Linear Algebra (4.1-4.6) Dr.

Suresh Kumar, BITS-Pilani 1

Dr. Suresh Kumar, Department of Mathematics, BITS-Pilani, Pilani Campus

Note: Some concepts of Linear Algebra are briefly described here just to help the students. Therefore,
the following study material is expected to be useful but not exhaustive for the Mathematics-II course. For
detailed study, the students are advised to attend the lecture/tutorial classes regularly, and consult the text
book prescribed in the hand out of the course.

Chapter 4 (4.1-4.6)
Before going through the concept of real vector space, you must be familiar with the following axioms
(mathematical statements without proof) satisfied by the real numbers.

1. Closure property of addition: Sum of any two real numbers is a real number, that is, a, b R
implies a + b R. We also say that R is closed with respect to addition or real numbers satisfy
closure property with respect to addition.

2. Commutative property of addition: Real numbers are commutative in addition, that is, a+b =
b + a for all a, b R.

3. Associative property of addition: Real numbers are associative in addition, that is, a+(b+c) =
(a + b) + c for all a, b, c R.

4. Additive identity: The real number 0 is the additive identity of real numbers, that is, a + 0 =
a = 0 + a for all a R.

5. Additive inverse: Additive inverse exits for every real number. Given any a R, we have a R
such that a + (a) = 0 = (a) + a. So a is additive inverse of a.

6. Closure property of multiplication: Product of any two real numbers is a real number, that
is, a, b R implies a.b R. We also say that R is closed with respect to multiplication or real
numbers satisfy closure property with respect to multiplication.

7. Commutative property of multiplication: Real numbers are commutative in multiplication,

that is, a.b = b.a for all a, b R.

8. Associative property of multiplication: Real numbers are associative in multiplication, that

is,
a.(b.c) = (a.b).c for all a, b, c R.

9. Multiplicative identity: The real number 1 is the multiplicative identity of real numbers, that is,
a.1 = a = 1.a for all a R.

10. Multiplicative inverse: Multiplicative inverse exits for every non-zero real number. Given any
non-zero a R, we have 1/a R such that a.(1/a) = 1 = (1/a).a. So 1/a is multiplicative inverse
of a.

11. Multiplication is distributive over addition.

For any a, b, c R, we have a.(b + c) = a.b + a.c (Left Distribution Law)
(b + c).a = b.a + c.a (Right Distribution Law).
Linear Algebra (4.1-4.6) Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS-Pilani 2

Note: In real numbers, division is only right distributive over addition. For example,

(4 + 5)/7 = 4/7 + 5/7.

But

7/(4 + 5) 6= 7/4 + 7/5.

Real Vector Space

A non-empty set V is said to be a real vector space if there are defined two operations called vector
addition and scalar multiplication denoted by and  respectively such that for all u, v, w V and
a, b R, the following properties are satisfied:

1. u v V (Closure property)

2. u v = v u (Commutative property)

3. (u v) w = u (v w) (Associative property)

4. There exists some element 0 V such that u 0 = u = 0 u. (Existence of additive identity)

5. There exists u V such that u (u) = 0 = (u) u. (Existence of additive inverse)

6. a  u V

7. a  (u v) = a  u a  v

8. (a + b)  u = a  u b  u

9. (ab)  u = a  (b  u)

10. 1  u = u

Note: Elements of the vector space V are called as vectors while that of R are called as scalars. In what
follows, a vector space shall mean a real vector space.

Note: (i) Any scalar multiplied with the zero vector gives zero vector, that is, a  0 = 0. For,

a  0 = a  0 0 = a  0 a  0 (a  0) = a  (0 0) (a  0) = a  0 (a  0) = 0.
For clarity, let us use + and . symbols in place of and  respectively. Then we have

a.0 = a.0 + 0 = a.0 + a.0 + (a.0) = a.(0 + 0) + (a.0) = a.0 + (a.0) = 0.

(ii) The scalar 0 multiplied with any vector gives zero vector, that is, 0  u = 0. For,

0  u = (0 0)  u = 0  u 0  u = 0.
0.u = (0 0).u = 0.u 0.u = 0.
(iii) (1)  u gives the additive inverse u of u. For,

(1)  u u = (1)  u 1  u = (1 + 1)  u = 0  u = 0.

(1).u + u = (1).u + 1.u = (1 + 1).u = 0.u = 0.

Linear Algebra (4.1-4.6) Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS-Pilani 3

Ex. The set R of all real numbers is a vector space with respect to the following operations:
u v = u + v, (Vector Addition)
a  u = au, (Scalar Multiplication)
for all a, u, v R.

Sol. In this case, V = R, and all the properties of vector space are easily verifiable using the axioms
satisfied by the real numbers.

Note: The set V = {0}, carrying only one real number namely 0, is a real vector space with respect to
the operations mentioned in the above example. Think! It is easy!

Ex. The set R2 = R R = {[x1 , x2 ] : x1 , x2 R} of all ordered pairs of real numbers is a vector space
with respect to the following operations:
[x1 , x2 ] [y1 , y2 ] = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ], (Vector Addition)
a  [x1 , x2 ] = [ax1 , ax2 ], (Scalar Multiplication)
for all a R and [x1 , x2 ], [y1 , y2 ] R2 .

Sol. Let u = [x1 , x2 ], v = [y1 , y2 ] and w = [z1 , z2 ] be members of V = R2 , and a, b be any two real
numbers. Then we have the following properties:
1. Closure Property:
u v = [x1 , x2 ] [y1 , y2 ] = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ] R2 since x1 + y1 and x2 + y2 are real numbers.
2. Commutative Property:
u v = [x1 , x2 ] [y1 , y2 ] = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ],
v u = [y1 , y2 ] + [x1 , x2 ] = [y1 + x1 , y2 + x2 ].
But [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ] = [y1 + x1 , y2 + x2 ] since real numbers are commutative in addition.

u v = v u.

3. Associative Property:
(uv)w = ([x1 , x2 ][y1 , y2 ])[z1 , z2 ] = ([x1 +y1 , x2 +y2 ])[z1 , z2 ] = [(x1 +y1 )+z1 , (x2 +y2 )+z2 ]
u(vw) = [x1 , x2 ]([y1 , y2 ][z1 , z2 ]) = [x1 , x2 ]([y1 +z1 , y2 +z2 ]) = [x1 +(y1 +z1 ), x2 +(y2 +z2 )].
Since real numbers are associative in addition, we have

[(x1 + y1 ) + z1 , (x2 + y2 ) + z2 ] = [x1 + (y1 + z1 ), x2 + (y2 + z2 )].

It implies that (u v) w = u (v w).

4. Existence of identity:
There exists 0 = [0, 0] R2 such that
u 0 = [x1 , x2 ] [0, 0] = [x1 + 0, x2 + 0] = [x1 , x2 ] = u,
0 u = [0, 0] [x1 , x2 ] = [0 + x1 , 0 + x2 ] = [x1 , x2 ] = u.
So u 0 = u = 0 u. Therefore [0, 0] is additive identity in R2 .
5. Existence of inverse: There exists u = [x1 , x2 ] R2 such that
u (u) = [x1 , x2 ] [x1 , x2 ] = [x1 x1 , x2 x2 ] = [0, 0] = 0,
(u) u = [x1 , x2 ] [x1 , x2 ] = [x1 + x1 , x2 + x2 ] = [0, 0] = 0.
So u (u) = 0 = (u) u. This shows that u = [x1 , x2 ] is additive inverse of u = [x1 , x2 ]
in R2 .
Linear Algebra (4.1-4.6) Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS-Pilani 4

6. a  u = a  [x1 , x2 ] = [ax1 , ax2 ] R2

7. a(uv) = a([x1 , x2 ][y1 , y2 ]) = a[x1 +y1 , x2 +y2 ] = [a(x1 +y1 ), a(x2 +y2 )] = [ax1 +ay1 , ax2 +ay2 ],
a  u a  v = a  [x1 , x2 ] a  [y1 , y2 ] = [ax1 , ax2 ] [ay1 , ay2 ] = [ax1 + ay1 , ax2 + ay2 ].
a  (u v) = a  u a  v.

8. (a + b)  u = (a + b)[x1 , x2 ] = [(a + b)x1 , (a + b)x2 ] = [ax1 + bx1 , ax2 + bx2 ],

a  u b  u = a[x1 , x2 ] b[x1 , x2 ] = [ax1 , ax2 ] [bx1 , bx2 ] = [ax1 + bx1 , ax2 + bx2 ].
(a + b)  u = a  u b  u

9. (ab)  u = (ab)  [x1 , x2 ] = [(ab)x1 , (ab)x2 ],

a  (b  u) = a  (b  [x1 , x2 ]) = a  [bx1 , bx2 ] = [a(bx1 ), a(bx2 )].
But [(ab)x1 , (ab)x2 ] = [a(bx1 ), a(bx2 )] since real numbers are associative in multiplication.
So (ab)  u = a  (b  u).

10. 1  u = 1  [x1 , x2 ] = [1.x1 , 1.x2 ] = [x1 , x2 ] = u

Hence R2 is a real vector space.

Note: In general, the set Rn = {[x1 , x2 , ......, xn ] : xi R, i = 1, 2, ...n} of all ordered n-tuples of real
numbers is a vector space with respect to the following operations:

[x1 , x2 , ...., xn ] [y1 , y2 , ......, yn ] = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , ....., xn + yn ], (Vector Addition)

a  [x1 , x2 , ....., xn ] = [ax1 , ax2 , ......, axn ], (Scalar Multiplication)

for all a R and [x1 , x2 , ....., xn ], [y1 , y2 , ......, yn ] Rn .

Ex. The set Mmn = {[aij ]mn : aij R} of all m n matrices with real entries is a vector space with
respect to the following operations:

[aij ]mn [bij ]mn = [aij + bij ]mn , (Vector Addition)

a  [aij ]mn = [aaij ]mn , (Scalar Multiplication)

for all a R and [aij ]mn , [bij ]mn Mmn . Notice that vector addition is usual addition of matrices, and
scalar multiplication is the usual scalar multiplication in matrices.
Sol. Let u = [aij ]mn , v = [bij ]mn and w = [cij ]mn be members of V = Mmn , and a, b be any two real
numbers. Then we have the following properties:

1. Closure Property:
u v = [aij ]mn [bij ]mn = [aij + bij ]mn Mmn .

2. Commutative Property:
u v = [aij ]mn [bij ]mn = [aij + bij ]mn .
v u = [bij ]mn [aij ]mn = [bij + aij ]mn .
Since aij + bij = bij + aij , so we have u v = v u.

3. Associative Property:
(u v) w = ([aij ]mn [bij ]mn ) [cij ]mn = ([aij + bij ]mn ) [cij ]mn = [(aij + bij ) + cij ]mn ,
u (v w) = [aij ]mn ([bij ]mn [cij ]mn ) = [aij ]mn ([bij + cij ]mn ) = [aij + (bij + cij )]mn .
Since (aij + bij ) + cij = aij + (bij + cij ), so we get (u v) w = u (v w).
Linear Algebra (4.1-4.6) Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS-Pilani 5

4. Existence of identity:
There exists 0 = [0]mn M mn such that
u 0 = [aij ]mn [0]mn = [aij + 0]mn = [aij ]mn = u,
0 u = [0]mn [aij ]mn = [0 + aij ]mn = [aij ]mn = u.
So u 0 = u = 0 u. Therefore, [0]mn , the null matrix of order m n is the additive identity
in Mmn .

5. Existence of inverse: There exists u = [aij ]mn Mmn such that

u (u) = [aij ]mn [aij ]mn = [aij aij ]mn = [0]mn = 0,
(u) u = [aij ]mn [aij ]mn = [aij + aij ]mn = [0]mn = 0.
So u (u) = 0 = (u) u. This shows that u = [aij ]mn is additive inverse of u = [aij ]mn
in Mmn .

6. a  u = a  [aij ]mn = [aaij ]mn Mmn

7. a  (u v) = a  ([aij ]mn [bij ]mn ) = a  [aij + bij ]mn = [a(aij + bij )]mn = [aaij + abij ]mn ,
a  u a  v = a  [aij ]mn a  [bij ]mn = [aaij ]mn [abij ]mn = [aaij + abij ]mn .
a  (u v) = a  u a  v.

8. (a + b)  u = (a + b)  [aij ]mn = [(a + b)aij ]mn = [aaij + baij ]mn ,

a  u b  u = a  [aij ]mn b  [aij ]mn = [aaij ]mn [baij ]mn = [aaij + baij ]mn .
(a + b)  u = a  u b  u.

9. (ab)  u = (ab)  [aij ]mn = [(ab)aij ]mn ,

a  (b  u) = a  (b  [aij ]mn ) = a  [baij ]mn = [a(baij )]mn .
But [(ab)aij ]mn = [a(baij )]mn since real numbers are associative in multiplication.
So (ab)  u = a  (b  u).

10. 1  u = 1  [aij ]mn = [1.aij ]mn = [aij ]mn = u

Hence Mmn is a real vector space.

( n )
X
Ex. The set Pn = ai xi = a0 + a1 x + .... + an xn : ai R of all polynomials in x of degree n with
i=0
real coefficients is a vector space with respect to the following operations:
n
X n
X n
X
ai xi bi xi = (ai + bi )xi , (Vector Addition)
i=0 i=0 i=0
n
X n
X
i
a ai x = aai xi , (Scalar Multiplication)
i=0 i=0
n
X
for all a R and ai xi Pn . Notice that vector addition is usual addition of polynomials, and scalar
i=0
multiplication is the usual scalar multiplication in polynomials.

Sol. Please do yourself following the procedure given in the previous example(s).
Linear Algebra (4.1-4.6) Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS-Pilani 6

Ex. The set = {f : f is well defined real valued function on [0, 1]} is a vector space with respect to
the following operations:
f g = f + g, (Vector Addition)
a  f = af , (Scalar Multiplication)
for all a R and f, g .

Sol. Please do yourself following the procedure given in the previous example(s).
Ex. Show that the set = {f : f is well defined real valued function on [0, 1] and f (1/2) = 1} is not a
vector space with respect to the following operations:
f g = f + g, (Vector Addition)
a  f = af , (Scalar Multiplication)
for all a R and f, g .

Sol. Let f, g . Then by definition of , we have

f (1/2) = 1, g(1/2) = 1.
Next by definition of vector addition, we find
(f g)(1/2) = (f + g)(1/2) = f (1/2) + g(1/2) = 1 + 1 = 2 6= 1.
So f g / . It means vector addition fails in . Consequently, it is not a vector space.

Ex. The set R+ of positive real numbers is a vector space with respect to the operations:
u v = uv (vector addition)
a  u = ua (scalar multiplication)
for all a R and u, v R+ . Here vector addition of u and v is defined by their product while scalar
multiplication of a and u is defined by u raised to the power a. So be careful while verifying the properties.
Sol. Let u, v and w be members of V = R+ , and a, b be any two real numbers. Note that u, v and w
are positive real numbers while a and b are any real numbers. Then we have the following properties:
1. Closure Property:
u v = uv R+ .
2. Commutative Property:
u v = uv = vu = v u.
3. Associative Property:
(u v) w = (uv) w = (uv)w = u(vw) = u (vw) = u (v w).
4. Existence of identity:
1 R+ (denoting the positive real number 1 by 0) such that
u 0 = u 1 = u.1 = u,
0 u = 1 u = 1.u = u.
So u 0 = u = 0 u. Therefore, the positive real number 1 is the additive identity in R+ .
5. Existence of inverse:
Since u is a positive real number so 1/u is also a positive real number (denoting 1/u by u) such
that
u (u) = u (1/u) = u.(1/u) = 1 = 0,
(u) u = (1/u) u = (1/u).u = 1 = 0.
So u (u) = 0 = (u) u. This shows that u = 1/u is additive inverse of u in R+ .
Linear Algebra (4.1-4.6) Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS-Pilani 7

6. a  u = ua R+

7. a  (u v) = a  (uv) = (uv)a = ua v a = ua v a = a  u a  v.

8. (a + b)  u = u(a+b) = ua ub = ua ub = a  u b  u.
a
9. (ab)  u = u(ab) = (ub ) = a  (ub ) = a  (b  u).

10. 1  u = u1 = u.

Hence R+ is a real vector space.

Ex. Show that the set R of real numbers is a vector space with respect to the operations:

u v = (u5 + v 5 )1/5

a  u = a1/5 u

for all a, u, v R. Further, the principal fifth root is to be considered in both the operations.
Sol. Let u, v and w be members of V = R, and a, b be any two real numbers. Then we have the following
properties:

1. Closure Property:
u v = (u5 + v 5 )1/5 R.

2. Commutative Property:
u v = (u5 + v 5 )1/5 = (v 5 + u5 )1/5 = v u.

3. Associative Property:
(u v) w = ((u5 + v 5 )1/5 ) w = ((u5 + v 5 ) + w5 )1/5 = (u5 + (v 5 + w5 ))1/5 = u (v 5 + w5 )1/5 =
u (v w).

4. Existence of identity:
0 R (denoting the real number 0 by 0) such that
u 0 = u 0 = (u5 + 05 )1/5 = u,
0 u = 0 u = (05 + u5 )1/5 = u.
So u 0 = u = 0 u. Therefore, the real number 0 is the additive identity in R.

5. Existence of inverse:
u R such that
u (u) = (u5 u5 )1/5 = 0 = 0,
(u) u = (u5 + u5 )1/5 = 0 = 0.
So u (u) = 0 = (u) u. This shows that u is additive inverse of u in R.

6. a  u = a1/5 u R

7. a(uv) = a((u5 +v 5 )1/5 ) = a1/5 (u5 +v 5 )1/5 = (au5 +av 5 )1/5 = (a1/5 u)(a1/5 v) = auav.

8. (a + b)  u = (a + b)1/5 u = (au5 + bu5 )1/5 = (a1/5 u) (b1/5 u) = a  u b  u.

9. (ab)  u = (ab)1/5 u = (a1/5 b1/5 )u = a1/5 (b1/5 u) = a1/5 (b  u) = a  (b  u).

10. 1  u = 11/5 u = u.

Hence R is a real vector space.

Linear Algebra (4.1-4.6) Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS-Pilani 8

Ex. Show that the set R of real numbers is not a vector space with respect to the operations:

u v = (u5 + v 5 )1/5 (vector addition)

a  u = au (scalar multiplication)

for all a, u, v R. Further, the principal fifth root is to be considered in vector addition.
Sol. Property 8 is not satisfied. Please do yourself.

Homework: Do exercise 4.1 from the textbook.

Subspace
If V is a vector space and W is a subset of V such that W is also a vector space under the same operations
as in V , then W is called a subspace of V .

Ex. The set W = {[x1 , 0] : x1 R} is a vector space under the operations of vector addition and scalar
multiplication as we considered earlier in R2 . Also, W is subset of R2 . So W is subspace of R2 .

Note: For checking W to be a subspace of a vector space V , we need to verify 10 properties of vector
space in W . The following theorem suggests that verification of two properties is enough.

Theorem: A subset W of a vector space V is a subspace of V if and only if W is closed with respect to
vector addition and scalar multiplication.

Proof: First consider that W is subspace of V . Then by definition of subspace, W is a vector space. So
by definition of vector space, W is closed with respect to vector addition and scalar multiplication.
Conversely assume that the subset W of the vector space V is closed with respect to vector addition
and scalar multiplication. So u v W and a  u W for all u, v W and a R. Choosing a = 0, we
get 0  u W . But 0  u = 0. So 0 W , that is, additive identity exists in W . Again, choosing a = 1,
we get (1)  u = u W . So additive inverse exists in W . Commutative and associative properties
with regard to vector addition, and all the properties related to scalar multiplication shall follow in W
for two reasons (i) members of W are members from V , and (ii) V is a vector space.

Note: It is also easy to show that a subset W of a vector space V is subspace of V if and only if
a  u b  v W for all a, b R and u, v W .

Ex. Show that the set W = {[x1 , 0] : x1 R} is subspace of R2 .

Sol. Let u = [x1 , 0], v = [y1 , 0] W and a R. Then we have

u v = [x1 , 0] [y1 , 0] = [x1 + y1 , 0] W,

a  u = a  [x1 , 0] = [ax1 , 0] W.
This shows that W is closed with respect to vector addition and scalar multiplication. Hence W is a
subspace of R2 .

Ex. The set W = {(a, b, a + 2b) : a, b R} is a subspace of R3 .

Sol. Please do yourself.

Linear Algebra (4.1-4.6) Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS-Pilani 9

Ex. Verify whether W = {[x, y] : x y = 0, x, y R} is a subspace of R2 .

Sol. Let u = [x1 , x2 ], v = [y1 , y2 ] W and a R. Then x1 x2 = 0 and y1 y2 = 0. we have

u v = [x1 , x2 ] [y1 , y2 ] = [x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ] W,

since (x1 + y1 ) (x2 + y2 ) = x1 x2 + y1 y2 = 0.

a  u = a  [x1 , x2 ] = [ax1 , ax2 ] W,

since ax1 ax2 = a(x1 x2 ) = a.0 = 0. This shows that W is closed with respect to vector addition and
scalar multiplication. Hence W is a subspace of R2 .

Ex. Verify whether W = {[x, y] : y = x2 , x, y R} is a subspace of R2 .

Sol. We have [1, 1], [2, 4] W but

[1, 1] [2, 4] = [1 + 2, 1 + 4] = [3, 5]

/ W,

since 5 6= 32 . So W is not a subspace of R2 .

  
p q
Ex. Verify whether W = : ps qr 6= 0, p, q, r, s R is a subspace of M22 .
r s
   
1 0 1 0
Sol. We have u = ,v= W but
0 1 0 1
       
1 0 1 0 11 0+0 0 0
uv= = =
/ W,
0 1 0 1 0+0 11 0 0
 
0 0
since is a singular matrix. So W is not a subspace of M22 .
0 0
Note: If V is any vector space, then {0} and V are its trivial subspaces. Any other subspace is called a
proper subspace of V .

Ex. Let W1 and W2 be two subspaces of a vector space V .

(i) Show that W1 W2 is a subspace of V .
(ii) Give an example to show that W1 W2 need not be a subspace of V .
(iii) Show that W1 W2 is subspace of V iff either W1 W2 or W2 W1 .

Sol. (i) Since W1 and W2 are subspaces of V . So at least the zero vector 0 lies in W1 W2 . So W1 W2 6= .
Let u, v W1 W2 , and a, b R. Then a  u b  v W1 and a  u b  v W2 since W1 and W2
both are subspaces of V . It follows that aubv W1 W2 . This shows that W1 W2 is a subspace of V .

(ii) W1 = {[x1 , 0] : x1 R} and W2 = {[0, x2 ] : x1 R} both are subspaces of R2 . Also,

[1, 0], [0, 1] W1 W2 . But [1, 0] [0, 1] = [1 + 0, 0 + 1] = [1, 1]
/ W1 W2 . So W1 W2 is not
closed with respect to vector addition, and consequently it is not a subspace of R2 .

(iii) If W1 W2 or W2 W1 , then W1 W2 = W2 or W1 W2 = W1 . But W1 and W2 both are

subspaces of V . Thus, in both cases W1 W2 is a subspace of V .
Conversely assume that W1 W2 is a subspace of V . We need to prove that either W1 W2 or
W2 W1 . On the contrary assume that neither W1 W2 nor W2 W1 . So there must exist some
u W1 and v W2 such that u / W2 and v
/ W1 .
Linear Algebra (4.1-4.6) Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS-Pilani 10

Now u, v W1 W2 . So u v W1 W2 , by closure property of vector addition in W1 W2 . It

implies that either u v W1 or u v W2 . Let u v W1 . Also, u W1 . So by closure property
of vector addition in W1 , we have u (u v) = v W1 , a contradiction since v
/ W1 . Thus, either
W1 W2 or W2 W1 .

Note: Hereafter, we shall use the symbols + and . for vector addition and scalar multiplication 
respectively in all vector spaces.

Homework: Do exercise 4.2 from the textbook.

Span of a Set
Let S be any subset of a vector space V . Then the set of all linear combinations of finite number of
members of S is called the span of S, and is denoted by span(S) or L(S). Therefore, we have

L(S) = span(S) = {a1 v1 + a2 v2 + ........ + an vn : ai R, vi S, i = 1, 2, ....., n}.

Ex. If S = {[1, 0], [0, 1]}, then L(S) = {a(1, 0) + b(0, 1) : a, b R} = {(a, b) : a, b R} = R2 .

Note: Recall that row space of a matrix is the set of all sums of scalar multiples of the row vectors of
the matrix. So row space of a matrix is noting but the span of its row vectors. Also, we know that the
row spaces of two row equivalent matrices are same. This fact can be used to simplify the span of subsets
of the vector spaces Rn , Pn and Mmn as illustrated in the following examples.

Ex. Show that span of the set S = {[2, 3, 4], [1, 5, 7], [3, 11, 13]} is R3 .

Sol. By definition, span of the given set S reads as

L(S) = {a[2, 3, 4]+b[1, 5, 7]+c[3, 11, 13] : a, b, c R} = {[2a+b+3c, 3a+5b+11c, 4a+7b+13c] : a, b, c R}.

For simplified span, we use suitable row operations, and find

2 3 4 1 0 0
1 5 7 0 1 0 .
3 11 13 0 0 1
L(S) = {a[1, 0, 0] + b[0, 1, 0] + c[0, 0, 1] : a, b, c R} = {[a, b, c] : a, b, c R} = R3 .

Ex. Find simplified span of the set S = x3 1, x2 x, x 1 in P3x .



Sol. By definition, span of the given set S reads as

L(S) = {a(x3 1) + b(x2 x) + c(x 1) : a, b, c R} = {ax3 + bx2 + cx a c : a, b, c R}.

For simplified span, we write coefficients of the polynomials as row vectors, and then use suitable row
operations. We find

1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 .
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
L(S) = {a(x3 1) + b(x2 1) + c(x 1) : a, b, c R} = {ax3 + bx2 + cx a b c : a, b, c R}.
Linear Algebra (4.1-4.6) Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS-Pilani 11

     
1 1 0 0 1 0
Ex. Find simplified span of the set S = , , in M22 .
0 0 1 1 0 1
Sol. By definition, span of the given set S reads as
          
1 1 0 0 1 0 a c a
L(S) = a +b +c : a, b, c R = : a, b, c R
0 0 1 1 0 1 b b + c
For simplified span, we write each matrix as continuous row vector (writing both rows of each matrix
in one row), and then use suitable row operations. We find

1 1 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 .
1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1

          
1 0 0 1 0 0 a b
L(S) = a +b +c : a, b, c R = : a, b, c R .
0 1 0 1 1 1 c a b c

Ex. Span of the empty set is defined to be the singleton set containing the zero vector., that is,
span() = {0}.

Theorem: Let S be subset of a vector space V . Then prove the following:

(i) L(S) is a subset of V
(ii) L(S) is a subspace of V
(iii) L(S) is the minimal subspace of V containing S.

Proof: (i) Let u L(S). Then

u = c1 u1 + c2 u2 + ..... + cm um

for some ci R and ui S where i = 1, 2, ..., m. Now, c1 R and u1 S V . So c1 u1 V , by

property 6 (scalar multiplication) of vector space. Likewise c2 u2 V . It follows that c1 u1 + c2 u2 V ,
by property 1 (vector addition) of vector space. Thus, repeated use of scalar multiplication and vector
addition properties of vector space yields

u = c1 u1 + c2 u2 + ..... + cm um V.

Therefore, L(S) is subset of V .

(ii) Let u, v L(S) and a R. Then u and v both are linear combinations of finite number of members
of S.

u = c1 u1 + c2 u2 + ..... + cm um , v = d1 v1 + d2 v2 + ....... + dn vn ,

for some ci , dj R and ui , vj S where i = 1, 2, ..., m and j = 1, 2, ...., n. It follows that

u + v = c1 u1 + c2 u2 + ..... + cm um + d1 v1 + d2 v2 + ....... + dn vn L(S),

au = (ac1 )u1 + (ac2 )u2 + ..... + (acm )um L(S).

This shows that L(S) is closed with respect to vector addition and scalar multiplication. Also, by part
(i), L(S) is subset of V . So L(S) is subspace of V .

(iii) For any u S, we can write u = 1.u. So every member of S can be written as a linear combination
of members of S. So S L(S). In part (ii), we have shown that L(S) is a subspace of V . To show
Linear Algebra (4.1-4.6) Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS-Pilani 12

that L(S) is minimal subspace of V containing S, it requires to prove that L(S) W where W is any
subspace of V containing S.
Let u L(S). Then

u = c1 u1 + c2 u2 + ..... + cm um

for some ci R and ui S where i = 1, 2, ..., m. Now W contains S. Also W being a subspace of V is a
vector space. So by the properties of scalar multiplication and vector addition, it follows that

u = c1 u1 + c2 u2 + ..... + cm um W.

Thus, L(S) W . This completes the proof.

Homework: Do exercise 4.3 from the textbook.

Linear Independence
A finite non-empty subset S = {v1 , v2 , ......, vn } of a vector space V is said to be linearly dependent (LD)
if and only if there exist real numbers a1 , a2 , ......, an not all zero such that a1 v1 + a2 v2 + .......... + an vn = 0.

If S is not LD, that is, a1 v1 + a2 v2 + .......... + an vn = 0 implies a1 = 0, a2 = 0, ......, an = 0, then S is

said to be linearly independent (LI).

Ex. The set S = {[1, 0], [0, 1]} is LI in R2 .

Sol. Here we have two vectors v1 = [1, 0] and v2 = [0, 1]. To check LI/LD, we let

a1 v1 + a2 v2 = 0.

= a1 [1, 0] + a2 [0, 1] = [0, 0].

= [a1 , 0] + [0, a2 ] = [0, 0].
= [a1 , a2 ] = [0, 0].
= a1 = 0, a2 = 0.
Thus, the set S = {[1, 0], [0, 1]} is LI in R2 .

Ex. The set S = {[1, 2], [2, 4]} is LD in R2 .

Sol. Here we have two vectors v1 = [1, 2] and v2 = [2, 4]. To check LI/LD, we let

a1 v1 + a2 v2 = 0.

= a1 [1, 2] + a2 [2, 4] = [0, 0].

= [a1 , 2a1 ] + [2a2 , 4a2 ] = [0, 0].
= [a1 + 2a2 , 2a1 + 4a2 ] = [0, 0].
= a1 + 2a2 = 0, 2a1 + 4a2 = 0.
= a1 + 2a2 = 0.
We see a non-trivial solution, a1 = 2, a2 = 1. Thus, the set S = {[1, 2], [2, 4]} is LD in R2 .
Linear Algebra (4.1-4.6) Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS-Pilani 13

Note: In fact, a1 + 2a2 = 0 has infinitely many non-trivial solutions. But for LD, existence of one
non-trivial is sufficient.

Theorem: Two vectors in a vector space are LD if and only if one vector is scalar multiple of the other.

Proof: Let v1 and v2 be two vectors of a vector space V . Suppose v1 and v2 are LD. Then there exists
real numbers a1 and a2 such that at least one of a1 and a2 is non-zero (say a1 6= 0), and

a1 v1 + a2 v2 = 0.

Since a1 6= 0, we have
 
a2
v1 = v2 = 0.
a1
This shows that v1 is scalar multiple of v2 .

Conversely assume that v1 is scalar multiple of v2 , that is, v1 = v2 for some real number . Then
we have,

(1)v1 + v2 = 0.

We see that the linear combination of v1 and v2 is 0, where the scalar 1 with v1 is non-zero. So v1 and
v2 are LD.

Ex. Verify whether the set S = {[3, 1, 1], [5, 2, 2], [2, 2, 1]} is LI in R3 .

Sol. Here we have three vectors v1 = [3, 1, 1], v2 = [5, 2, 2] and (2, 2, 1). To check LI/LD, we let

a1 v1 + a2 v2 + a3 v3 = 0.

= a1 [3, 1, 1] + a2 [5, 2, 2] + a3 [2, 2, 1] = [0, 0, 0].

= [3a1 5a2 + 2a3 , a1 2a2 + 2a3 , a1 + 2a2 a3 ] = [0, 0, 0].
This gives the following homogeneous system of equations:
3a1 5a2 + 2a3 = 0,
a1 2a2 + 2a3 = 0,
a1 + 2a2 a3 = 0.
Here the augmented matrix is

3 5 2 0
[A : B] = 1 2 2 0 .
1 2 1 0

Using suitable row transformations, we find

1 0 0 0
[A : B] 0 1 0 0 .
0 0 1 0

So we get the trivial solution, a1 = 0, a2 = 0 and a3 = 0.

Thus, the set S = {[3, 1, 1], [5, 2, 2], [2, 2, 1]} is LI in R3 .
Linear Algebra (4.1-4.6) Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS-Pilani 14

Note: Row reduction approach can also be applied to test the linear independence of the vectors of
Rn . Just write the given vectors as the rows of a matrix say A, and find rank of A. If rank of A is
equal to the number of rows or vectors, then the given vectors are LI. For example, consider the set
S = {[3, 1, 1], [5, 2, 2], [2, 2, 1]}. The matrix with rows as the vectors of S reads as

3 1 1
A = 5 2 2 .
2 2 1

Using suitable row operations, we find

3 1 1 1 0 0
A = 5 2 2 0 1 0 .
2 2 1 0 0 1

So rank of A is 3. It implies that the set S = {[3, 1, 1], [5, 2, 2], [2, 2, 1]} is LI.

Ex. Any set containing zero vector is always LD while a singleton set containing a non-zero vector is LI.

Sol. Let S = {0, v1 , v2 , ......, vn } be a set containing 0 vector. Then the expression

1.0 + 0v1 + 0.v2 + ....... + 0.vn = 0

shows that S is LD.

Next, consider a set A = {v1 } carrying a single non-zero vector. Then a1 v1 = 0 gives a1 = 0 since
v1 6= 0. So A is LI.

Theorem: A finite set S containing at least two vectors is LD iff some vector in S can be expressed as
a linear combination of the other vectors in S.

Proof: Let S = {v1 , v2 , ......, vn } be a set containing at least two vectors. Suppose S is LD. Then there
exist real numbers a1 , a2 , ......, an not all zero (say some am 6= 0) such that

a1 v1 + a2 v2 + ..... + am1 vm1 + am vm + am+1 vm+1 + ..... + an vn = 0.

It can be rewritten as
       
a1 a2 am1 am+1
vm = v1 + v2 + .... + vm1 + vm+1 + ...... + (an )vn .
am am am am

This shows that vm is linear combination of the remaining vectors.

Conversely assume that some vector vm of S is linear combination of the remaining vectors of S, that
is, there exists some real numbers b1 , b2 ,.....,bm1 , bm+1 ........,bn such that

vm = b1 v1 + b2 v2 + ....... + bm1 vm1 + bm+1 vm+1 + ...... + bn vn .

It can be rewritten as

b1 v1 + b2 v2 + ....... + bm1 vm1 + (1)vm + bm+1 vm+1 + ...... + bn vn = 0.

We see that scalar with the vector vm is 1, which is non-zero. It follows that the set S is LD.
Linear Algebra (4.1-4.6) Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS-Pilani 15

Theorem: A non-empty finite subset S of a vector space V is LI iff every vector v L(S) can be
expressed uniquely as a linear combination of the members of S.

Proof: Let S = {v1 , v2 , ......, vn } be a subset of the vector space V . Suppose S is LI and v is any member
of L(S). Then v can be expressed as linear combination of the members of S. For uniqueness, let

a1 v1 + a2 v2 + ......... + an vn = v,

b1 v1 + b2 v2 + ......... + bn vn = v.
Subtracting the two expressions, we get

(a1 b1 )v1 + (a2 b2 )v2 + ......... + (an bn )vn = 0.

Then linear independence of the set S = {v1 , v2 , ......, vn } implies that a1 b1 = 0, a2 b2 = 0, ....,
an bn = 0, that is, a1 = b1 , a2 = b2 , ....., an = bn . This proves the uniqueness.
Conversely assume that every vector v L(S) can be expressed uniquely as a linear combination of
the members of S. To prove that S = {v1 , v2 , ......, vn } is LI, let

a1 v1 + a2 v2 + ......... + an vn = 0.

Also, we have

0v1 + 0v2 + ......... + 0vn = 0.

The above two expressions represent 0 L(S) as linear combinations of members of the set S. So by
uniqueness, we must have a1 = 0, a2 = 0, ......., an = 0. It follows that S is LI.

Note: An infinite subset S of a vector space V is LI iff every finite subset of S is LI. For example, the
set S = {1, x, x2 , .......} is an infinite LI set in P (the vector space of all polynomials).

Homework: Do exercise 4.4 from the textbook.

Basis
A subset B of a vector space V is a basis of V if B is LI and L(B) = V . Therefore, the basis set B is LI
and generates or spans the vector space V .

Ex. The set B = {[1, 0], [0, 1]} is a basis of R2 , called the standard basis of R2 .

For, B = {[1, 0], [0, 1]} is LI since a[1, 0] + b[0, 1] = [0, 0] yields a = 0, b = 0.

Also, L(B) = R2 since any [x1 , x2 ] R2 can be written as

[x1 , x2 ] = x1 [1, 0] + x2 [0, 1],

a linear combination of the members of the set B = {[1, 0], [0, 1]}.

Ex. The set B = {[1, 0, 0], [0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1]} is the standard basis of R3 .

Ex. The set B = {[1, 2, 1], [2, 3, 1], [1, 2, 3]} is a basis of R3 .
Linear Algebra (4.1-4.6) Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS-Pilani 16

Sol. Using suitable row transformations, we find

1 2 1 1 0 0
2 3 1 0 1 0 .
1 2 3 0 0 1

This shows that B is LI. Also, L(B) = {a(1, 0, 0) + b(0, 1, 0) + c(0, 0, 1) : a, b, c R} = {(a, b, c) :
a, b, c R} = R3 . So B is a basis of R3 .
       
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Ex. The set B = , , , is the standard basis of M22 .
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
Ex. The set B = {1, x, x2 , ........, xn } is standard basis of Pn .

Sol. Any polynomial in x of degree n is, of course, a linear combination of the members of the set
B = {1, x, x2 , ........, xn }. So L(B) = Pn .

Also, B = {1, x, x2 , ........, xn } is LI since a0 .1 + a1 x + ............ + an xn = 0 = 0.1 + 0.x + ............ + 0.xn

gives a0 = 0, a1 = 0, ........., an = 0.

Thus B = {1, x, x2 , ........, xn } is a basis of Pn , also known as standard basis of Pn .

Ex. The empty set {} is basis of the trivial vector space V = {0}.

Theorem: If B1 is a finite basis of a vector space V , and B2 is any other basis of V , then B2 has same
number of vectors as in B1 .
Note: A vector space may have infinitely many finite bases. However, the number of vectors in each
basis would be same as suggested by the above theorem. This fact led to the following definition.

Dimension
The number of elements in the basis of a vector space is called its dimension. Further, a vector space
with finite dimension is called a finite dimensional vector space.

Ex. The basis B = {[1, 0], [0, 1]} of R2 carries two vectors. So dim(R2 ) = 2.
       
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
Ex. The basis set B = , , , of M22 carries four vectors. So dim(M22 ) = 4.
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
The following theorem gives the idea to find basis of a vector space from a spanning set.

Theorem: Any maximal LI subset of a spanning set of a vector space forms a basis of the vector space.

Ex. The set S = {[1, 0], [0, 1], [1, 5]} spans R2 . One may verify that {[1, 0], [0, 1]}, {[1, 0], [1, 5]}, {[0, 1], [1, 5]}
all being maximal LI subsets of S are bases of R2 .

Theorem: Every LI subset of a vector space can be extended to form a basis of the vector space.

Ex. The set S = {[1, 3, 7]} is a LI subset of R3 . It is easy to verify that the extended set {[1, 3, 7], [0, 1, 0], [0, 0, 1]}
is a basis of R3 .
Linear Algebra (4.1-4.6) Dr. Suresh Kumar, BITS-Pilani 17

Interesting Note: If we remove one or more vectors from the basis set of a vector space, it is no more a
spanning set of the vector space. Further, if we insert one or more vectors in the basis set, it is no more
LI. Thus, number of elements in the basis set does not vary.

Theorem: If W is subspace of a vector space V , then dim(W) dim(V).

Ex. Find a basis of a subspace of R4 spanned by the set S = {[3, 5, 2, 4], [1, 2, 2, 1], [1, 2, 1, 1]}.

Sol. We need to find maximal LI subset of S = {[3, 5, 2, 4], [1, 2, 2, 1], [1, 2, 1, 1]}. Using suitable
row operations, we find

3 5 2 4 1 0 0 15
1 2 2 1 0 1 0 9 .
1 2 1 1 0 0 1 2

This shows that S = {[3, 5, 2, 4], [1, 2, 2, 1], [1, 2, 1, 1]} is LI. So S = {[3, 5, 2, 4], [1, 2, 2, 1], [1, 2, 1, 1]}
itself is a basis of the subspace of R4 .

Note: Row vectors of the row equivalent matrix of the basis vectors also form a basis. So in the above
example, the set {[1, 0, 0, 15], [0, 1, 0, 9], [0, 0, 1, 2]} is also a basis of the subspace of R4 .

Homework: Do exercise 4.5 and 4.6 from the textbook.