NIST Paul Macharia

STEELWORK CONNECTIONS
Types of connections
Connections are needed to join:
members together in trusses and lattice girders;
plates together to form built-up members;
beams to beams, beams, trusses, bracing, etc. to columns in structural frames, and
columns to foundations.
Some of these typical connections are shown below.

Connections may be made by:

bolting non-preloaded bolts in standard clearance or oversize holes;
preloaded or friction-grip bolt; and
welding fillet and butt welds.
Non-preloaded bolts
Bolts, nuts and washers

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NIST Paul Macharia
The ISO metric black hexagon head ordinary non-preloaded bolt shown below with nut
and washer is the most commonly used structural fastener in the industry.

The main diameters used are: 10, 12, 16, 20, (22), 24, (27) and 30mm. The sizes
shown in brackets are not preferred.
Direct shear joints
Bolts may be arranged to act in single or double shear, as shown below. Provisions
governing spacing, edge and end distances in normal conditions are:
the minimum spacing is 2.5 times the bolt diameter;
the maximum spacing in unstiffened plates in the direction of stress is 14t , where t
is the thickness of the thinner plate connected;
the minimum edge and end distance as shown below from a rolled, machine-flame
cut or plane edge is 1.25D, where D is the hole diameter. For a sheared, hand flame
cut edge or any end is 1.40D.
The maximum edge distance is 11t, where = (275/py)0.5.

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NIST Paul Macharia
The standard dimensions of holes for non-preloaded bolts are now specified in Table 33
of BS 5950: Part 1. It depends on the diameter of bolt and the type of bolt hole. In
addition to the usual standard clearance, oversize, short and long slotted holes, kidney-
shaped slotted hole is now permitted in the revised code. As in usual practice, larger
diameter hole is required as the bolt diameter increases. For example, the diameter of a
standard clearance hole will be 22mm for a 20-mm diameter bolt, and 33mm for a 30-
mm diameter bolt.
A shear joint can fail in the following four ways:
by shear on the bolt shank;
by bearing on the member or bolt;
by shear at the end of the member; and
by tension in the member.

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These failures modes can be prevented by taking the following measures:
For mode a, provide sufficient bolts of suitable diameter.
Provide sufficient end distance for mode c.
For mode d, design tension members for effective area
The design of bolted shear joints is set out in Section 6.3 of BS 5950: Part 1. The basic
provisions are:
(1) Effective area resisting shear As.
When the shear plane occurs in the threaded portion of the bolt:
As = At where At is the nominal tensile stress area of the bolt.
When the shear plane occurs in the non-threaded portion: As = A where A is the
bolt shank area based on the nominal diameter. For a more conservative design, the
tensile stress area At may be used throughout.
(2) Shear capacity Ps of a bolt:
Ps = psAs
where ps is shear strength given in Table 30 of the code
Non-preloaded bolts in standard clearance holes (shear and bearing strengths of bolts
and connected parts in N/mm2)
Strength of Bolts Bolt Grade
4.6 8.8
Shear Strength ps 160 375
Bearing Strength pbb 460 1000
Tension Strength pt 240 560

(3) Bearing capacity

Capacity of the bolt, Pbb = dtppbb where d is the nominal diameter of bolt, tp the
thickness of connected part and pbb the bearing strength of bolt.
(4) Direct tension joints
Tension capacity of bolts is: Pt = ptAt

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Eccentric connections
There are two principal types of eccentrically loaded connections:
Bolt group in direct shear and torsion; and
Bolt group in direct shear and tension.
Bolts in direct shear and torsion
In the connection shown below, the moment is applied in the plane of the connection
and the bolt group rotates about its center of gravity.

A linear variation of loading due to moment is assumed, with the bolt furthest from the
centre of gravity of the group carrying the greatest load. The direct shear is divided
equally between the bolts and the side plates are assumed to be rigid. Consider the
group of bolts shown below, where the load P is applied at an eccentricity e. The bolts
A, B, etc. are at distances r1, r2, etc. from the centroid of the group. The coordinates of
each bolt are (x1, y1), (x2, y2), etc. Let the force due to the moment on bolt A be FT.
This is the force on the bolt farthest from the centre of rotation. Then the force on a
bolt r2 from the centre of rotation is FTr2/r1 and so on for all the other bolts in the
group.

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The load FT due to moment on the maximum loaded bolt A is given by

FT = P e r1 /Sx2+S y2

The load FS due to direct shear is given by FS = P/ No. of bolts

Resolve the load FT vertically and horizontally to give
Vertical load on bolt A = Fs + FT cos
Horizontal load on bolt A = FT sin
Resultant load on bolt A
FR = [(FT sin )2 + (FS + FT cos )2]0.5, = [FS2 + FT2+ 2FSFT cos )]0.5.
The size of bolt required can then be determined from the maximum load on the bolt.

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NIST Paul Macharia
Bolts in direct shear and tension

The factored applied shear FS must not exceed the shear capacity Ps, where Ps = psAs.
The bearing capacity checks must also be satisfactory. The factored applied tension FT
must not exceed the tension capacity PT, where PT = ptAt.
In addition to the above the following relationship must be satisfied:
FS /PS + FT /PT 1.4.

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NIST Paul Macharia
The centre of rotation is assumed to be at the bottom bolt in the group. The loads vary
linearly as shown on the figure, with the maximum load FT in the top bolt.
The moment of resistance of the bolt group is:
MR = 2[FT y1 + FT y2 2/y1 + ] = 2FT/y1 [y12 + y2 2 + ] = 2 FT /y1Sy2
=P e

The maximum bolt tension is:

FT = P e y1/2 Sy2
The vertical shear per bolt:
Fs = P/No. of bolts

Preloaded Friction Grip bolts

General considerations
Preloaded friction-grip bolts are made from high-strength steel so they can be tightened
to give a high shank tension. The shear in the connected plates is transmitted by
friction as shown below and not by bolt shear, as in ordinary non-preloaded bolts.
These bolts are used where strong joints are required, and a major use is in the joints
of rigid continuous frames.

The bolts are manufactured in three types conforming to BS4395:

General grade: The strength is similar to Grade 8.8 ordinary non-preloaded bolts.
This type is generally used.
Higher-grade: Parallel shank and waisted shank bolts are manufactured in this
grade

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The bolts must be used with hardened steel washers to prevent damage to the
connected parts. The surfaces in contact must be free of mill scale, rust, paint, grease,
etc. which would prevent solid contact between the surfaces and lower the slip factor.
Care must be taken to ensure that bolts are tightened up to the required tension,
otherwise slip will occur and the joint will then act as an ordinary non-preloaded bolted
joint. Methods used to achieve the correct shank tension are:
Part-turning. The nut is tightened up and then forced a further half to three
quarters of a turn, depending on the bolt length and diameter.
Torque control. A power operated or hand-torque wrench is used to deliver a
specified torque to the nut. Power wrenches must be calibrated at regular
intervals.
Load-indicating washers and bolts. These have projections which squash down
as the bolt is tightened. A feeler gauge is used to measure when the gap has
reached the required size.

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Welded connections
Welding
Welding is the process of joining metal parts by fusing them and filling in with molten
metal from the electrode. The method is used extensively to join parts and members,
attach cleats, stiffeners, end plates, etc. and to fabricate complete elements such as
plate girders. Welding produces neat, strong and more efficient joints than are possible
with bolting. However, it should be carried out under close supervision, and this is
possible in the fabrication shop. Site joints are usually bolted. Though site welding can
be done it is costly, and defects are more likely to occur.
Electric arc welding is the main system used, and the two main processes in structural
steel welding are:
Manual arc welding, using a hand-held electrode coated with a flux which melts and
protects the molten metal. The weld quality depends very much on the skill of the
welder.
Automatic arc welding. A continuous wire electrode is fed to the weld pool. The wire
may be coated with flux or the flux can be supplied from a hopper. In another
process an inert gas is blown over the weld to give protection.

Types of welds, defects and testing

The two main types of welds; butt and fillet, are shown below

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Cracks can occur in welds and adjacent parts of the members being joined. The main
types are shown below. Contraction on cooling causes cracking in the weld. Hydrogen
absorption is the main cause of hydrogen-induced cracking in the heat-affected zone
while lamellar tearing along a slag inclusion is the main problem in plates.

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Faulty welding procedure can lead to the following defects in the welds, all of which
reduce the strength:
Over-reinforcement and undercutting;
Incomplete penetration and lack of side-wall fusion;
Slag inclusions and porosity.
When the weld metal cools and solidifies it contracts and sets up residual stresses in
members. It is not economic to relieve these stresses by heat treatment after
fabrication, so allowance is made in design for residual stresses. Welding also causes
distortion, and special precautions have to be taken to ensure that fabricated members
are square and free from twisting. Distortion effects can be minimized by good detailing
and using correct welding procedure. Presetting, pretending and preheating are used to
offset distortion. All welded fabrication must be checked, tested and approved before
being accepted. Tests applied to welding are:
Visual inspection for uniformity of weld;
Surface tests for cracks using dyes or magnetic particles;
X-ray and ultrasonic tests to check for defects inside the weld.
Only visual and surface tests can be used on fillet welds. Butt welds can be checked
internally, and such tests should be applied to important butt welds in tension.
When different thicknesses of plate are to be joined the thicker plate should be given a
taper of 1 in 5 to meet the thinner one. Small fillet welds should not be made across
members such as girder flanges in tension, particularly if the member is subjected to
fluctuating loads, because this can lead to failure by fatigue or brittle fracture. With
correct edge preparation if required, fit up, electrode selection and a properly controlled
welding process, welds are perfectly reliable.

Design of fillet welds

Important provisions regarding fillet welds are:
End returns for fillet welds around corners should be at least twice the leg length.
In lap joints the lap length should not be less than four times the thickness of the
thinner plate.
In end connections the length of weld should not be less than the transverse
spacing between the welds.
Intermittent welds should not be used under fatigue conditions. The spacing
between intermittent welds should not exceed 300mm or 16t for parts in
compression or 24t for parts in tension, where t is the thickness of the thinner plate.
These provisions are shown below.

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the strength of a fillet weld is calculated using the throat thickness. For the 90 fillet
weld the throat thickness is taken as 0.7 times the size or leg length:
Strength of weld = 0.7 leg length pw/103 kN/mm,

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Strength of fillet welds pw KN/mm run

Design of butt welds

The design strength should be taken as equal to that of the parent metal provided
matching electrodes are used. A matching electrode should have specified tensile
strength, yield strength.

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Eccentric connections
The two types of eccentrically loaded connections are shown below.

The torsion joints with the load in the plane of the weld; and
The bracket connection.
In both cases, the fillet welds are in shear due to direct load and moment.
Torsion joint with load in plane of weld
The weld is in direct shear and torsion. The eccentric load causes rotation about the
centre of gravity of the weld group. The force in the weld due to torsion is taken to be
directly proportional to the distance from the centre of gravity and is found by a torsion
formula. The direct shear is assumed to be uniform throughout the weld. The resultant
shear is found by combining the shear due to moment and the direct shear, and the
procedure is set out below. The side plate is assumed to be rigid.
A rectangular weld group is shown below, where the eccentric load P is taken on one
plate. The weld is of unit leg length throughout:
Direct shear Fs = P/length of weld = P/ [2(x + y)].

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Shear due to torsion

FT = P.e.r/Ip
where,
Ip is the polar moment of inertia of the weld group = Ix + Iy,
Ix = (y3/6) + (xy2/2),
Iy = (x3/6) + (x2y/2),
r = 0.5(x2 + y2)0.5.
The heaviest loaded length of weld is that at A, furthest from the centre of
rotation O. The resultant shear on a unit length of weld at A is given by:
FR = [FS 2 + F T2 + 2FSFT cos ]0.5

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