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scan
r thick components
TOFD (Time of Flight Diffraction)

TOFD and its principles are well documented. Utilizing diffracted energy in the detection of flaws, the
technique is less reliant on flaw orientation and morphology than standard pulse echo techniques, leading to
improved sizing and probability of defect detection (POD). Additionally, computerized electronic data capture
and storage, in conjunction with scanning manipulators enable rapid scanning speeds to be achieved TOFD
has now been accepted as an alternative to Radiography in Pre-Service Inspections with standards such as
ASME 2235, and its use in pipe weld and thick walled pressure vessel fabrication is now common place.

Due to its sensitivity and sizing accuracy, TOFD is also an excellent tool for in-service material and flaw
monitoring. Engineers who are monitoring root erosion, stress corrosion cracking, vessel cladding, Hydrogen
Attack, Weld and Steam Chest cracks for example, are all now utilizing TOFD as part of an ongoing inspection
regime.

Integrity NDT personnel have over 10 years of experience in planning, managing and carrying out TOFD on pre-service
and in-service projects, around the globe. We can advise and develop TOFD procedures and have developed specialist
scanning equipment for carrying out inspections.

Method:

-British Standard 7706: Calibration and

setting-up of the ultrasonic time-of-flight-
diffraction (TOFD) technique for the detection,
location and sizing of flaws
-ENV 583 pt6: Non Destructive Testing
Ultrasonic Examination Part 6: Time-of-
flight diffraction technique as a method for
detection and sizing of discontinuities
spection

Technique Specification:

Acceptance Criteria:
-PrCEN/TS 14751: Welding Use of time-of-
flight diffraction technique (TOFD) for
Code Case 2235: Case of ASME Boiler and Pressure vessel
examination of welds
code Section I and Section VIII, Divisions 1 and 2, use of
-Code Case 2235: Case of ASME Boiler and
Ultrasonic examination in Lieu of Radiography
Pressure vessel code Section I and Section VIII,
prEN 15617: Acceptance criteria for the Time of Flight
Divisions 1 and 2, Use of Ultrasonic
Diffraction inspection technique (European Standard)
examination in Lieu of Radiography
Knowledge

Intro to Ultrasonic Phased Array

by Tom Nelligan and Dan Kass

Many people are familiar with the medical applications of ultrasonic imaging, in which high frequency sound waves are used to create
highly detailed cross-sectional pictures of internal organs. Medical sonograms are commonly made with specialized multi-element
transducers known as phased arrays and their accompanying hardware and software. But the applications of ultrasonic phased array
technology are not limited to medical diagnosis. In recent years, phased array systems have seen increasing use in industrial settings
to provide new levels of information and visualization in common ultrasonic tests that include weld inspection, bond testing, thickness
profiling, and in-service crack detection. This paper provides a brief introduction to how phased array systems work and how they can
be employed in industrial ultrasonic nondestructive testing.

What is a phased array system?

Conventional ultrasonic transducers for NDT commonly consist of either a single active element that both generates and
receives high frequency sound waves, or two paired elements, one for transmitting and one for receiving. Phased array
probes, on the other hand, typically consist of a transducer assembly with from 16 to as many as 256 small individual
elements that can each be pulsed separately. These may be arranged in a strip (linear array), a ring (annular array), a
circular matrix (circular array), or a more complex shape. As is the case with conventional transducers, phased array
probes may be designed for direct contact use, as part of an angle beam assembly with a wedge, or for immersion use
with sound coupling through a water path. Transducer frequencies are most commonly in the range from 2 MHz to 10
MHz. A phased array system will also include a sophisticated computer-based instrument that is capable of driving the
multi-element probe, receiving and digitizing the returning echoes, and plotting that echo information in various
standard formats. Unlike conventional flaw detectors, phased array systems can sweep a sound beam through a range of
refracted angles or along a linear path, or dynamically focus at a number of different depths, thus increasing both
flexibility and capability in inspection setups.

Typical phased array probe assemblies

Typical multi-element construction

How do they work?

In the most basic sense, a phased array system utilizes the wave physics principle of phasing, varying the time between a
series of outgoing ultrasonic pulses in such a way that the individual wave fronts generated by each element in the array
combine with each other to add or cancel energy in predictable ways that effectively steer and shape the sound beam.
This is accomplished by pulsing the individual probe elements at slightly different times. Frequently the elements will be
pulsed in groups of 4 to 32 in order to improve effective sensitivity by increasing aperture, which reduces unwanted
beam spreading and enables sharper focusing. Software known as a focal law calculator establishes specific delay times
for firing each group of elements in order to generate the desired beam shape, taking into account probe and wedge
characteristics as well as the geometry and acoustical properties of the test material. The programmed pulsing sequence
selected by the instrument's operating software then launches a number of individual wave fronts in the test material.
These wave fronts in turn combine constructively and destructively into a single primary wave front that travels through
the test material and reflects off cracks, discontinuities, back walls, and other material boundaries like any conventional
ultrasonic wave. The beam can be dynamically steered through various angles, focal distances, and focal spot sizes in
such a way that a single probe assembly is capable of examining the test material across a range of different
perspectives. This beam steering happens very quickly, so that a scan from multiple angles or with multiple focal depths
can be performed in a small fraction of a second.
The returning echoes are received by the various elements or groups of elements and time-shifted as necessary to
compensate for varying wedge delays and then summed. Unlike a conventional single element transducer, which will
effectively merge the effects of all beam components that strike its area, a phased array transducer can spatially sort the
returning wavefront according to the arrival time and amplitude at each element. When processed by instrument
software, each returned focal law represents the reflection from a particular angular component of the beam, a
particular point along a linear path, and/or a reflection from a particular focal depth. The echo information can then be
displayed in any of several formats.

Example of angled beam generated by flat probe by means of variable delay

Example of focused linear scan beam

What do the images look like?

In most typical flaw detection and thickness gaging applications, the ultrasonic test data will be based on time and amplitude
information derived from processed RF waveforms. These waveforms and the information extracted from them will commonly be
presented in one or more of four formats: A-scans, B-scans, C-scans, or S-scans. This section shows some examples of image
presentations from both conventional flaw detectors and phased array systems.

A-Scan displays

An A-scan is a simple RF waveform presentation showing the time and amplitude of an ultrasonic signal, as commonly
provided by conventional ultrasonic flaw detectors and waveform display thickness gages. An A-scan waveform
represents the reflections from one sound beam position in the test piece. The flaw detector A-scan below shows
echoes from two side-drilled holes in a steel reference block. The columnar sound beam from a common single-element
contact transducer intercepts two out of the three of the holes and generates two distinct reflections at different times
that are proportional to the depth of the holes.
Generalized beam profile Straight beam A-scan image

A single-element angle beam transducer used with a conventional flaw detector will generate a beam along one angular
path. While beam spreading effects will cause the beam diameter to increase with distance, the area of coverage or field
of vision of a conventional angle beam will still basically be limited to one angular path. In the example below, a 45
degree wedge at one fixed position is able to detect two of the side-drilled holes in the test block because they fall
within its beam, but it is not possible to detect the third without moving the transducer forward.

Generalized beam profile Angle beam A-scan image

A phased array system will display similar A-scan waveforms for reference, however in most cases they will be supplemented by B-
scans, C-scans, or S-scans as seen below. These standard imaging formats aid the operator in visualizing the type and position of
flaws in a test piece.

B-Scan displays

A B-scan is an image showing a cross-sectional profile through one vertical slice of the test piece, showing the depth of
reflectors with respect to their linear position. B-scan imaging requires that the sound beam be scanned along the
selected axis of the test piece, either mechanically or electronically, while storing relevant data. In the case below, the B-
scan shows two deep reflectors and one shallower reflector, corresponding to the positions of the side drilled holes in
the test block. With a conventional flaw detector, the transducer must be moved laterally across the test piece.

Generalized beam profile Typical b-scan image showing relative hole depth

A phased array system, on the other hand, can use electronic scanning along the length of a linear array probe to
similarly create a cross-sectional profile without moving the transducer:

Electronic linear scan (B-scan) image showing relative hole position and depth across the length of a linear array

C-Scan displays
A C-scan is a two dimensional presentation of data displayed as a top or planar view of a test piece, similar in its graphic
perspective to an x-ray image, where color represents the gated signal amplitude at each point in the test piece mapped
to its x-y position. With conventional instruments, the single-element transducer must be moved in an x-y raster scan
pattern over the test piece. With phased array systems, the probe is typically moved physically along one axis while the
beam electronically scans along the other. Encoders will normally be used whenever precise geometrical
correspondence of the scan image to the part must be maintained, although unencoded manual scans can also provide
useful information in many cases.

The images that follow show C-scans of a reference block made with a conventional immersion scanning system with a
focused immersion transducer, and with a portable phased array system using an encoded hand scanner and a linear
array. While the graphic resolution is not fully equivalent, there are other considerations. The phased array system is
field portable, which the conventional system is not, and costs about one-third the price. Additionally, the phased array
image was made in a few seconds, while the conventional immersion scan took several minutes.

Generalized beam profile and direction of motion Conventional C-scan image showing hole position
Generalized beam profile and direction of motion Phased array C-scan image showing hole position

S-Scan displays

An S-scan or sectorial scan image represents a two-dimensional cross-sectional view derived from a series of A-scans
that have been plotted with respect to time delay and refracted angle. The horizontal axis corresponds to test piece
width, and the vertical axis to depth. This is the most common format for medical sonograms as well as for industrial
phased array images. The sound beam sweeps through a series of angles to generate an approximately cone-shaped
cross-sectional image. It should be noted that in this example, by sweeping the beam the phased array probe is able to
map all three holes from a single transducer position.
A-Scan of a single angular component at left, composite sectorial scan at right. The cursor marking 49 degrees identifies the angular
location of the displayed A-scan.

Where are phased array systems used?

Ultrasonic phased array systems can potentially be employed in almost any test where conventional ultrasonic flaw detectors have
traditionally been used. Weld inspection and crack detection are the most important applications, and these tests are done across a
wide range of industries including aerospace, power generation, petrochemical, metal billet and tubular goods suppliers, pipeline
construction and maintenance, structural metals, and general manufacturing. Phased arrays can also be effectively used to profile
remaining wall thickness in corrosion survey applications.

The benefits of phased array technology over conventional UT come from its ability to use multiple elements to steer, focus and scan
beams with a single transducer assembly. Beam steering, commonly referred to sectorial scanning, can be used for mapping
components at appropriate angles. This can greatly simplify the inspection of components with complex geometries. The small
footprint of the transducer and the ability to sweep the beam without moving the probe also aids inspection of such components in
situations where there is limited access for mechanical scanning. Sectorial scanning is also typically used for weld inspection. The
ability to test welds with multiple angles from a single probe greatly increases the probability of detection of anomalies. Electronic
focusing permits optimizing the beam shape and size at the expected defect location, thus further optimizing probability of detection.
The ability to focus at multiple depths also improves the ability for sizing critical defects for volumetric inspections. Focusing can
significantly improve signal-to-noise ratio in challenging applications, and electronic scanning across many groups of elements allows
for C-Scan images to be produced very rapidly.
2 Introduction to Phased Array technology
2.1 What are the benefits?

The benefits of phased array technology over conventional UT come from its ability to use multiple
elements to steer, focus and scan beams with a single transducer assembly. Beam steering, commonly
referred to sectorial scanning, can be used for mapping components at appropriate angles. This can
greatly simplify the inspection of components with complex geometries. The small footprint of the
transducer and the ability to sweep the beam without moving the probe also aids inspection of such
components in situations where there is limited access for mechanical scanning. Sectorial scanning is also
typically used for weld inspection. The ability to test welds with multiple angles from a single probe
greatly increases the probability of detection of anomalies. Electronic focusing permits optimizing the
beam shape and size at the expected defect location, thus further optimizing probability of detection. The
ability to focus at multiple depths also improves the ability for sizing critical defects for volumetric
inspections. Focusing can significantly improve signal-to-noise ratio in challenging applications, and
electronic scanning across many groups of elements allows for C-Scan images to be produced very
rapidly.

2.2 How does it work?

Phased array systems offer the possibility of performing inspections with ultrasonic beams of various angles and focal
lengths using a single array of transducers. Software control over beam angle and focusing is achieved by application of
precisely controlled delays to both the emission pulse and received signal for each element in an array of transducers,
hence the term "Phased Array" (Figures 1 and 2).

Fig.1. Beam forming and time delay for pulsing and

receiving multiple beams (same phase and
amplitude)
 Fig.2. Beam focusing principle for
(a) normal and
(b) angled incidences

While the term 'phased array' implies handling the many signals from multi-element transducers, the resulting A-Scan
responses are comparable with those obtained using a fixed angle probe with a conventional pulse-echo imaging
system. Therefore, imaging and image interpretation also remain the same as for a conventional pulse-echo system. As
with other UT imaging systems, the A-Scan data can be processed to provide top, side and end view images of the
inspected volume of material. In addition to standard imaging, Phased Array systems can produce sectorial scans (S-
Scans), a feature unique to this technology. S-Scans are real-time side view images generated from a single inspection
point without any physical movement of the transducer (Figure 3).

Fig.3. Typical (a) A-Scan and (b) S-Scan views of a

calibration block containing 3mm side drilled holes
in a vertical line

Fig.4. Electronic scanning with normal beam

(virtual probe aperture = 16 elements)

Multiplexing also allows motionless scanning. In Figure 4, a focused beam is created using 16 elements
contained in a Phased Array probe (up to 128). The beam is then multiplexed to the other elements to
allow a high speed scan of the component with no transducer movement along that axis. In addition to
specifying "individual" pulse-echo probes for an inspection, it is also possible to programme the use of a
TOFD pair or a transmit-receive configuration.

Signal to noise is frequently improved with focussed probe techniques of which phased array is one
example. Flaw detection and sizing ability is only limited by the beam width which, in theory, can be less
than 1mm (0.04"), depending on the excitation frequency. This ability to narrowly focus the beam at a
given range provides enhanced spatial resolution of flaw signals with respect to imaging systems that use
standard ultrasonic probes. Although the calibration procedure can be complex and time consuming, once
completed, scanning speeds of up to 100mm (4") per second can be achieved.

2.3 What will it find?

Manufacturing flaws (lack of sidewall fusion, lack of root penetration, lack of root fusion, porosity, etc.),
in-service flaws (fatigue cracking, stress corrosion cracking, corrosion, erosion, etc.) and parent material
flaws (inclusions and laminations).

2.4 Where is it used?

Ultrasonic phased array systems can potentially be employed in almost any test where conventional
ultrasonic flaw detectors have traditionally been used. The most important applications are weld
inspection and crack detection across a wide range of industries including aerospace, power generation,
petrochemical, metal billet and tubular good suppliers, pipeline construction and maintenance, structure
metals, and general manufacturing. Phased array can also be effectively used to profile remaining wall
thickness in corrosion survey applications.