Jan. 18, 1966 G. M.

GROVER I 3,229,759
EVAPORATION-CONDENSATION HEAT TRANSFER DEVICE
Filed Dec. 2, 1963 2 Sheets-Sheet 1

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0 1o 20 so 40 50 so 70 so so INVENTOR
DISTANCE (CM) George M. Grover
Jan. 18, 1966 G. M. GROVER 3,229,759
EVAFORATION-CONDENSATION HEAT TRANSFER DEVICE
Filed Dec. 2, 1963 2 Sheets-Sheet 2

Fig. 3

INVENTOR.
George M. Grover
BY

%...(.4../m
4% A
 United States Patent 0 m:1 cc 3,229,759
Patented Jan. 18, 1966

1 2
FIGURE 3 is a cross section of an embodiment of the
3,229,759 invention wherein the capillary material covers the entire
iEVAPORATION-CONDENSATIGN HEAT inner surface of the container except for a portion of the
TRANSFER DEVltCE condensing region.
George M. Grover, Los Alamos, N. Mex., assignor to the
United States of America as represented by the United 5 The principle of operation of a heat pipe is shown
States Atomic Energy Commission schematically in FIGURE 1. The wick is saturated with
Filed Dec. 2, 1963, Ser. No. 327,559 a Wetting liquid. In the steady state, the liquid tempera
3 Claims. (Cl. 165-105) ture in the evaporator is slightly higher than in the con
denser region. The resulting difference in vapor pressure,
This invention relates to structures of very high ther 10 P2P1>O, drives the vapor from evaporator region 1 to
mal conductance and, more particularly, to devices for condenser region 2. The depletion of liquid by evapora
the transfer of a large amount of heat with a small tem tion causes the vapor-liquid interface in the evaporator to
perature drop, thereby being equivalent to a material retreat into the wick surface where the typical meniscus
having a thermal conductivity exceeding that of any has a radius of curvature, r2, equal to, or greater than, the
known metal by a very large factor. The invention de largest capillary pore radius. The capillary represented
scribed herein was made in the course of, or under, a con in the drawing as a wire mesh is shown at 3. The pres
tract with the US. Atomic Energy Commission. sure in the adjacent liquid will then be P2 (27 cos 0) /r2,
It is a desirable objective in substantially all heat trans where 7 is the surface tension and 0 the contact angle.
fer. applications to transfer a maximum amount of heat In the condenser the typical meniscus assumes a radius, r1,
with a minimum temperature drop. For example, if 20 which cannot exceed some relatively large radius deter
,rheatis to be transferred by radiation, it is desirable that mined by the geometry of the pipe. The pressure in the
the temperature at this place be as high as possible since condenser liquid is then, P1(2'y cos 0)/r1. The pres
therate of emission of radiant energy from the surface sure drop available to drive the liquid through the wick
of abody is a function of the temperature to the fourth from the condenser to the evaporator against the viscous
,power. 25 retarding force is
The evaporation of a liquid, transport of the vapor
through a duct, and subsequent condensation is a well
known method for the transfer of a large amount of heat where p is the liquid density, g the acceleration of gravity,
with a small temperature drop. In order to work con and k2 and hl the heights of the liquid surfaces above a
tinuously, the condensate must be returned to the evapo 30 "reference level. This pressure drop may be made posi
rator. Ordinarily this is done by gravity or with a pump. tive by choosing the capillary pore size sufficiently small.
The present invention is a device in which this func~ The above equation can be solved for r2 since the term
rtion is accomplished by a wick of suitable capillary struc 1/11 is so small as to be negligible. The pore radius of
ture. Devices of this general class will hereinafter be re the capillary material should then be selected to be smaller
ferred to as heat pipes, although it should be kept in 35 than 1'2. Care should be taken to not make the pore ra
mind that the shape of the device is not a matter for con dius too much smaller than r2 since for very small pores
cern. Within certain limitations on the manner of use, the increased viscous drag would interfere with the capil
a heat pipe may be regarded as a synergistic engineering lary return. It should be particularly'noted that the pos
structure which is equivalent to a material having a ther sible case, g=0 (existent in gravity-free conditions such
mal conductivity greatly exceeding that of any known as space applications), is not excluded. Heat pipes will
metal. work under gravity-free conditions and even, to some ex
Accordingly, the invention is a heat transfer device tent, in opposition to gravity.
comprising a container, said container enclosing a con Water was used as working ?uid in an initial qualitative
densable vapor and capillary means within the container experiment. A porous Alundum tube, 1' OD, 1%"
capable of causing the transport of the condensed vapor I.D., and 12" long was inserted into a close-?ttingPyrex
from a cooler area of the container to a hotter area. The 45 tube. Enough water was added to saturate this wick and
transport of the vapor through the container uses, as the provide a small excess. The pressure in the tube was re
driving force, the difference in vapor pressures in the duced by pumping at room temperature until the resulting
high temperature zone and cold temperature zone. The boiling swept out all but water vapor from the central gas
liquid which condenses in the cold zone is returned to the space. The tube was then sealed off. An evacuated blank
evaporation zone by capillary action. The forces to 50 of identical structure containing no water was also pre
move ?uids by capillary action are, of course, derived by pared. The heat pipe and the blank were arranged ver
the system attempting to arrive at a minimum free energy tically side by side. Within a few minutes of the be
con?guration, ginning of heating of the top few inches of the two tubes
It is an object of this invention to provide heat transfer with an infrared lamp, the bottom of the heat pipe became
devices having thermal conductivities exceeding that of 55 and remained uncomfortably hot to the touch, while the
any known metal by a very large factor. bottom of the blank continued to stay nearly at room
It is a further object of this invention to transfer a rela temperature.
tively large quantity of heat with an exceedingly low tem In order to explore the qualitative potentialities fur
perature gradient. ther, a liquid sodium heat pipe was made for operation
It is another object of this invention to provide heat at about 1100 K. The containing tube was made of 347
transfer devices which will accomplish the above 0b stainless steel, 3%" GD, 5/8" I.D., and 12" long, with
jectives under gravity-free conditions. welded end-caps. The wick was made of 100-mesh 304
The above-mentioned and other features and objec stainless steel screen with 0.005" diameter wires. This
tives of this invention will become more apparent by ref was formed in a spiral of ?ve layers and ?tted closely
erence to the following description taken in conjunction 65 against the inner wall of the tube, leaving an ID. of 1/2".
with the accompanying drawings in which: The pipe was loaded with 15 grams of solid sodium,
FIGURE 1 is a schematic diagram of the principle of evacuated to about 10*5 mm. Hg and sealed. When the
operation of a heat pipe. top third of the pipe is heated by induction, the remark
FIGURE 2 represents the temperature pro?les of a ably ef?cient heat transfer caused the heat pipe to be
heat pipe representing the steady state temperatures meas 70 luminous almost to the cold end of the pipe. The 111
ured at a number of input power levels. minous zone in the heat pipe terminates before reaching
 3,229,759
3 4
the bottom due to the relatively low thermal conductivity walls of the pipe to provide a capillary flow return path
of the liquid sodium sump. allowed proper operation of this heat pipe. Tantalum and
A second sodium heat pipe was made similar in all silver do not form alloys and this combination of materials
respects to the ?rst except that the length was increased would be useful at temperatures of about 2000 C. A
to 36". The sodium charge was increased to 40 grams. heat pipe of tantalum with a tantalum screen and with
This heat pipe was placed in a vacuum chamber and about silver as the working ?uid has been operated for short
5 at one end was heated by electron bombardment from times at 1700" C. The lifetime at this operating tempera
a concentric spiral ?lament. The data of FIGURE 2 ture has not been established. It should be noted that a
were obtained after the pipe had been vacuum-baked at range of temperatures for each coolant is possible by op
1070 K. for two days. The vacuum baking, when using 10 erating at various pressures inside the container. A range
sodium as a coolant, is rather important owing to the of temperatures would accordingly give a range of vapor
fact that hydrogen is an impurity in sodium metal. Hy pressures and heat transfer rates. The theoretical upper
drogen is liberated in the reversible reaction limit of temperature is the critical temperature of the
circulating ?uid since at that temperature the surface ten
NaH>Na+%H2 AH398~14 kcal. 'sion' goes to zero. I " ' " " ' ' '

It should also be noted that the shape of the device

The hydrogen is swept to the unheated end of the pipe by is a matter of discretion. Hollow plates, rods, etc., are
the re?uxing sodium vapor. Consequently, in the hydro equally adaptable to the present inventive concept. Fur
gen region the heat ?ux is accomplished by ordinary ther thermore, there is no requirement that the pipe be heated
mal conduction, mainly by the container wall and the sat 20 at one end and condense at the other. For example, the
urated wick. This results in a rapidly decreasing tem pipe may be heated somewhere along its length and con
perature pro?le along the heat pipe. Under the vacuum dense at both ends. Capillary material should be present
baking conditions, hydrogen diffuses fairly readily through at the point at which the heat transfer pipe is to be heated.
stainless steel. However, even after baking for two days, However, it is not necessary that the capillary material
there appears to be about 5 X 10-6 mole of hydrogen pres 25 cover the entire condensing region, only that the capil
ent at 100 watts, when the average temperature is near lary material extend into the condenser region. This con?
500 K., increasing to 20><106 mole at 600 watts, when struction is shown in FIGURE 3 wherein 1 represents
the average temperature is about 850 K. This is roughly the evaporator region and the condenser region is shown
consistent with the heat of reaction cited. Residual hy at 2. The material comprising the capillary path is a
drogen occupies a volume determined jointly by the pres 30 matter of complete discretion. For example, glass frit,
sure of the sodium vapor in the re?uxing section, and wire mesh, tubes, etc., may be utilized; the only require
some average temperature in the non-re?uxing section. ment being that the pore size be suf?ciently small to pro
In FIGURE 2, which is a plot of the steady state tem duce capillary action. Since capillary action is utilized
peratures measured at a number of input power levels to return the liquid from condenser to evaporator regions,
versus the distances along the heat pipe, the region of 35 the heat pipe will work under gravity-free conditions and
rapidly decreasing temperature is caused by the presence even, to some extent, against the force of gravity.
of hydrogen gas. The temperature plateaus extending Since many changes can be made in the construction of
out from the heat region are of principal interest. This a heat pipe (some of which are mentioned above) and
is the re?uxing region. The method of measurement (?ve many apparent widely di?erent embodiments of this in
chromel-alumel thermocouples welded at intervals along 40 vention could be made without departing from the scope
the 36 pipe) was not precise enough to detect the minute thereof, it is intended that all matter contained in the
temperature gradients but they do not exceed 0.05 above description or shown in the accompanying draw
K./ cm. In the re?uxing region the heat pipe is behaving ings shall be interpreted as illustrative and not in a limit
in a manner equivalent to a solid bar of material having ing sense. The invention should therefore, be limited
a thermal conductivity in excess of 103 cal./sec.-cm.- K. 45 only by the following appended claims.
A calculation, based on a detailed dynamic model of the What is claimed is:
heat pipe which will not be elaborated here, indicates 1. A heat transfer device comprising a container having
that the actual temperature gradients are at least an order condenser and evaporator regions composed of niobium
of magnitude less than this upper limit. l% zirconium alloy, said container enclosing a condens
Attempts to deliver more than 30 watts/cm.2 through 50 able vapor consisting of lithium, capillary means, said
the surface of the heated section of the pipe resulted in capillary means covering the entire inner surface of the
the appearance of local overheated areas due either to container except for a portion of the condensing region,
deformation or drying of the wick. This phenomenon is the quantity of condensable vapor present being just su?i
probably a signi?cant limitation on the operation of heat cient to saturate the capillary means when condensed and
pipes. 55 provide a small excess, said capillary means capable of
Obviously, when using a coolant which does not have causing the transport of the condensed vapor from the
as an impurity a gas which is non-condensable at the cooler area of the container tokthe hotter area.
temperatures of interest, the non-re?ux region of rapidly 2. A heat transfer device comprising a container having
decreasing temperatures will not be present. The use of condenser and evaporator regions composed of niobium
sodium as a coolant may also be disadvantageous in that 60 1% zirconium alloy, the exterior portion of said contain
the corrosive sodium may, after extensive operation, dis er being smooth and said container enclosing a condens
solve the container at the place of condensation and de able vapor consisting of lithium, capillary means, said
posit the container metal at the place of evaporation. capillary means covering the entire inner surface of the
Lithium coolant in a niobium-1% zirconium alloy would container except for a portion of the condensing region,
be advantageous at temperatures of about 1100 C. Lith 65 the quantity of condensable vapor present being just suffi
ium possesses another advantage in that its heat of vapor cient to saturate the capillary means when condensed and
ization is approximately 5000 caL/gram as compared to provides a small excess, said capillary means capable of
about 1000 cal/gram for sodium and about 500 cal./ causing the transport of the condensed vapor from the
gram for water. An experiment was carried out using cooler area of the container to the hotter area.
lithium in niobium-1% zirconium alloy without a capil 3. A heat transfer device comprising a container having
lary path. The bottom portion of the pipe was immersed condenser and evaporator regions composed of niobium
in a heat source. After proper operation for a short time 1% zirconium alloy, the exterior portion of said con
the heat transfer rate went down very sharply. This was tainer being smooth, said container enclosing a condens
found to be due to the accumulation of lithium at the top able vapor consisting of lithium, capillary means, said
of the pipe. The addition of a screen mesh along the inner 75 capillary means covering the entire inner surface of the
 3,229,759
5 6
container except for a portion of the condensing region, References Cited by the Examiner
the quantity of condensable vapor present being just su?i
cient to saturate the capillary means when condensed and UNITED STATES PATENTS
provide a small excess, the pore radius of the capillary 2,350,348 6/1944 Gaugler __________ __ 6256 X
material being slightly smaller than r2, r2 being de?ned 2,394,698 2/1946 Kuenhold ________ __ 261-104
by making the expression 2,517,654 8/1950 Gaugler ________ __ 26 1-~1 04 X

2'Y(1/l'2)0S 9(P2P1)~Pg(h2h1) 2,958,021 10/1960 Cornelison et al. ___ 165105 X

3,043,573 7/1962 Chandler _______ __ 261-404 X
slightly positive, Where p is the liquid density, g the accel 3,089,318 5/1963 Hebeler __________ __ 165-134
eration of gravity, b2 and 121 the heights of liquid sur 3,152,774 10/1964 Wyatt _____________ __ 2441
faces in the evaporator and condenser regions above a 10
reference level, 7 is the surface tension, 0 the contact ROBERT A. OLEARY, Primary Examiner.
angle, P2 and P1 are the vapor pressures in the evaporator CHARLES SUKALO, Examiner.
and condenser regions, and r2 the radius of curvature of
a meniscus in the capillary located at the evaporator 15 N'R'WHSONAsslSmm Exammer'
region.