Symbol and Pin Diagram of Op-Amp

Op-Amp
Op-Amp means Operational Amplifier. Here operational stands for mathematical operation like
addition, subtraction etc. General purpose Op-Amp is IC741. It is a 8 pin DIP (Dual in line
packaging)
Figure: IC741
Symbol and pin diagram of Op-Amp (741):
Figure: Symbol and pin diagram of Op-Amp
Generally +15V is supplied at 7 & -15V is supplied at 4.
Inside the opamp (IC741), there are 1 capacitor, 11 resistors, and 27 transistors.
Prepared by: Md. Raj Masud, Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, AIUB.

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Ref: Robert F. Coughlin and Frederick F. Driscoll, Operational Amplifiers and Linear Integrated Circuits, 6 Ed, Prentice, Hall of India, India.
Advantages of using Op-Amp:
i. It is low in cost
ii. It is easy to use
iii. It allows building useful circuits without needing to know about their complex
internal circuitry.
Figure: Ideal OpAmp

Characteristics of an ideal Op-Amp:
i. Voltage gain
ii. Input resistance
iii. Output resistance
iv. Bandwidth [Range of frequency]
v. Characteristics do not drifit with temperature.
vi. when
Power supply terminals:
Figure: Power Supply Teminal

Maximum voltage that can be applied between +V and V is typically .

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Output Terminal (6):
There is a limit of the current that can be drawn from output terminal which is usually on the
order of 5 to 10mA. Output voltage swings as a function of supply voltage.
Input terminals (2 & 3):

are called differential input terminals. depends on difference in voltage between
terminal and the gain of amplifier .
Figure:
Input bias current & input bias voltage:

The input terminals of Op-Amps draw tiny bias current to activate the internal transistors which
is known as input bias current.
The input terminals also have a small imbalance voltage called offset voltage.
Differential input voltage,

If the supply voltage to the terminal 7 is +15 and terminal 4 is then will be
approximately .
When,
When,

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Applications of Op-Amp in open loop configuration:
1. Non-inverting zero crossing detector:
2. Inverting zero crossing detector:

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3. Positive voltage level detector (Inverting and Non-inverting):

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4. Negative voltage level detector (Inverting and Noninverting):

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Applications of Op Amp in closed-loop configuration:
Here, an external feedback resistor is connected between the output and the input ( ) terminal.
Inverting Amplifier:
Figure: Inverting Amplifier
Gain equation of an inverting amplifier:
i. The voltage between and input is essentially zero.

ii. The current drawn by either or input is negligible.
From the figure,

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Inverting Adder:
Figure: Inverting Adder

Calculation:
Use of inverting adder:

i. It can be used as an audio mixer. By varying the gain we can get our desired signal in
required form.
ii. Multi channel amplifier.
Non-Inverting Amplifier:
Figure: Non-Inverting Amplifier

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Gain Claculation:
Voltage follower:
Voltage follower is also referred to as a source follower, unity gain amplifier, buffer amplifier or
isolation amplifier.
Here,
So, output voltage equals the input voltage both in sign and magnitude.
Figure: Voltage follower.
Application of voltage follower:

Voltage follower is generally used to nullify the loading effect. As its input impedance is very
high, so it draws negligible amount of current.
If a signal generator with very high source impedance is used as a source in the inverting
amplifier than the impact is shown below.

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Figure: Egen divides between its own internal resistance and amplifier input resistance
Figure: Essentially no current is drawn from Egen. The output terrminal of the op amp can supply
up to 5 rnA With a voltage held constant at Egcn

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Non-inverting Adder:
Here is the number of sources to be added.
The Differential Amplifier (subtractor):
Figure: An inverting amplifier and a two-input inverting adder makes a subtractor.

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Figure: Both amplifier inputs are used to make an amplifier that calculates the difference
between 2E1 and E2

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Basic Differential Amplifier:
Figure: Basic Differential Amplifier
When is grounded and is active then let the output voltage be . So,
When is grounded and is active then the voltage at the non-inverting (+) input is
So, applying superposition, we get,
Disadvantage of Basic Differential Amplifier:
1. It has low input resistance

2. It is difficult to change its gain because the resistors must be closely matched.

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The first disadvantage is eliminated by buffering or isolating the inputs with followers
which is shown below,
Figure: Buffered differential-input to differential-output amplifier
The second disadvantage is eliminated by adding three more resistors to the buffered
amplifier which is shown below,
Figure: Buffered differential-input to differential-output amplifier with adjustable gain

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The above circuit has one disadvantage that is, its load is floating. So, to overcome this, we use
the instrumentation amplifier where one terminal of the load is grounded.
The Instrumentation Amplifier:
Figure: Basic instrumentation amplifier model
Circuit Operation:
The instrumentation amplifier (IA) is one of the most useful, precise, and versatile amplifiers
available today. You will find at least one in every data acquisition unit. The basic IA is made of
from three op amps and seven resistors, as shown in the figure. To simplify circuit analysis, note
that the instrumentation amplifier is actually made by connecting a buffered amplifier to a basic
differential amplifier. Op amp A3 and its four equal resistors, R, form a differential amplifier
with a gain of 1. Only the A3 resistors have to be matched. The primed resistor, R', can be made
variable to balance out any common-mode voltage, as shown in the figure. Only one resistor, aR,
is used to set the gain according to the following equation.
Where,
Characteristics of the instrumentation amplifier are summarized as follows:

1. The voltage gain, from differential input to single-ended output, is set by one
resistor.
2. The input resistance of both inputs is very high and does not change as the gain is varied.
3. does not depend on the voltage common to both and (common-mode voltage),
only on their difference.

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Bridge Amplifier:
A differential bridge amplifier is often used to amplify the output from a transducer bridge as
shown in the figure below:
R R + DR
_
V2
V
Ad
V0 = Ad (V1 V2)
R R
+
V1
Calculation:
From equation ,
Therefore, differential input voltage,
So, the output of the amplifier is,
If then,

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Analog Differentiator:
Calculation:
Closed-Loop Gain,
If frequency increases, decreases as a result, increases.
Advantages of integrator over differentiator:

i. The gain of an integrator decreases with frequency where as the gain of a
differentiator increases linearly with the frequency. So it is easier to stabilize the
integrator.
ii. Integrator has limited bandwidth, so it is less sensitive to noise than differentiator.

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Analog Integrator:
Text
Figure: (a) An integrator circuit. The output voltage ramps negative in (c) for a positive input
step function in (b)
Calculation:
Again,

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Closed-Loop Gain,
If frequency increases, decreases as a result, decreases.

Text
Text Text
Servoamplifier:
A servoamplifier is a circuit whose output is a delayed response to its input. An application may
be ground-following radar signals by a cruise missile or the positioning of an table in a
manufacturing process. In both applications, we may need a circuit that delays the output
response due to clutter or noise at the input. Such a circuit is a servoamplifier as shown in the
Figure. We proceed to answer two questions about this circuit's operation.
1. If is in equilibrium, what is in equilibrium?

2. How long will it take for to change from one equilibrium to another in response to a
change in .
Figure: exhibits a delayed response to a change of in this servoamplifier circuit.

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Servoamplifrer Circuit Analysis
We analyze the circuit behavior of the circuit at equilibrium as follows:
1. Assume that , the capacitor is charged, no current flows through , and its
voltage drop is zero.
2. The voltage at pin 2 equals (since current equals 0) and negative feedback makes
voltages equal at pins 2 and 3 of op amp A.
3. Therefore,
4. causes a current through of . This current flows through . is set by
flowing through both and .
For , .
5. Since op amp B has a gain of , , or rather, .
6. Capacitor voltage is an equilibrium at .
Summary:
Example 1: Calculate the equilibrium voltages for the servoamplifier in the Figure.
Solution From the above two equations,
1. , forcing .
2. forces to .
3. forces to .
4. stabilizes at .
Example 2: If is abruptly stepped to , find the new equilibrium voltages.
Solution:
1. forces to , forcing to .
2. decreases toward .
3. must charge to .

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Delay Action
Examples 1 and 2 show that must servo from to when is stepped from 2 to 4 V. A
delay will occur (as servos toward 8 V) because the capacitor rnust charge from 6 to 12 V.
Any noise (clutter) as changes from 2 to 4V will be zeroed out. The time constant for the
capacitor charge is
Assume that we need 5 time constants for the capacitor to fully charge. Thus, equilibrium will be
achieved in
High Resistance DC Voltmeter
Figure: High input resistance DC Voltmeter
Figure shows a simple but very effective high-input-resistance de voltmeter. The voltage to be
measured, is applied to the (+) input terminal. Since the differential input voltage is , is
developed across . The meter current is set by and just as in the noninveI1ing amplifier.

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If is , then of meter current will flow for de. Therefore, the
milliammeter can be calibrated directly in volts. As shown, this circuit can measure any de
voltage from .
Advantages:
1. High input impedance

2. Draws negligible current
3. Varying meter resistance will not affect the meter current.
Voltmeter scale changing
Since the input voltage in the figure must be less than the power supply voltages ( 15 V), a
convenient maximum limit to impose on is . The simplest way to convert the figure
from a voltmeter to a voltmeter is to change to . In other words, pick so
that the full-scale input voltage EFS equals times the full-scale meter current or
To measure higher Input voltages, use a voltage-divider circuit. The output of the divider is
applied to the input.
Universal High Resistance Voltmeter
Figure: Universal high resistance voltmeter

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Design Procedure:
1. Dc voltmeter:
2. Rms ac voltmeter (sine wave only):
3. Peak reading voltmeter (sine wave only):
4. Peak to Peak ac voltmeter (sine wave only):
Voltage to Current Converter:

It converts a voltage siglan to a proportional output current but the current is independent of the
load impedance. It is generally used to drive a deflection coil in a television.
iL
Load, ZL
_
R
VS(t)
Figure: Voltage to current converter for a floating load
For a single input the current in is
Note that I is independent of the load, .

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For a grounded load, the circuit diagram of a voltage to current converter is shown below.
R
_
Text
VS R1
+
V
R2 R3
Load, ZL
iL
Figure: Voltage to current converter for a grounded load
Calculation:
Applying KCL at node 1,
Current to voltage converter:

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Figure: Current-to-voltage converter
The op amp circuit of the above figure effectively places a short circuit around the current
source. The (-) input is at virtual ground because the differential input voltage is almost 0V. The
current source "'sees" ground potential at both of its terminals, or the equivalent of a short circuit.
All of flows toward the input and on through . converts to an output voltage,
revealing the basic nature of this circuit to be a current-to-voltage convener.

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Phase Shifter:
Figure: Phase shifter

An ideal phase-shifting circuit should transmit a wave without changing its amplitude but should
change its phase angle by a preset amount. A general expression for the output voltage of the
phase-shifter circuit in the figure is given by,
where 8 is the phase angle and will be found from,

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Triangle-Wave Generators
Figure: The bipolar triangle-wave generator circuit in (a) generates triangle-wave and square
wave oscillator signals as in (b). (a) Basic bipolar triangle-wave generator oscillator frequency
for ; (b) output-voltage waveshapes.
Circuit Operation
To unaerstand circuit operation, refer to time interval to in the Figure. Assume that is
high at . This forces a constant current through (left to right) to drive

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negative from to . When reaches , pin 3 of the 301 goes negative, and snaps to
and .
When is at , it forces a constant current (right to left) through to drive positive

from toward (see the time interval to ). When reaches at , pin 3
of the 301 goes positive and snaps to . This initiates the next cycle of oscillation.
Frequency of Operation
The peak values of the triangular wave are established by the ratio of resistor to and the
saturation voltages. They are given by
where
If the saturation voltages are reasonably equal, the frequency of oscillation, , is given by

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Introduction to Precision Rectifiers
Figure: The ordinary silicon diode requires about 0.6 V of forward bias in order to conduct.
Therefore, it cannot rectify small ac voltages. A precision half-wave rectifier circuit overcomes
this limitation.
The major limitation of ordinary silicon diodes is that they cannot rectify voltages below 0.6 V.
For example, the Figure (a) shows that does not respond to positive inputs below in a
half-wave rectifier built with an ordinary silicon diode. The Figure (b) shows the waveforms for
a half-wave rectifier built with an ideal diode. An output voltage occurs for all positive input
voltages, even those below . A circuit that acts like an ideal diode can be designed using an
op amp and two ordinary diodes. The result is a powerful circuit capable of rectifying input
signals of only a few millivolts. The low cost of this equivalent ideal diode circuit allows it to be
used routinely for many applications. They can be grouped loosely into the following
classifications:

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i. Linear half-wave rectifiers: Also called precision half-wave rectifier and acts as an ideal
diode.
ii. Precision full-wave rectifiers: The precision rectifier is also called an absolute-value
circuit.
Linear half wave rectifiers

Inverting Linear Half-wave Rectifier, Positive Output:
Figure: Two diodes convert an inverting amplifier into a positive output, inverting, linear (ideal)
half-wave rectifier. Output is positive and equal to the magnitude of for negative inputs,
and equals for all positive inputs. Diodes are IN914 or IN4154.

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Figure: Input, output, and transfer characteristics of a positive output, ideal, inverting half-wave
rectifier.
Inverting Linear Half-Wave Rectifier, Negative Output:

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Figure: Reversing the diodes gives an inverting linear half-wave rectifier. This circuit transmits
and inverts only positive input signals.

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Precision Full Wave Rectifiers: The Absolute Value Circuit
Figure: absolute-value amplifier

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Figure: The precision full-wave rectifier fully rectifies input voltages, including those with
values less than a diode threshold voltage

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AC Performance: Bandwidth, Slew Rate, and Noise
When the op amp is used in a circuit that amplifies only ac signals, we must consider whether ac
output voltages will be small signals (below about 1 V peak) or large signals (above 1 V peak). If
only small ac output signals are present, the important op amp characteristics that limit
performance are noise and frequency response. If large ac output signals are expected, then an op
amp characteristic called slew-rate limiting determines whether distortion will be introduced by
the op amp, and may further limit frequency response.
General-purpose op amps and specialized op amps are internally compensated; that is, the
manufacturer has installed within such op amps a small capacitor, usually . This internal
frequency compensation capacitor prevents the op amp from oscillating at high frequencies.
Oscillations are prevented by decreasing the op amp's gain as frequency increases. Otherwise,
there would be sufficient gain and phase shift at some high frequency where enough output
signals could be fed back to the input and cause oscillations.
Frequency Response Curve:
Figure: Open-loop voltage gain of a 741 op amp versus frequency

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A typical curve is shown in the Figure below for internally compensated op amps such as the
741. At low frequencies (below 0.1 Hz), the open-loop voltage gain is very high. A typical value
is 200,000 (106 dB), and it is this value that is specified on data sheets where a curve is not
given.
Point A in the Figure below locates the break frequency or cut off frequency at which the
open-loop voltage gain of the op amp is 0.707 times its value at very low frequencies.
Therefore, the voltage gain at point A (where the frequency of Ed is 5 Hz) is about 140,000, or
0.707 200,000. Points C and D show how gain drops by a factor of 10 as frequency rises by a
factor of 10.
Power Gain in dB
Gain in dB
Unity gain Bandwidth:
It is defined as that frequency when the Op Amps gain equals to unity. It is denoted by B.
Rise time is defined as the time required for the output voltage to rise from 10% of its final value
to 90% of its final value.
Effect of Open-Loop Gain on Closed-Loop Gain of an Amplifier,

DC Operation
It is necessary to learn how open-loop gain affects the actual closed-loop gain of an
amplifier with dc signal voltages (zero frequency). First, we must define ideal closed-loop gain
of an amplifier as that gain which should be determined only by external resistors. However, the
actual dc closed loop of an amplifier is determined by both the external resistors and open-loop
gain of an op amp.
The actual de closed-loop gain of a noninverting amplifier is,

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If is very large, the denominator of the above equation approaches unity. Then the amplifier
gain will not depend on the open-loop gain of the op amp but rather only on the external resistors
and can be calculated from the feedback only.
The actual dc gain of an inverting amplifier depends on according to,
Figure: Op amp small-signal bandwidth and amplified closed-loop bandwidth

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Slew Rate:
The slew rate of an op amp tells how fast its output voltage can change. For a general purpose op
amp such as the 741, the maximum slew rate is . This means that the output voltage can
change a maximum of in . Slew rate depends on many factors: the amplifier gain,
compensating capacitors, and even whether the output voltage is going positive or negative. The
worst case, or slowest slew rate, occurs at unity gain. Therefore, slew rate is usually specified at
unity gain.
Cause of Slew Rate:
Within general-purpose op amps at least one capacitor is required to prevent oscillation.

Connected to this capacitor is a portion of the op amp's internal circuitry that can furnish a
maximum current that is limited by op amp design. The ratio of this, maximum current I to the
compensating capacitor C is the slew rate. For example, a 741 can furnish a maximum of
to its internal compensating capacitor. Therefore.
Slew rate limiting of sine waves:
In the voltage follower of the figure below, is a sine wave with peak amplitude . The
maximum rate of change of depends on both its frequency f and the peak amplitude. It is
given by . If this rate of change is larger than the op amp's slew rate, the output will be
distorted. That is, output tries to follow Ei but cannot do so because of slew-rate limiting. The
result is distortion, as shown by the triangular shape of in the figure below. The maximum
frequency at which we can obtain an undistorted output voltage with a peak value of is
determined by the slew rate in accordance with,

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Figure: Example of slew-rate limiting of output voltage
The maximum peak sinusoidal output voltage, that can be obtained at a given frequency f
is found from,
Noise in OpAmp Circuit:

Even if there is no external noise, there may be some noise in the output voltage caused by Op
Amp.
To reduce the effects of op amp noise:
1. Capacitor is never connected across the input resistor.
2. Always a small capacitor (3 pF)is connected across the feedback resistor.
3. Large resistor values are avoided.

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Active Filters
A filter is a circuit that is designed to pass a specified band of frequencies while attenuating all
signals outside this band. Filter networks may be either active or passive. Passive filter networks
contain only resistors, inductors, and capacitors. Active jilters, which are the only type covered in
this text, employ transistors or op amps plus resistors, 'inductors, and capacitors. Inductors are
not often used in active filters, because they are bulky and costly and may have large internal
resistive components.
Types of filters:
There are four types of filters:
1. Low-pass filters,
2. High-pass filters,
3. band pass filters
4. band elimination (also referred to as band-reject or notch) filters.
Figure: Frequency response for four categories of filters
Some notations those will be used in this section:

= lower cut off frequency
= higher cut off frequency
= Resonant frequency
= cut off frequency

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Basic Low pass filter:
Figure: Low-pass filter and frequency-response plot for a filter with a -dB/decade roll-off
Design procedure:
1. Cut off frequency or is chosen
2. Capacitance C is taken usually between and
3. R is calculated from the following equation,
Calculation:
Output voltage,
At cut off frequency, when

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low pass Butterworth filter:
Figure: Circuit and frequency plot for a low-pass filter of
It produces a roll-off of ; that is, after the cutoff frequency, the magnitude of
ACL decreases by 40 dB as w increases to .

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Design Procedure:
The design of the low-pass filter of the figure below is greatly simplified by making resistors
.
1. Choose the cutoff frequency, or .
2. Pick C1; choose a convenient value between 100 pF and .
3. Make C2 == 2C1
4. Calculate
5. Choose .
-60 dB/Decade Low Pass Butterworth filter:
Figure: Low-pass filter designed for a roll-off of and corresponding frequency

response plot

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The low-pass filter shown in the figure is built using one low-pass filter of
cascaded with another of to give an overall roll-off of . The
overall closed-loop gain ACL is the gain of the first filter times the gain of the second tilter, or
Design Procedure:
2. Pick choose a convenient value between 0.001 and 0.1 j.LF.
3. Make
and
4. Calculate
5. Make .
6. and . For best results the value of R should be between and
. If the value of R is outside this range, you should go back and pick a new value
of .
High Pass Butterworth Filter:

A high-pass filter is a circuit that attenuates all signals below a specified cutoff frequency and
passes all signals whose frequency is above the cutoff frequency. Thus a high-pass filter
performs the opposite function of the low-pass filter.
Figure: Comparison of frequency response for three high-pass Butterworth filters.

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Filter:
Figure: Basic high-pass filter,
Design procedure for 20-dB/decade high pass filter:
2. Choose a convenient value of C, usually between and .
3. Calculate R from,
Or
4. Choose Rf == R.

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Filter
The circuit of the following figure is to be designed as a high-pass Butterworth filter with a roll-
off of below the cutoff frequency, . To satisfy the Butterworth criteria, the
frequency response must be 0.707 at and be in the pass band. These conditions will be
met if the following design procedure is followed:
Figure: Circuit and frequency response for a 40-dB/decade high-pass Butterworth filter.
Design procedure for high-pass
1. Choose a cutoff frequency, or

2. Let and choose a convenient value.
3. Calculate from,

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4. Select
5. To minimize dc offset, let
Filter:
Similar to low pass filter, a high-pass filter of can be
constructed by cascading a filter with a filter. This
circuit
Figure: Circuit and frequency response for a Butterworth high pass filter
Design procedure for high-pass:

1. Choose the cutoff frequency, or
2. Let and choose a convenient value between and .
3. Calculate from,
4. Select

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5. Select
6. To minimize dc offset, let and .
Introduction to Band Pass Filters

A band pass filter is a frequency selector. It allows one to select or pass only one particular band
of frequencies from all other frequencies that may be present in a circuit. Its normalized
frequency response is shown in the figure below. This type of filter has a maximum gain at a
resonant frequency In this chapter all bandpass filters will have a gain of 1 or at .
There is one frequency below where the gain falls to 0.707. It is the lower cut off frequency,
. At the higher cutofffrequency, , the gain also equals 0.707, as in the figure.
Figure: A bandpass filter has a maximum gain at resonant frequency . The band of frequencies
transmitted lies between and .
Bandwidth
The range of frequencies between and is called bandwidth B, or
The bandwidth is not exactly centered on the resonant frequency. If you know the values for
and the resonant frequency can be found from
If you know the resonant frequency, and bandwidth, B, cutoff frequencies can be found from

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Quality Factor
The quality factor Q is defined as the ratio of resonant frequency to, bandwidth, or
Q is a measure of the bandpass filters selectivity. A high Q indicates that a filter selects a
smaller band of frequencies (more selective).
Narrowband and Wideband Filters

A wideband filter has a bandwidth that is two or more times the resonant frequency. That is,
for wideband filters. In general, wideband filters are made by cascading a lowpass filter
circuit with a high-pass filter circuit. A narrowband filter (Q > 0.5) can usually be made with a
single stage.
Basic Wideband Filter

Cascading
When the output of one circuit is connected in series with the input of a second circuit, the
process is called cascading gain stages. In the figure below, the first stage is a 3000-Hz lowpass
filter. Its output is connected to the input of a 300-Hz high-pass filter. The cascaded pair of
active filters now form a bandpass filter from input to output . Note that it makes no
difference if the high-pass filter is connected to the low-pass, or vice versa. Note:, Each op amp
circuit shown in the figure has unity gain.
Wideband Filter Circuit
In general, a wideband filter is made by cascading a low-and a high-pass filter.

Cutoff frequencies of the low-and high-pass sections must not overlap, and each must have the
same passband gain. Furthermore, the low-pass filter's cutoff frequency must be 10 or more
times the high-pass filter's cutoff frequency.
For cascaded low-and high-pass filters, the resulting wideband filter will have the following
characteristics:
1. The lower cutoff frequency, will be determined only by the high-pass filter.
2. The high cutoff frequency, will be set only by the low-pass filter.
3. Gain will be maximum at resonant frequency, and equal to the passband gain of either
filter.

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Frequency Response
Figure: A 3000-Hz second-order low-pass filter is cascaded with a 3OG-Hz high-pass filter to
form a 300-to 3000-Hz bandpass voice filter.
In the following figure, the frequency response of a basic low-pass

filter is plotted as a dashed line. The frequency response of a high-pass filter is plotted
as a solid line. The roll-off of the high-pass filter is seen to determine . The
roll-off of the low-pass sets . Both roll-off curves make up the frequency
response of the bandpass filter, versus .

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Narrowband Bandpass Filters
Narrowband filters exhibit the typical frequency response shown in the figure below. The
analysis and construction of narrowband filters is considerably simplified if we specify that the
narrowband filter will have a maximum gain of 1 or 0 dB at the resonant frequency .
Figure: Narrow bandpass filter circuit and its frequency response for the component values
shown; and . (a) Typical
frequency response of a bandpass filter; (b) narrow bandpass filter circuit.

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Notch Filter
The notch or band-reject filter is named for the characteristic shape of its frequency response
curve in the following figure. Unwanted frequencies are attenuated in the stopband B. The
desired frequencies are transmitted in the passband that lies on either side of the notch. Notch
filters usually have a passband gain of unity or 0 dB. The equations for and are
identical to those of its associated bandpass filter.
Figure: A notch filter transmits frequencies in the passband and rejects undesired frequencies in
the stopband.
Notch Filter Theory

As shown in the following figure, a notch filter is made by subtracting the output of a bandpass
filter from the original signal. For frequencies in the notch filter's passband, the output of the
bandpass filter section approaches zero. Therefore, input is transmitted via adder input resistor
to drive to a value equal to . Thus in both lower and upper passbands of the
notch filter.
Suppose that the frequency of is adjusted to resonant frequency of the narrow bandpass
filter component. (Note: of the bandpass sets the notch frequency.) will exit from the
bandpass as and then is inverted by and to drive to . However, is transmitted
via to drive to . Thus responds to both inputs of the adder and becomes
at .
In practice, approaches zero only at . The depth of the notch depends on how closely the
resistors and capacitors are matched in the bandpass tilter and judicious fine adjustment of
resistor at the inverting adder's onput. This procedure is explained in.

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Figure: A notch filter is made by a circuit that subtracts the output of a bandpass filter from the
original signal

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Symbol and Pin Diagram of Op-Amp

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Op-Amp

Symbol and pin diagram of Op-Amp (741):

Figure: Symbol and pin diagram of Op-Amp

Generally +15V is supplied at 7 & -15V is supplied at 4.

Prepared by: Md. Raj Masud, Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, AIUB.

Figure: Ideal OpAmp

Power supply terminals:

Figure: Power Supply Teminal

Prepared by: Md. Raj Masud, Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, AIUB.

Input terminals (2 & 3):

Input bias current & input bias voltage:

Differential input voltage,

Prepared by: Md. Raj Masud, Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, AIUB.

1. Non-inverting zero crossing detector:

2. Inverting zero crossing detector:

Prepared by: Md. Raj Masud, Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, AIUB.

Prepared by: Md. Raj Masud, Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, AIUB.

Prepared by: Md. Raj Masud, Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, AIUB.

Figure: Inverting Amplifier

Gain equation of an inverting amplifier:

i. The voltage between and input is essentially zero.

From the figure,

Prepared by: Md. Raj Masud, Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, AIUB.

Figure: Inverting Adder

Use of inverting adder:

Figure: Non-Inverting Amplifier

Prepared by: Md. Raj Masud, Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, AIUB.

Figure: Voltage follower.

Application of voltage follower:

Prepared by: Md. Raj Masud, Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, AIUB.

Prepared by: Md. Raj Masud, Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, AIUB.

Here is the number of sources to be added.

The Differential Amplifier (subtractor):

Figure: An inverting amplifier and a two-input inverting adder makes a subtractor.

Prepared by: Md. Raj Masud, Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, AIUB.

Prepared by: Md. Raj Masud, Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, AIUB.

Figure: Basic Differential Amplifier

So, applying superposition, we get,

Disadvantage of Basic Differential Amplifier:

1. It has low input resistance

Prepared by: Md. Raj Masud, Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, AIUB.

Figure: Buffered differential-input to differential-output amplifier

Figure: Buffered differential-input to differential-output amplifier with adjustable gain

Prepared by: Md. Raj Masud, Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, AIUB.

The Instrumentation Amplifier:

Figure: Basic instrumentation amplifier model

Characteristics of the instrumentation amplifier are summarized as follows:

Prepared by: Md. Raj Masud, Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, AIUB.

Therefore, differential input voltage,

So, the output of the amplifier is,

Prepared by: Md. Raj Masud, Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, AIUB.

If frequency increases, decreases as a result, increases.

Advantages of integrator over differentiator:

Prepared by: Md. Raj Masud, Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, AIUB.

Prepared by: Md. Raj Masud, Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, AIUB.

If frequency increases, decreases as a result, decreases.

1. If is in equilibrium, what is in equilibrium?

Figure: exhibits a delayed response to a change of in this servoamplifier circuit.

Prepared by: Md. Raj Masud, Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, AIUB.

We analyze the circuit behavior of the circuit at equilibrium as follows:

Solution From the above two equations,

Example 2: If is abruptly stepped to , find the new equilibrium voltages.

Prepared by: Md. Raj Masud, Lecturer, Faculty of Engineering, AIUB.