lable pump, a common fucl-eail and lectronically contol lable injectors “Matching 2 turbocharger with a Diese engine is not st forward. the engine's ar demand and the compressor's a ity to provide that air ate either mismatched at low speeds or at high speeds. In order to overcome that problem, the compressor js usually chosen such that it satisfies the engine's demands at Tow speeds. The exces airflow capability athigh speeds is then “wasted” using a turbine by-pass in the exhaust part. Instead of such waste gates, variable nozzle turbines have been proposed, especially since with VNTs the control authority is greatly en- hanced and a better dynamic behavior can be achieved, ‘The injection systems of course very important for the engi- e's characteristics. Modern Diesel engines will have common nil iretinjection systems (see for example 69], [70] [71]) ‘orelectronic unit injectors (67), which can combine best fuel ef- ficiency with both improved comfort and pollution levels by ex ploiting the benefits of muldple injections and controllable Injection pressures. ‘Modern diesel common-rail systems use injection pressures ‘of more than 10" Pa (L4-10* psi—even gasoline direct injection systems operate at much lower levels) and the precise actuation cof ery smal fuel quantities at that pressure levelsisa formidable challenge for both zctuator design and manufacturing. Efficient he ra Cha Fig, 1. Bape sytem srucare he ZYME see car ates | LIEBE Control Systems ig. 2. Base srueture ofa Diesel engine controller onl the main inputs are shown for inputs relevantforemisionconrlssee Fig. 4and8). fuel pumps area must at these high pressure levels. The usual ap ‘proach t contro the rail pressure by spillover valves inthe high Pressure pat is not recommended, « much more effici roach st contol the fuel flow atthe low-pressure junc ‘the pump [40 Control Objes Control Loops: ‘The main objective forelectronic Diese controls isto provide ‘he required engine torque with minimal fel consumption under the constraint of meeting the given exhaust gas and noise emis sin laws. This requires an “optimal” coordination of injection, ‘turbocharger, and EGR-system under stationary and dynamic op- eration. Fig 2 gives a schematic overview ofthe basic structure of| «atypical Diesel engine control system (for more details onthe in ner stractre ofthe Diesel engine se the shaded box in Fig. 11) From a controls point of view there are three important paths ‘which have to be considered, namely: «the fuel path * the air path * the EGR path ‘The fuel path with outputs such as torque, speed and exhast, _2asemissions is controlled in aclosedloopon speed (Fi. 2). The Control inputs othe speed loop are stat of injection, injection ‘uration, and injection pressure. With common rail systems new degrees of freedom suchas the choice of plot main, andaterin- {scton quantities wit different dwel times between ae added. To ‘void visible smoke, meased ai mase-flow limits the maximal injected fuel quant. “The turbocharger contols the ai path, Especially in applica: tions for heavy transient operations, turbocharger designs with small A/R (nozzle afea over diameter of the turbine whee!) are October 1998 chosen to get good) acceleration performances of the turbo charging device. Unfortunately, at large loads the small sized tbocharger creates hoot presses which, after compression in the engine, would exceed the engine’s peak pressure limits, ‘Therefore, a substantial Fraction of the exhaust as to be by- passed around the turbine trough a waste gate. This has the side effet of considerable losses in BSFC. With the expectations of good acceleration performances and high turbocharger efficien cies over the whole range of operation, variable nozzle turbo: chargers (VNT) ae used, The VNT is typically controlled in a closed Toop system with the boost pressure as measured output Since overspeeding isa problem with VNTs, special schemes ate applied for VNT speed contol (se for example Fi. 17. ‘With exhaust emission laws becoming more stringent, EGR is rede for NO, reduction. A closed loop contol system takes care ofthe EGR path, Even if the objective is EGR control, the closed Toop takes the measured si massfow as the feedback variable. A Diesel engine stas smoking below a certain air-fuel ratio. The air-fuel ratio with the best NO, reduction under the boundary con- Adtion of no smoke increase is mapped over injected fel quantity and speed. Together with the injected fuel quantity, known from the injection table, the reference air mussflow can be derived, From the difference between reference and measured ait rmassflow the EGR valve position is determined. Through the Sates ofthe ilake and outlet receives, the EGR flow hey inf ences the airmasflow: To maintain a pressure drop over the EGR. valve, addtional doviees like throttles have to be used (see the ‘overview and the publications review sections below), “The relevant outputs ofthe deseribed control systems are + torque and speed «+ sirmassflow tothe engine * brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) 58 1. The thermal efficiency ofa combustion pro cervie 9 to Outs ose : rr oaton | tor] | Pet = peratu’, (determined via the Cart Cyl) 1 a | Never CT || nn i a = igre Baiare . (Ero tarsare Sas chighe confusion rp th 1 ‘Spel ote epee ie te he er (GS oops iafefiseny an hee de BSP | os 2 Theat of NO prt an be prox ——— ony (8 ’ et (oust Der E SI ol ho, r ns Boost Pressure : Ye, oe @ te avn [ise were] denotes equliriom concentrations. The strong dependence of {NO} dt on the tem perature B, ofthe burned fraction in the exponen- lial term is video! High temperatures andoxygen i ee ro t | || (arroo ie wh Spray Formation Engine ane pete Fig. 3, Phenomenological input-output lations in a Diesel engine * particulate (PMD. NO,, Hydro-Carbon (HC) and noise Emission Control Basics While engine peeformance, dynamie behavior and BSFCate eritical factors for the competitiveness of an engine, i is are quirement to meet the emission laws. Fig. 3 summarizes the main Jnpat-ontpot relations and ies to point to the complex network ofthe underlying physics. Itcan be seen that a single contro n= putin most ofthe eases influences several outpts. ‘To understand the Key issues of Diesel emission controls, ‘here are dree main phenomena of special importance: so concentrations therefore result in high NO orm '3, Diesel particulates consist principally of combustion generated sooton which some organic ‘ompeutids have become abserbed, Some partic lates are contributed by the lubricating oil. The mount of Diesel particulates depends on the ox)~ gen availability during combustion, onthe spray formation and the oxidation conditions towards the end of combustion. Emission Control Inputs “Thisraises the question of how the electronic con- «rol ingrs iafivence the mentioned key parameter: 1L_BSPC: With agiven injection rate, the main Inpotsto imprave BSEC ae stat of injection ai pressure and boost pressure, What is desired isan carly start of injection which result ina fastest release around top dead center (TDC). Because of the sinusoidal piston motion inthis area, the volume of the combustion chamber remains con- sant, which results in high gas temperatures and good Carnot efficiencies. Increasing ‘l-pressures lead 0 shorter ignition delays and Taser bor rates. For the same BSFC, therefore, the start ofnjectionhas tobe less advanced (Fig 4). High boost pressures together with high oxygen availabilities also favor fast combustion and good BSFC. 2. NO-Formation: NO formation is elated tothe lemperature ofthe Camoteffcieney. Asaconsequence, late stat of injection combined with EGR gives low NO emissions. EGR slows com- bnstion and deteriorates the conditions for NO formation. Atthe same time, relatively high temperatures during the expansion stoke enhance the eduction of Formed NO. "3. Particulates: Early start of injection with its fast, hot and ‘complete combustion gives low PM. Additionally, with an ealy star o injection, conditions for soot oxidation are good during a long period ofthe expansion stroke. Because ofthe good inl TEBE Control Stems ‘Table 1. Tendencies inthe influence ‘of control inputs on bsfe and emissions. = i = | [ Early war of injection | Good bee | | [Low particulates High Or Increased NOs Low PM _| Slighay improved bste Como! Input igh rail presure Pilot injection | Low noise | soter VN area Inpro hfe Lower pariultes, | nigbervo, Lower NOs | bre neene | Waste gate open Increased EGR Lower NO. Danger of PM Improved noise Equaor slightly increasedbfe senting given laws. This approach, however, does ot take the SPC target into account. ‘The PM-NO, trade-off is inherently connected 10 the prin pleofaDieselengine andcreatesan obstacle very dificlttosur- ‘mount, Fig. 4 shows the influence of injection an BSFC, NO, and PM emissions. The shaded area indicate whee the emis. ‘ions mcet the regulations and where BSFC is blow 200 /kWh, In this ease, there is ven, with 1100 bar injection pressure, 10 start of injection where VO, and PM satisfy eurent emission limits Especially in Europe, selective catalytic reduction (SCR) technology is being investigated to clean up the emissions in an after-treaument system and w brake the PM-NO, trade-off (see the concluding section below). For current applications, the problem is atacked in the following order: First, sophisticated developments of the combustion chamber, the injection, and EGR systems are pursued: second, the electronic contol System has to guarantee the best use the given hardware under Stationary and transient conditions, Problem Solving Steps “The controls tak itself is usually done in two steps. 1 Optimization ofthe stationary peeformance ofthe engine system, ic, calibration ofthe reference input maps forthe fol- Towing contro loops: * sat of injection + injection quantity * pilot injection quantity + dwell tie betwen main and pil injoc- + desired injection pressure + desired boost pressure 1 desired EGR rate «+ desired charge air temperature. 2. Optimal feedforward and feedback ceontrol ofthe dynamic eoteo systems: ‘transient correction f sta of injection « closed loop turbocharger speed control ‘* closed loop hoost pressure control + closed loop injection presse contol + open oan orclosd loop EGR rae cont ‘closed loop charge air temperature control ‘+ speed and idle speed closed loop ‘Start eto {69 04) ae Fig, 4 Influence of start of nection on bee, PM and NO, emissions, po Injection ‘Stationary Map Optimization pressure ‘ence on spray formation, high injection pressures also beneti- ‘il to obtain Low PM, ‘The tendencies of various input-output relations are summa rized in Table I-Itshows the dificult of stating clear contol ob- jectives, since nearly each input has a good and a bad effect on the outpats of interest. A well known metho to desl with the PM-NO, trade-off i by sweeping the start of injection between catly start of injection (e.g. 30 degrees before TDC) to late start, of injection (eg. 8 degrees after TDC, [37]. The desited injoc- tion is where the trade-off eurve crosses the emissions box repr October 1998 An analysis of engine behavior within ts stationary operating map shows different ar- es with ferent control objectives (Fig 5). Obviously the opti- mization of the stationary and especially of the transient ‘behavior ofthe controlled system is very time consuming. ‘A common approach is to define points in the sac engine ‘map and appropriate weighs approximating the ransientemis- sions eyete and the road load of an engine (Fig. 6, usually each engine manufacturer bas his own Sof poiats and weights: the ‘sum of all points adds up to only 889% because in deceleration Phases the fuel supply is interupted, Foreach pont, contr ob- 7 Load (3) 109) Fig. 6. Steady state approximation of US heyday ruck transient cycle £38). {ectves are defined which allow more emphasis tither on VO, oran particulates. formulation of the control performance index could be 5 Se igre Paes) he = = : ®) with the constraints ino, +H,» S(O, +HC) as "PM, < PM aay es « ‘where A isthe injection duration, t, the start of. injection, the rail pressure, 6, the EGR rat, {the VNT postion andy, the weight ofthe mth ‘operating point (35) For the application ofthis method, the sensi: tivities of BSFC and emissions tothe different in pnts have to be known, Since emissions are very ical to model, the emission eado-off ae usy- ally measured and visualized as shown for examn- ple in Fig. 4. By adding up the stationary ‘missions, the results expected from test runs in the dynamic cycle are estimated. an ‘A special problem isthe comelation ofthe stationary smoke measurements (that ae obtained using opacimeters) withthe PM. ‘measurements in transient experiments (which are obtained by _gravimeetric methods), Here the development is heading towards ‘he use of mini-lotion tunnels to measure particulates aso un: er stationary contitions Emission Controls Objectives in Transient Operation ‘Modern well tuned Diesel engines do not smoke during sta tionary operation Therefore the objectveisto preveutany accel eration smoke and to cary the smokeless operation through yneavy transients without big losses in avilable tongue and drive ability. A wel defined testfor heavy accelerations isthe so called speed:-load-acceptance est wher at constant engine speed, the throtle is fully ipped-in Fig. 7). The measurable objectives are the ime required to pick up 85% of the full load torque without any visible simoke, This test can be done for various speeds. Ia the wansition phase, a tight boost control is exteemely important toavoid NO, spikes. In American transient tests nearly all ofthe PM emissions during medium and low loads eycle-phases ace Ae to transient effects and have tobe counteracted by appropri- ate electrani controls, Current Industrial Applications Speed and Timing Control ‘Today's ECUs, although based on digital technology, often represent a translation of the mechanical governor into bits and bytes, see, for example, [44] and (49). In basic configuration, the signal, determines the start of injection and the injection duration. The signal isthe output of a complex controller as shown in Fig. 8 ‘yhhou! EGR Compensation ‘With EGR Compansation Fig 7. Control objectives for transent operation: no smoke during accelerations! TEBE Control Systems ‘om Cane | angle Sensor Mosse ome oe fe __ hf tecton ot Injection, —| 1 Ui! ee | TariGarecten eco teat fosareiryecon (Prog orey 1 tose aa | Met o TorQue MAP Smoke |B Moe “te " Dumentes |e =F Fomicuoray PE 4 ‘Smoke Mar | a : 7 [e. | | en Sip) Z ax esr ras Sten fs uty Fig, 8 Simplified control scheme for speed and start of injection control ‘The east thot poston (river pda she inp ig salanisintrretad a the reference signal for te sped cn toop (generate) This deed seo constrained by he e- sine an by the vehicles ls Nery often he speed povernor ork ga sched PID conto where speed serves also as an input in the gun schedules, Typical, measured en fin sped shoo ayes than 6p rom peak-to-peak and fastbe fered uarane sl nection ations mey- leo ec (2, The opt oF the ctl i ite by 0 taps tbe tor an the smoke mp. Wile itor mip determines the maximal demanded fel van in siaonary eondons, the smoke map. with boost presuand measred speed as parancesssnthingother han arfel ao ier ying to prveneo uring tare Bing referenced the ambient presi te smoke map works slsoas abi aie contol, npariulartavoidversped- ing of to turbocharger: During cold stat and uring cold mae operation, foe iis ae employed on the demanded fe sean Sania fot paton th calhration ofthe maps tt fine tatoo timing In ea dy tuck applications especily, EGR hs aad image do to elder wear problems catse carbon paces Without EGR and SCR. holy Italo reduce NO, enisons sto optimize he injection ti ing map Using cmon al or hydra lc wt injection CHEUD systems with mull jection (injection, ple injecion the workreatedto he cllaton of he jetor maps can be very demanting Teal othe seay state maps. dsc adaption of the timing maps employed ding sy tases (37). The timing is advanced in onder to sift for shor pevod the NOW-PM d-ff ovat higher NO, rt preven ta Star stok. These nse alpaions can be wed or eee October 1998 beating strategies, with the argument that on highways BSFC is ‘more important than low NO, emissions. EGR Control Production EGR systems are either open loop or they use ‘measured air masflow asa feedback variable [44], (73)-In open Toop systems the EGR valve setpoint i determined ina 3-D-map With engine sped and injected fuel quantity as inputs. The table look-up value is corrected with high altitude, cooling watertem- perature. and dynamic feedforward compensations. Since air rmassflow sensors have proven their robustness in Otto engines, [EGR feedhack systems rely on aie massflow sensors as feedback devices, ic. the variablen in Fig is measured, Feedback sys- tems provide air fuel ratio control an indirectly, EGR control ring fatty steady stte operation. Feedforward schemes are necessary to prevent smoke during heavy transients. In EGR ‘mode, the imake manifold is filled with an EGR rate of up to 440%. Ifa rapid acceleration censs, smoke maps based on meas- ‘ured boost fil Because they assume thatthe massflow to the en- sine isall ai The feedforward concept in Fig, 9 shows how the EGR filling and emptying of the intake manifold is estimated. Based onthe estimated effective air massflow tothe engine, the ‘maximal fuel injection quantity is limited. The approach uses ‘only sensors already in place on the engine. As shown in Fig. 7 (rey line), the concept proved to be very effective on smoke ‘without big disadvantages in boost build-up and, therefore, en- gine acceleration (this application was implemented on a truck engine with a pressure wave supercharge) In Diesel engines the EGR path leads usually from the high pressure exhaust side tothe high pressure air side, Besides the Size ofthe office of the EGR valve, the EGR massflow depends fn the pressure and the temperature before the EGR valve and also on the pressure drop over the orifice. To get a high density ai-EGR mixture in the engine, sometimes an EGR intercooler is 7 Pe =! * ts > Engines a onder Volunette 7 Poor ‘iiceney ‘iy 4 b+ Measured Vanities | fen + = EGR Ft Map ‘ig. 9. EGR calculation during transient operation, ecm) EE ER Powel] Se iS | eam coder [Sn mae son Speicher Tre ZO the TR Ss frontier er [Rig 10. EGR scheme with trite he air pat (lft) and venturl le (le ‘added inthe EGR path. As soonas the EGR valve starts opening, the high pressure difference p, — p levels out. p, and p ae the pressures in the outlet respectively in the inlet receiver. Espe- cially at higher engine oad and speed, where EGR is necessary {or NO, reduction, p, tends to be lower than p,- Additional de- vicesare then necessary to maintain positive pressure drop over the EGR valve and t get sufficient EGR mates. in (73). throtle between te intercooler and the intake receiver i proposed. This approach is further developed in [75] where a multivariable con- tol design for a coordinated EGR-VGP contol strategy is ex plored. Alternatively, the pressure drop over the EGR valve can be increased using a Venturi pipe, see for example [66]. At the ‘minimum area ofthe Venturi, the recycled exhaust gas flows in tothe charge air (see Fig. 10) The following diffuor then recov cers the pressure ofthe ai-EGR mistre 66}. tis important to notice that the EGR system strongly influ- ‘ences the turbocharger behavioe The energy in the EGR flow by- ‘passes the turbocharger and this results in lower boost pressures and lower turbocharger speeds. A detailed mathematical de- scription ofall eects will be presented in the next section. Modeling, Part 1 ‘Models of Diesel engines have many common points with ‘Oto engine models sine obviowsly the transformation af chem- ical enerp, tough an intermediate thenmal ep, tomecanical ‘work is governed by similar physial fist principles "As in Oto engines, a model lasfeation mus distinguish ewween + istibwed or lumped parameter models + erank-angle resolution or eyele averaged models + focmulation as mean-value models or as disrete event models, nd “Tol ass ow Engine | teat Mar Fut Inecon Guar ‘+ model complexity adapted to analysis orto controller de- sign. ‘Tis section focuses on “lumped parameter, cycle averaged, ‘mean value, analysis type" models. The restiction © lumped perameter plus eyele averaged models is necessary to e able to simulate contol-relevant time-scales (say miautes).Distbuted parameter models (lame propagation, pollutant formation, etc) are computationally sill Far to time-consuming. Crank-angle resolution models of Diese engines (including lumped paranie- termodelsforheat release, wall heat losses, seavenging, etc.) are very useful forthe performance prediction (see eg. (1). (3) [4] and {10} aso (64) for amore recent reference) but again, till too complex forthe purpose of control, and the corresponding ef fects would have tobe precomputed or measured and stored in- appropriate “msps”" The transformation to a disrete-event formulation s completely anslogousto te Oto engine case (se, for example, [2}or [13] ands defor notdscussed in more detalhere (cee, however, [5] fora discussion of sabi issues). “Design mod- os wl be inteoued in the next 90 sections, Many papers have been published on the above mentioned class of models (eo, for example, (5) (6) [SI (171, (18) (31), [56] and [60). Fig, 11 gives an overview ofthe engine system of| Fig. Tin a “cansality-digram” Gin (17] bond- graphs were used for the same purpose). Boundary conditions are designated by citeles, DollOW ones denoting “environmental variables.” grey ‘ones denoting inputs. The shaded blocks contain some signifi- cant dynamics, while the plain ates are assumed to be memory less nonlinear functions. The grey-shaded block “IPS-delay" Cnpat to power-stroke delay) represents the time delay arising from the discrete cylinder fring. For mean value models, the usual approximation to this is ae anv Fenn, eatatas Mo, © where v = for two-stroke and v= 2for four-stroke engines and 1 is the number of cylinders (assumed to all have the same Aran 19) ‘where the “constans” a, wil have the folowing ondes of magni tude: @, = 25004, a, = -2 and a, = 100K. For ver sch condi Hons Gy > 18) this simple relation no longer hos, Moreover, TEBE Control Systems the turbines inlet temperature may be lower due heat ossesin the exhuust manifold. ‘Equations (6) to (18) are similar tothe ones used for Oto en- ines (since the fuel is directly injected into the cylinder, no “wall-wetting” dynamies have tobe considered) A turbocharger ‘groups usually not part of an Otto engine model but is common Tor « Diesel engine. Therefore these subsystems ae discussed ‘with some more details below, ‘A turbocharger ean be substuctured into three main parts (see Fig. 1): * the turbocharger mechanical inertia, which is driven bythe dilfeence between the (positive) turbine torque T, and the {negative compressor torque 7, ‘the static compressor behavior, with pressure ratio 1, = p,/ py inlevair temperature 0, and shaft speedo, 28 inputs and torque 7., massflow vi, and compressed temperature, 28 output ‘the static turbine behavior, with pressure ratioTT, = p,/pys inlet. air temperature 0, shaft speedo, and guiding-vanes position u,, a8 inputs and torque 7, massflow ri, snd ex panded exhaust-gas temperature D, as output (he ater can be important for catalyst temperature considerations). ‘The only dynamic clement is therefore he turbocharger'sme- chanical inertia modeled by TO-TO-T0), 20) where, is the turbochargers’ inertia and 7, the beating fric- tion, which can often be neglected. The turbine and compressor ‘behavior is usually defined through appropriate “maps” which are measused on static burner test-benches, In botheases normal- ized quantities are often used: Poe PT Pow OTe Pal Pant fia T®: Instead ofthe turbocharger speed the tubine's blade speed is used in manufacturer's turbine datasheet. This variable is de- fined by en 2 where x isthe isentropic exponent of exhaustgas, which can ‘usually be assumed tobe constant and equal the at's exponent uy = Land rs the effective turbine radius “The turbine isusually described by two different “maps.” vz the flow and the efficiency map (se Fig 12). Knowing the pres sae ratio 1, = p/p, andthe normalized turbochargers speed G, (which are both state-variables), the mass-flow i, canbe de rived dreedly as indicated in Fig, 1248), October 1998 Fig, 12 Turbine maps, lef mas flows, right ciencls. ‘The tomyue delivered by te turbine depends onthe isentropic ‘work (the maximum amount of mechanical energy that can be produced using the pressure ratio I a 9,) and on the turbine’s efficiency n, (that reflects the ability ofa specific turbine to ex- plot this isentropic work capability) Tea, = nyt, 8,0 @ Since the turbochargers speed is a state-varable, (23) ean be solved to yield 7. The turine's efficiency can be interpolated rom measured maps as shown in Fig. 120). Fig. 12 includes possible (and usually quite acceptable) sim- plifications of the trbine's behavior (gray Tnes). Ts fact, the ‘mass-flow through a turbine can be modeled asa simple orifice (using (10), withthe variable nozzle geometry playing the role of| the controllable oifce area as shown in Fig 12(a). The “oi- fice”-coefficietc, can be assumed constant or lade-speed de- pendent as shown ia Fig. 120). ‘The turbine's efficiency can he approximated by (see Fig. no) — ( with ypical values, = O.7 075 and, = 055.065. Fortubines with variable novaearea isa function of the nozzle ara, it argr areas yielding ager, (He fiona 8 A Tete only sii by nore are changes, ee for example [4 er the compressor’ static behavior a map as shown in Fig. 13, thas to be available. Knowing the pressure ratio, and the turbo- charger speed, oth the mass flow i andthe compressor eff- ciency n, can be interpolated from this data. The eompressor’s a oy, 6 receiver (see also the discussion ofthe literature, below). IFthis modileistobe included into the engine model, either an iteration ‘on p= P, (with Pa , 8 pressures upstream and downstream, respectively, of the intercooler) or an additional (small) receiver ‘between compressor and EGR -thrtle fsa possible solution. Un- fortunately, withboth approaches the computational burden may increase substantial Using the simplifications (10) (forthe EGR throttle only sub- sonie condition are likely to occur) andl (28) and assuming 2con- stant and known) intercooler outlet temperatuce th implicit relations canbe solved in closed form forthe intermediate pres- ‘sure pad thus substantial guins in computation speed can be achieved, After sone cumbersome but straightforwed manip lations ofthe two mentioned equations the following result can be obtained ao ° 3 ie «PR Den A= wy—2eL Fig 1. Compressor map TH) os 9) ability © pump at fora fixed turbocharger speed across increas inely higher pressure ratios is limited by the “surge-curve;" Where the abbreviations used in (29) are defined by hich hast be included simulations. InordertoavoidnUME> pep...) ical instabilities, care must be taken tha the gradients of the cialis : (©, = const-curves never become postive, even when prolong-—— = (20H, 60= P= C19, BOX PML, ing them for simulation purposes into the infeasible region (smal gay extensions) With known, the compressor's torque ‘ean be computed similarly t the turbine HP yt d= BEEP. Gta)" Ap all\eas Ne 0) aro, 16,0 (TI I) es) ‘Finally, the temperature 8, ofthe compressed aircan be mod- led to be (assuming no heat losses in the compressor Walls) 9.90,+2a a9, uv as) Matching turbocharger behavior predictions using his method ‘with measured data is usually straightforward, the most eiical point being the turbocharger speed @,. Including « mechanical friction tongue T, canbe helpful in some situations For faster simulations the compressor efficiency curves ca >be approximated by quadratic functions MMO Y= Ma LO Ui yy, Fh) en and the presure-rati to mass-flow curves by. TF .0,) 11, 64.)~ 640, i, Fgh) 8) where the “eonstants"IT,,(@,),¢,(@, andi, .(@,) depend on the state variable @, only (they can be easily parametrized as polynomial functions) Remark: As mentioned inthe previous section, EGR uswally requires an additional throttle tobe placed after the compressor to guarantee a positive pressure op between outlet and intake ot andi, (0,),6(0,) nd, .(0,) have been define in (28) The as uapeied subse the injection pare ite simple modes proportionality between contol igs nd fv 36) ‘The stability condition for system (32), (5) and (35) is =F cao. ee on where only the upp limit critical Infact, Fig, 14 shows a, as a function ofthe operating point obviously for small engine speeds October 1998 Fig. 14 Eigenalue of simplified speed dynamics for diferent ‘operating poins, parameter as indicated im text, in addition 1, becomes positive, hence the system (32) is unstable. The ‘curve separating the tworegions cae derived fom (35) tobe ig AOS, Hm? my YET AAT, SV, ~ 6H, 2? mo) (8) ‘This instability can be explained by (14) and (15): For small ‘engine speeds the engine efficiency e(,) increases with engine ‘speeds ifthe engin fiction torque increment is smaller than the ‘torque increment de to that efficiency gain, smal positive varia- tions in speed wil produce a larger net torque, hence an engine ac-

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