1

THE QUADRUPOLE FORMALISM

APPLIED TO BINARY SYSTEMS

Valeria Ferrari, Sapienza, Universita di Roma

VESF School, Sesto val Pusteria, July 2010.

 2

Solving Einsteins equations in the weak field, slow motion approximation.

How to project the solution in the T T -gauge.

A simple example: radiation emitted by a harmonic oscillator.

Gravitational radiation emitted by a binary system in circular orbit.

The Binary pulsar PSR 1931+16 and the double pulsar PSR J0737-3039.

The gravitational wave energy flux.

Gravitational wave luminosity of a binary system.

Orbital evolution of a binary system due to gravitational wave emission: period varia-
tion, wave amplitude, the signal phase.
 3

How to estimate the GW-signal emitted by an evolving system:

THE QUADRUPOLE FORMALISM

g = + h |h | << 1

in a suitable gauge Einsteins equations become

1
2F h (t, xi ) = K T (t, xi ), h = h h.
2
h i
1 2 2 16G
where 2F = c2 t2 + and K = c4

Fourier-expand T and h
Z +
i
T (t, x ) = T (, xi )eit d,

Z +
h (t, xi ) = h (, xi)eit d, i = 1, 3

R
2F and operators commute and the wave equation becomes
Z + Z +
2F h (, xi )eit d = K T (, xi )eit d,
 

i.e. + Z +
2
Z  
2 i it
+ 2 h (, x )e d = K T (, xi)eit d,
c

this equation can be solved for each assigned value of the frequency:

2
 
+ 2 h (, xi ) = KT (, xi )
2
c

SLOW-MOTION APPROXIMATION

We shall solve the wave equation

2
 
2
+ 2 h (, xi ) = KT (, xi )
c

assuming that the region where the source is confined

|xi | , T 6= 0,

2c
is much smaller than the wavelenght of the emitted radiation GW =
.
2c
>> << c v << c

 4

The wave equation will be solved inside and outside the source, and the two solutions will
be matched on the source boundary

Let us first integrate the equations OUTSIDE the source

2
 
2
+ 2 h (, xi) = 0
c

In polar coordinates, the Laplacian operator is

2
   
2 1 2 1 1
= 2 r + 2 sen + 2
r r r r sen r sen 2 2

The simplest solution does not depend on and

A () i r Z () i r
h (, r) = ec + e c ,
r r

This solution represents a spherical wave, with an ingoing part ( ei c r ), and an outgoing (

ei c r ) part.

Since we are interested only in the wave emitted from the source, we set Z = 0, and
the solution becomes

A () i r
h (, r) = ec
r

This is the solution outside the source, and on its boundary x =

How do we find A ()?

To answer this question we need to integrate the equations inside the source

INSIDE THE SOURCE

2
 
+ 2 h (, xi ) = KT (, xi )
2
(1)
c

This equation can be solved for each assigned value of the indices , .

Let us integrate each term over the source volume V

2
Z   Z
2 i 3
A) + 2 h (, x )d x = K T (, xi)d3 x
V c V
 5

Z Z
1) 2 3
h d x = ~ h ] d3 x
div[
V V
 
d
Zh ik
= ~
h dSk 4 2
h
S dr r=
 
d A () i r
= 4 2 ec
dr r r=
   
2 A i r A i i
r
= 4 2 ec + ec 4 A ()
r r c r=

neglecting all terms of order

Z
2 h (, xi ) d3 x 4 A ()
V

Eq. A) now becomes

2
Z Z
4 A () + h (, xi ) d3 x = K T (, xi ) d3 x
V c2 V
2 2
4
Z
2
h (, xi) d3 x . 2 |h |max 3 negligible
V c c 3

The final solution inside the source gives

16G
Z
4A () = K T (, xi ) d3 x K=
V c4
K 4G
Z Z
i 3
A () = T (, x ) d x = 4 T (, xi ) d3 x
4 V c V

SUMMARIZING:
By integrating the wave equation outside the source we find
A () i r
h (, r) = ec
r
by integrating over the source volume we find
4G
Z
A () = 4 T (, xi) d3 x,
c V
therefore
r
4G ei c
Z
h (, r) = 4 T (, xi ) d3 x,
c r V
r i
or, in terms of the outgoing coordinate (t c
,x )

4G r
Z
h (t, r) = 4 T (t , xi ) d3 x, . (2)
c r V c
 6

This integral can be further simplified

NOTE THAT:
1) We still have to project onto the TT-gauge
2) By this approach we obtain an order of magnitude estimate of the emitted ra-
diation

We shall now simplify the integral over T in eq. (2).

We are in flat spacetime, therefore

1 0
T = 0, T = k T k , k = 1, 3
x c t x
Integrate over the source volume:
1 0 3 k 3
Z Z
T d x= k
T d x;
V c t V x

Apply Gausss theorem to the R.H.S.

k 3
Z Z
k
T d x= T k dSk
V x S

where S is the surface which encloses

Z V.
k
On S, T = 0, therefore T dSk = 0, and
S

1
Z
T 0 d3 x = 0,
c t V

i.e. Z
T 0 d3 x = const, h0 = const.
V

Since we are interested in the time-dependent part of the field, we put

h0 (t, r) = h0 (t, r) = 0;

(this condition is automatically satisfied when transforming to the TT-gauge) To simplify the
space components of h :

4G r
Z
hik (t, r) = 4 Tik (t , xi ) d3 x, i, k = 1, 3
cr V c

we shall use the Tensor-Virial Theorem

 7

Tensor-Virial Theorem
Let us consider the space components of the conservation low
T 1 T n0 T ni
=0 1) + = 0, n, i = 1, 3
x c t xi

multiply 1) by xk and integrate over the volume

1 T ni k 3
Z Z
n0 k 3
T x dx = x dx
c t V V xi
"Z
#
T ni xk k
xk
 
x
Z
= dx3 T ni dx3 = ik
V xi V x i xi
Z Z
T ni xk dSi + T nk dx3


=
S V
Z
T ni xk


as before, dSi = 0, therefore
S
1
Z Z
n0 k 3
T x dx = T nk dx3
c t V V

Since T nk is symmetric in n and k,

1
Z Z
k0 n 3
T x dx = T kn dx3
c t V V

and adding the two we get

1
Z Z
n0 k k0 n 3
T nk dx3 .


T x +T x dx =
2c t V V

We shall now use the 0- component of the conservation low:

T 0 1 T 00 T 0i
=0 2) + =0
x c t xi

multiply 2) by xk xn and integrate

1 T 0i k n 3
Z Z
00 k n 3
T x x dx = x x dx
c t V V xi
"Z #
T 0i xk xn

Z  k n

x x
= i
dx3 T 0i i
xn + T 0i xk i
dx3
V x V x x
Z Z
T 0i xk xn dSi + T 0k xn + T 0n xk dx3



=
S V

as before, the first integral vanishes, and

1
Z Z
00 k n 3
T 0k xn + T 0n xk dx3 .


T x x dx =
c t V V
 8

Let us differenciate with respect to x0 = ct:

1 2 1
Z Z
00 k n 3
T 0k xn + T 0n xk dx3


T x x dx =
c2 t2 V c t V

and since we just found

1
Z Z
n0 k k0 n 3
T nk dx3 ,


T x +T x dx =
2c t V V

finally
******************************************************************
1 2
Z Z
kn 3
2 T dx = 2 2 T 00 xk xn dx3
V c t V

******************************************************************
1
Z
The quantity 2 T 00 xk xn dx3 is the Quadrupole Moment Tensor of the system
c V
1
Z
kn
q (t) = 2 T 00 (t, xi ) xk xn dx3 , (3)
c V

and it is a function of time only. In conclusion

1 d2 kn
Z
T kn (t, xi ) dx3 = q (t)
V 2 dt2
and since
4G r
Z
kn
h (t, r) = 4 T kn (t , xi ) d3 x,
cr V c

we finally find



h0 = 0, = 0, 3

 2  (4)
kn 2G d kn r
h (t, r) = 4 q (t ) , k, n = 1, 3


c r dt2 c

This is the gravitational wave emitted by a mass-energy system evolving in time

NOTE THAT
1) G4 8 1050 s/g cm GW are extremely weak!
c
2) We are not yet in the TT-gauge

3) these equations are derived on very strong assumptions: one is that T , = 0,

i.e. the motion of the bodies is dominated by non-gravitational forces. However, and remark-
ably, the result depends only on the sources motion and not on the forces acting on them.
Gravitational radiation has a quadrupolar nature.
 9

A system of accelerated charged particles has a time-varying dipole moment

d~EM =
X
qi~ri
i

and it will emit dipole radiation, the flux of which depends on the second time derivative of
d~EM .
For an isolated system of masses we can define a gravitational dipole moment

d~G =
X
mi~ri ,
i

which satisfies the conservation law of the total momentum of an isolated system
d~
dG = 0.
dt
For this reason, gravitational waves do not have a dipole contribution.

It should be stressed that for a spherical or axisymmetric distribution of matter (or en-
ergy) the quadrupole moment is a constant, even if the body is rotating: thus, a spherical or
axisymmetric star does not emit gravitational waves;
similarly, a star which collapses in a perfectly spherically symmetric way has a vanishing q ik
and does not emit gravitational waves.
To produce waves we need a certain degree of asymmetry, as it occurs for instance
in the non-radial pulsations of stars, in a non spherical gravitational collapse, in
the coalescence of massive bodies etc.
 10

HOW TO SWITCH TO THE TT-GAUGE

h0 = 0, = 0, 3

 2 
ik 2G d ik r
h (t, r) = 4 q (t )


c r dt2 c

r 1 r
Z
ik
q ((t )) = 2 T 00 ((t ), xn ) xi xk dx3
c c V c

we shall make an infinithesimal coordinate transformation

x = x +
which does not spoil the harmonic gauge condition g = 0, i.e. choosing such that
2F = 0, and imposing that

ik hT T ik = 0, i, k = 1, 3 vanishing trace
ni hT T ik = 0 trasverse wave condition

where
~x
~n =
r
is the unit vector normal to the wavefront.

How to do it:
As a first thing we define the operator which projects a vector onto the plane orthogonal to the
direction of ~n:
Pjk jk nj nk . (5)

Pjk is symmetric, it is a projector, because

Pjk Pkl = Pjl ,

and it is transverse:
nj Pjk = 0.
Next, we define the transverse-traceless projector

Pjkmn PjmPkn 21 Pjk Pmn , (6)

 
0
which extracts the transverse-traceless part of a tensor. We want to compute
2

hT T jk = (Ph)jk = Pjklmhlm . (7)

It is easy to check that Pjkmn satisfies the following properties

 11

- it is a projector, i.e.
Pjkmn Pmnrs = Pjkrs ;
- it is transverse, i.e.

nj Pjkmn = nk Pjkmn = nm Pjkmn = nn Pjkmn = 0 ;

- it is traceless, i.e.
jk Pjkmn = mn Pjkmn = 0 . (8)

It is worth mentioning that

hTjkT = Pjkmn hmn = Pjkmn hmn ,

indeed, since h = h 21 h
hjk and hjk differ only by the trace, which is projected out by P because of (8). By applying
the projector to hjk given in eq. (4) we find



hT T 0 = 0, = 0, 3

 2 
T T ik 2G d T T ik r
h (t, r) = 4 q (t )


c r dt2 c

where q T T ij is the quadrupole moment of the source projected in the TT-gauge, i.e. it is the
Transverse-Traceless quadrupole moment

qijT T = Pijlm qlm

Sometimes is useful to define the reduced quadrupole moment

1
Qij = qij ij q k k
3

the trace of which is zero by definition, and consequently

QTijT = Pijlm Qlm = Pijlm qlm

 12

Waves emitted by a harmonic oscillator

We shall now compute the GW-radiation emitted by a harmonic oscillator composed of two
masses m, oscillating at a frequency with amplitude A.
(
y x1 = 12 l0 A cos t
x2 = + 12 l0 + A cos t
Let us compute the quadrupole moment
q ik (t) = c12 V T 00 (t, xn ) xi xk dx3
R

2
X
00
x T = cp0 (x xn ) (y) (z)
z n=1

since v << c, 1 p0 = mc, therefore

1
Z
xx
q = qxx = 2 m1 c2 (x x1 ) x2 dx (y) dy (z) dz
c V
1
Z
+ 2 m2 c2 (x x2 ) x2 dx (y) dy (z) dz
c V
 
 2 2
 1 2 2 2
= m x1 + x2 = m l0 + 2A cos t + 2Al0 cos t
2

= m cost + A2 cos 2t + 2Al0 cos t

 

(cos2 = 2 cos2 1)

1
Z
yy
q = 2 m1 c2 (x x1 ) dx y 2 (y) dy (z) dz
c V
1
Z
+ 2 m2 c2 (x x2 ) dx y 2 (y) dy (z) dz
c V
Z
since y 2 (y) dy = 0, qyy = 0;
V
in a similar way, since the motion is confined on the x-axis, the remaining compo-
nents of qij vanish.

We now want to compute the wave emerging in the z-direction

In this case ~n = ~xr (0, 0, 1) and

1 0 0
Pjk = jk nj nk = 0 1 0
0 0 0

hT T 0 = 0, = 0, 3

 2 
TT 2G d TT z
h jk (t, z) = 4 q (t )


c z dt2 jk c
 13

where
TT 1
qjk (t) = Pjklm qlm (t) = (Pjl Pkm Pjk Plm )qlm (t) .
2
Since the only non-vanishing component of qij is qxx , we find
   
TT 1 1
q jk = Pjx Pkx Pjk Pxx qxx = Pjx Pkx Pjk qxx
2 2

therefore  
TT 1 2 1
q xx = Pxx Pxx Pxx qxx = qxx
2 2
 
TT 1 1
q yy = Pyx Pyx Pyy qxx = qxx ;
2 2
 
1
q T T xy = Pxy Pyx Pxy qxx = 0
2

similarly, the remaining components q T T zz , q T T zx , q T T zy can be shown to vanish The wave which
travels along z therefore is



hT T 0 = 0, hT T xy = 0, hT T zi = 0,



TT TT G d2 z
h xx = h yy = 4 2
qxx (t ),
c z dt c

Since
qxx (t) = m cost + A2 cos 2t + 2Al0 cos t
 

the only non vanishing components of the wave traveling along z are

hT T xx = hT T yy =
Gm d2 h 2 z z i
cost + A cos 2(t ) + 2Al0 cos (t )
c4 z dt2 c c
Gm 2 h 2 z z i
= 4 4A cos 2(t ) + 2Al0 cos (t )
c z c c
If, for instance, we consider two masses m = 103 kg, with l0 = 1 m, A = 104 m, and = 104 Hz:

TT Gm 2 z 1035
h 2 4 Al0 cos (t ) !!!
c z c r

in conclusion
1) the radiation emitted along z is linearly polarized

2) because of symmetry, the wave emitted along y will be the same

3) to find the wave emitted along x, change

z x, y z, xy
you will find no radiation
 14

GW-emission by a binary system in circular orbit (far from coalescence)

orbital separation l0
y
total mass M m1 + m2

m1 m2
reduced mass M
.
m1

r1

Let us consider a coordinate frame with origin coinci-

1111
0000
0000
1111
r2 x
dent with the center of mass
0000
1111
m2
l0 = r1 + r2 , r1 m1 + r2 m2 = 0
m2 l0 m1 l0
r1 = , r2 = .
M M

The orbital frequency K can be found from Keplers law: for each mass
m1 m2 m2 l0 m1 m2 m1 l0
G 2
= m1 K 2 , G 2
= m2 K 2
l0 M l0 M
i.e. s
GM
K =
l03

The equations of motion are

m2 m1
x1 = M l0 cos K t
x2 = M l0 cos K t

m2
y2 = m

y1 = l sin K t 1
l sin K t

M 0 M 0

Let us compute

1
R
q ik (t) = c2 V
T 00 (t, xn ) xi xk dx3
where
2
X
T 00 = mn c2 (x xn ) (y yn ) (z)
n=1

Z
qzz = m1 (x x1 ) dx (y y1 ) dy z 2 (z) dz
ZV
+ m2 (x x2 ) dx (y y2 ) dy z 2 (z) dz = 0,
V
Z
since z 2 (z) dz = 0.
V
 15

Z
qxx = m1 x2 (x x1 ) dx (y y1 ) dy (z) dz
ZV
+ m2 x2 (x x2 ) dx (y y2 ) dy (z) dz
V
= m1 x21 + m2 x22
2
= l02 cos2 K t = l cos 2K t + cost
2 0
(cos 2 = 2 cos2 1). Computing the remaining components in a similar way, we find
2
qxx = l cos 2K t + cost
2 0

qyy = l02 cos 2K t + cost1
2
2
qxy = l sin 2K t .
2 0
therefore, the time-varying part of qij is:
2 2
qxx = qyy = l cos 2K t qxy = l sin 2K t
2 0 2 0

waves are emitted at twice the orbital frequency.

~
x
Let us compute the wave emerging in the z-direction: ~n = r
(0, 0, 1) and

1 0 0
Pjk = jk nj nk = 0
1 0
0 0 0



hT T 0 = 0, = 0, 3

 2 
T T ik 2G d TT ik z
h (t, z) = 4 q (t )


cz dt2 c
where  
TT 1
q jk = Pjkmn qmn = Pjm Pkn Pjk Pmn qmn
2
The non-vanishing components are qxx , qyy and qxy ,

 
TT 1
q xx = Pxm Pxn Pxx Pmn qmn
2
 
1 2 1 1
= Pxx Pxx Pxx qxx Pxx Pyy qyy = (qxx qyy )
2 2 2

 
TT 1 1
q yy = Pym Pyn Pyy Pmn qmn = (qxx qyy )
2 2
 
1
q T T xy = Pxm Pyn Pxy Pmn qmn = Pxx Pyy qxy = qxy
2
 16

and the remaining components vanish.

The final result for the radiation emerging in the z-direction is
TT

h 0 = 0, hT T zi = 0,
G d2


TT TT
h xx = h yy = 4 (qxx qyy ),
2
c z dt2
hT T = 2G d q



xy xy
c4 z dt2

and since
2
qxx = qyy = l cos 2K t
2 0
2
qxy = l sin 2K t
2 0

G z
hT T xx = hT T yy = l02 (2K )2 cos 2K (t )
c4z c
G z
hT T xy = l02 (2K )2 sin 2K (t ) .
c4z c

In conclusion

1) radiation is emitted at twice the orbital frequency

2) the wave along z has both polarizations

3) since hT T xx = ihT T xy the wave is circularly polarized

 17

A more general expression for the T T -wave.

Since

( cos 2K t sin 2K t 0
qxx = qyy = 2 l02 cos 2K t 2 sin 2K t cos 2K t 0
, qij = l
qxy = 2 l02 sin 2K t 2 0
0 0 0

If we define

cos 2K t sin 2K t 0
sin 2K t cos 2K t 0 2
Aij = qij = l Aij .
2 0
0 0 0

In the T T -gauge the wave is

2G T T 2G
hTijT = 4
qij 4 Pijkl qkl
rc rc

2G 2 4MG2 T T
hTijT =
l0 (2 K ) 2
[Pijkl Akl ] Akl
rc4 2 rl0 c4
p
where we have used K = GM /l03 . Thus, the wave amplitude is (order of magnitude)

4MG2 m1 m2
h0 = , = , M = m1 + m2 . (9)
rl0 c4 m1 + m2

and the general form for the T T -wave is

hTijT = h0 [Pijkl Akl ] . (10)

if n = z Pij = diag(1, 1, 0)

cos 2K t sin 2K t 0
ATijT = sin 2K t cos 2K t 0 ;
0 0 0

if n = x Pij = diag(0, 1, 1) the wave is linearly polarized:

0 0 0
ATijT = 0 12 cos 2K t 0 ;
1
0 0 2
cos 2K t

if n = y Pij = diag(1, 0, 1) the wave is linearly polarized:

1
2
cos 2K t 0 0
ATijT = 0 0 0 .
1
0 0 2 cos 2K t
 18

Binary Pulsar PSR 1931+16 (Taylor - Weisberg 1982)

y FROM OBSERVATIONS:
M1 M2 1.4M ,
T = 7h 45m 7s,
K 3.58 105 Hz
l0 = 0.19 1012 cm 2R

l0 x

if we assume that the orbit is circular, (however, the

orbit is eccentric, 0.62), from the observed data we
find

GW = 2K 7.16 105 Hz .

The distance of the system from Earth is

r = 5 kpc, 1 pc = 3.08 1018 cm, r = 1.5 1022 cm ,
the wave amplitude is

4MG2
h0 = 4
6 1023 .
rl0 c

Ground-based and space-based interferometers are sensitive in the frequency regions:

LIGO[40 Hz 1 2 kHz] LISA[104 101 ] Hz
VIRGO[10 Hz 1 2 kHz]

1e-20
LISA 1-yr observation

1e-21
Detection threshold

1e-22

PSR1913+16
1e-23

1e-24
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
[ Hz ]
 19

Waves from PSR cannot be detected directly by current detectors.

Let us check whether we are in the condition to apply the quadrupole formalism:
c
GW = 1014 cm GW >> l0
GW

Yes we are!

Circular orbit GWs are emitted at twice the orbital frequency

If the orbit is elliptic, waves are emitted at frequencies multiple of the orbital frequency,
and the number of equally spaced spectral lines increases with ellipticity.

1.1

1
PSR 1913+16
0.9
-5
k=3.6 10 Hz
0.8

0.7

0.6
23
hc10
0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
n

For a detailed description:

Michele Maggiore, Gravitational waves, Vol. I: Theory and experiments. Oxfor University
Press.
 20

New Binary Pulsar PSR J0737-3039 discovered in 2003.

y
m1 = 1.337M , m2 1.250M ,
T = 2.4h, e = 0.08
m1

r1
r = 500 pc l0 1.2R

the orbit is nearly circular.

1111
0000 x
0000
1111
r2

0000
1111
m2
=
m1 m2
= 0.646M
m1 + m2

4MG2
h0 = 4
1.1 1021
rl0 c

and waves are emitted at the frequency

GW = 2 K = 2.3 104 Hz

1e-20
LISA 1-yr observation
PSRJ0737-3039
1e-21
Detection threshold

1e-22

PSR1913+16
1e-23

1e-24
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
[ Hz ]
 21

There are many other binaries LISA could detect:

Cataclismic variables:

semi-detached systems with small orbital period

primary star: white dwarf
secondary star: star filling the Roche lobe and accreting matter on the companion

emission frequency: few digits 104 Hz,

h [1022 1021 ]

Double-degenerate binary systems (WD-WD, WD-NS)

Ultra-short period : < 10 minutes, GW > 103 s

Strong X-ray emitter

RXJ1914.4+2457
M1=0.5 M M2=0.1 M
P=9.5 min

1e-20
Cat. Var. LISA 1-yr observation

1e-21 RXJ1914.4+2457
Detection threshold

RXJ0806.3+1527

1e-22

PSR1913+16
1e-23

1e-24
1e-04 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
[ Hz ]
 22

THE ENERGY-MOMENTUM PSEUDOTENSOR

T of matter satisfies the (covariant) divergenceless equation

T ; = 0 (11)

We know it is not a conservation law, because it cannot be written as an ordinary divergence.

In a locally inertial frame (LIF): eq. (11) becomes

T
= 0, (12)
x
this means that T can be written as:

T = , (13)
x
where is antisymmetric in and ; INDEED

2
= 0,
x x
because the derivative operator is symmetric in and
We want to find the expression of : write Einstein eqs.

c4
 
8G 1
G = 4 T T = R g R . (14)
c 8G 2

In a LIF R is:
2 g 2 g 2 g 2 g
 
1
R = g g g + .
2 x x x x x x x x

By replacing in eq. (14), T becomes

 4 
c 1 


T = (g) g g g g (15)
x 16G (g) x

The part within { } is antisymmetric in and , symmetric in and , and it is

the quantity we were looking for.
 4 
c 1 


T = , = (g) g g g g
x 16G (g) x
1
Since in a LIF g, = 0 we can extract (g)
and write this equation as

(g)T = , (16)
x
where
c4 
= (g) = (g) g g g g .



(17)
16G x

EQ. (16) has been derived in a locally inertial frame. In any other frame (g)T will not
 23

equate x
, therefore, in a generic frame


(g)T 6= 0.
x

We shall call this difference (g)t , i.e.

(g)t =
(g)T .
x

The quantities t are symmetric, because T and x
are symmetric in and .
It follows that

(g) (T + t ) = [(g) (T + t )] = 0,
x , x

this is
THE CONSERVATION LAW OF THE TOTAL ENERGY AND MOMENTUM OF MATTER
+ GRAVITATIONAL FIELD VALID IN ANY REFERENCE FRAME.

(g)t = (g)T .
x

If we express T in terms of g and by using Einsteins eqs.

c4
 
8G 1
G = 4 T T = R g R .
c 8G 2

and eq. (17) it is possible to show that t can be written as follows

c4 
t = 2 g g g g



16G
+ g g ( + )
+ g g ( + )
+ g g ( )

This is the stress-energy pseudotensor of the gravitational field.

t it is not a tensor because :

1) it is the ordinary derivative, (not the covariant one) of a tensor

2) it is a combination of the s that are not tensors.

However, as the s, it behaves as a tensor under a linear coordinate transformation.

 24

Let us consider an emitting source and the associated 3-dimensional

p coordinate frame O (x, y, z).
Be an observer located at P = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) at a distance r = x21 + y12 + z12 from the origin.
The observer wants to detect the wave traveling along the direction identified by the versor
r
n = |r| .

y y
x
P
n

111
000
000
111
000
111

O 11
00
00
11
00
11 x
z

Consider a second frame O (x , y , z ), with origin coincident with O, and having the x -axis
aligned with n. Assuming that the wave traveling along x is linearly polarized and has only
one polarization, the corresponding metric tensor will be

(t) (x) (y) (z)
1 0 0 0

g =
0 1 0 0 ,

0 T T
0 [1 + h+ (t, x )] 0
TT
0 0 0 [1 h+ (t, x )]

The observer wants to measure the energy which flows per unit time across the unit sur-

face orthogonal to x , i.e. t0x ; therefore he needs to compute the Christoffel symbols i.e. the

derivatives of hTT . The metric perturbation has the form hT T (t, x ) = const
x
f (t xc ), the only
derivatives which come into play are those with respect to time and x
hT T const
hT T = f,
t x
hT T TT const const 1 const 1 TT
h = f + f f = h ,
x x2 x c x c

where we have retained only the dominant 1/x term. Thus, the non-vanishing Christoffel
symbols are:
1
0 y y = 0 z z = 12 hT+T y 0y = z 0z = hT+T
2
1 TT
1
y y x = z

x y y = x z z = hT+T z x = h .
2c
2c +
 25

from which we find

" 2 #
dEGW c2 d hTT (t, x)
t0x 0 = .
dx dS 16G dt

Thus the energy flux is

" 2 #
dEGW c3 d hTT (t, x)
= .
dtdS 16G dt

In general, if both polarization are present

(t) (x) (y) (z)
1 0 0 0

g = 0
1 0 0 ,

TT
0 0 [1 + h+ (t, x )] h (t, x )
TT
TT
0 0 h (t, x ) [1 hT+T (t, x )]

" !2
2 2 #
2 dhT+T dhTT 2 dhTjkT

c c X
t0x = + = .
16G dt dt 32G jk
dt
0x
ct is the energy flowing across a unit surface orthogonal to the direction x per unit time.

However, the direction x is arbitrary; if the observer il located in a different position and
computes the energy flux he receives, he will find formally the same but with hTjkT referreed to
the TT-gauge associated with the new direction. Therefore, if we consider a generic direction
~r = r~n !2
2 TT
c X dh jk (t, r)
t0r = .
32G jk dt

Since in GR the energy of the gravitational field cannot be defined locally, to find the GW-flux
we need to average over several wavelenghts, i.e.
* !2 +
dEGW
0r  c3 X dhTjkT
= ct = .
dtdS 32G jk dt

We shall now express the energy flux directly in terms of the source quadrupole moment. Since



hT0T = 0, = 0, 3

 2 
TT 2G d TT r
hik (t, r) = 4 q (t )


c r dt2 ik c
 26

by direct substitution we find

* !2 + * +
dEGW c3 X dhTjkT G X h...T T  r i2
= = q jk t
dtdS 32G dt 8c5 r 2 c
jk jk
* +
G X h ...
 r i2
= Pjkmn q mn t .
8c5 r 2 c
jk

From this formula we can compute the gravitational luminosity LGW = dEdtGW :
dEGW dEGW 2
Z Z
LGW = dS = r d
dtdS dtdS
* +
G 1 r 2
Z X  ...

= d Pjkmn q mn t .
2c5 4 c
jk

To evaluate the integral over the solid angle it is convenient to replace the quadrupole moment
qmn with the reduced quadrupole moment
1
Qij = qij ij q k k ;
3
we remind that, since its trace is zero by definition, we have

Pijlm Qlm = Pijlm qlm .

The GW luminosity becomes

* +
G 1 r 2
Z X  ... 
LGW = 5 d Pjkmn Qmn t .
2c 4 jk
c

Let us compute the integral over the solid angle. By using the definitions (5) and (6) and the
properties of Pmnjk we find
X  ... 2 X ... ...
Pjkmn Qmn = Pjkmn Qmn PjkrsQrs =
jk jk
X ... ... ... ...
Pmnjk Pjkrs Qmn Qrs = Pmnrs Qmn Qrs =
jk
 
1 ... ...
(mr nm nr ) (ns nn ns ) (mn nm nn ) (rs nr ns ) Qmn Qrs .
2

If we expand
...
this ...expression, and remember that
mn Qmn = rs Qrs = 0
because the trace of Qij vanishes by definition, and
... ... ... ...
nm nr ns Qmn Qrs = nn ns mr Qmn Qrs
because Qij is symmetric, we find
X  ... 2 ... ... ... ... 1 ... ...
Pjkmn Qmn = Qrn Qrn 2nm nr Qms Qsr + nm nn nr ns Qmn Qrs .
jk
2
 27

and by replacing in the equation for LGW

 
G 1 1
Z ... ... ... ... ... ...
LGW = 5 d Qrn Qrn 2nm nr Qms Qsr + nm nn nr ns Qmn Qrs .
2c 4 2

The integrals to be calculated over the solid angle are:

1 1
Z Z
dni nj , and dni nj nr ns .
4 4
In polar coordinates, the versor n is

ni = (sin cos , sin sin , cos ). (18)

Thus, for parity reasons

Z Z 2
1 1
Z
dni nj = d sin d ni nj = 0 when i 6= j.
4 4 0 0

Furthermore, it is easy to show that

1 1 1 1
Z Z Z Z
d n1 = d n2 = d n23 =
2 2
dni nj = ij .
4 3 4 3

The second integral can be computed in a similar way and gives

1 1
Z
dni nj nr ns = (ij rs + ir js + is jr ) .
4 15

Consequently
 ... ... ... ... ... ... 
1
d Qrn Qrn 2nm Qms Qsr nr + 12 nm nn nr ns Qmn Qrs
R
4
... ...
= 52 Qrn Qrn (19)

and, finally, the emitted power is

* +
dEGW G X ...  r  ...  r
LGW = = 5 Qjk t Qjk t . (20)
dt 5c jk=1,3
c c

Equation (20) was first derived by Einstein. We shall now compute the GW-luminosity
of a binary system
We need to compute the reduced quadrupole moment
1
Qij = qij ij q k k .
3
 28

For a circular orbit the time-varying part of qij is:

cos 2K t sin 2K t 0
2 sin 2K t cos 2K t 0 .
qij (t) = l Aij (t) where Aij (t) =
2 0
0 0 0

The trace of qij is

q k k = kl qkl = qxx + qyy = 0 ,
therefore, the time-varying part of Qij (t r/c) is

cos 2K tret sin 2K tret 0

Qij = l02 sin 2K tret cos 2K tret 0 ,
2
0 0 0

its third time-derivative is

sin 2K tret cos 2K tret 0
s
... 2 3 GM
Qij = l0 8 K cos 2K tret sin 2K tret 0 K =
2 l03
0 0 0

and
X ... ... M3
Qjk Qjk = 32 2 l04 K
6
= 32 2 G3 .
jk
l05

By substituting this expression in eq. (20) we find

dEGW 32 G4 2 M 3
LGW = . (21)
dt 5 c5 l05

For the binary pulsar PSR 1913+16 LGW = 0.7 1031 erg/s .
 29

Power radiated in gravitational waves by a binary system in circular orbit:

dEGW 32 G4 2 M 3
LGW = .
dt 5 c5 l05

This expression has to be considered as an average over several wavelenghts (or equivalently,
over a sufficiently large number of periods), as stated in eq. (20); therefore, in order LGW to be
defined, we must be in a regime where the orbital parameters do not change significantly over
the time interval taken to perform the average. This assumption is called adiabatic approx-
imation, and it is certainly applicable to systems like PSR 1913+16 or PSR J0737-3039 that
are very far from coalescence.

In the adiabatic regime, the system has the time to adjust the orbit to compensate the en-
ergy lost in gravitational waves with a change in the orbital energy, in such a way that
dEorb
+ LGW = 0. (22)
dt
Let us see what are the consequences of this equation.

The orbital energy of the binary is

Eorb = EK + U ,

where the kinetic and the gravitational energy are, respectively,

1 2 m1 m22 l02 m2 m21 l02

 
1 2 2 1 2 2
EK = m1 K r1 + m2 K r2 = K +
2 2 2 M2 M2
1 2 2 1 GM
= l =
2 K 0 2 l0
and
Gm1 m2 GM
U = = .
l0 l0
Therefore
1 GM
Eorb =
2 l0
and its time derivative is
   
dEorb 1 GM 1 dl0 1 dl0
= = Eorb . (23)
dt 2 l0 l0 dt l0 dt
dl0
The term dt
can be expressed in terms of the time derivative of K as follows

2 1 dK 3 1 dl0
K = GMl03 2 ln K = ln GM 3 ln l0 = ,
K dt 2 l0 dt
and eq. (23) becomes
dEorb 2 Eorb dK
= . (24)
dt 3 K dt
Since K = 2P 1
1 dK 1 dP
=
K dt P dt
 30

and eq. (24) gives

dEorb 2 Eorb dP dP 3 P dEorb

= = . (25)
dt 3 P dt dt 2 Eorb dt

Since by eq. (22) dEdtorb = LGW we finally find how the orbital period changes due to the
emission of gravitational waves

dP 3 P
= LGW . (26)
dt 2 Eorb

For example if we consider PSR 1913+16, assuming the orbit is circular we find

P = 27907 s, Eorb 1.4 1048 erg, LGW 0.7 1031 erg/s

and
dP
2.2 1013 .
dt
The orbit of the real system has a quite strong eccentricity 0.617. If we would do the
calculations using the equations of motion appropriate for an eccentric orbit we would find
dP
= 2.4 1012 .
dt
PSR 1913+16 has now been monitored for more than three decades and the rate of variation
of the period, measured with very high accuracy, is
dP
= (2.4184 0.0009) 1012 .
dt
(J. M. Wisberg, J.H. Taylor Relativistic Binary Pulsar B1913+16: Thirty Years of Observa-
tions and Analysis, in Binary Radio Pulsars, ASP Conference series, 2004, eds. F.AA.Rasio,
I.H.Stairs).

Residual differences due to Doppler corrections, due to the relative velocity between us and the
pulsar induced by the differential rotation of the Galaxy.

Pcorrected
= 1.0013(21)
PGR

For the recently discovered double pulsar PSR J0737-3039

P = 8640 s, Eorb 2.55 1048 erg, LGW 2.24 1032 erg/s

and
dP
1.2 1012 ,
dt
which is also in agreement with observations. Thus, this prediction of General Relativity
is confirmed by observations. This result provided the first indirect evidence of the
existence of gravitational waves and for this discovery R.A. Hulse and J.H. Taylor
have been awarded of the Nobel prize in 1993.
31
 32

ORBITAL EVOLUTION

Knowing the energy lost by the system, we can also evaluate how the orbital separation l0
changes in time. From eq. (23)

1 dl0 1 dEorb
= ;
l0 dt Eorb dt
32 G4 2 M 3
rememebering that LGW = 5 c5 l05
, and Eorb = 12 GM
l0
, and that in the adiabatic
dEorb
approximation dt
= LGW , we find

64 G3
 
1 dl0 LGW 1 dl0 2 1
= = 5
M 4
l0 dt Eorb l0 dt 5 c l0

Assuming that at some initial time t = 0 the orbital separation is l0 (t = 0) = l0in by integrating
this equation we easily find

256 G3 256 G3
 
4 in 4 2 in 4 2
l0 (t) = (l0 ) M t = (l0 ) 1 M t
5 c5 5 c5 (l0in )4

If we define
4
5 c5 (l0in )
tcoal = ,
256 G3 M 2
the previous equation becomes
h i1/4
t
l0 (t) = l0in 1 tcoal
.

which shows that the orbital separation decreases in time.

When t = tcoal the orbital separation becomes zero, and this is possible because we have
assumed that the bodies composing the binary system are pointlike. Of course, stars and black
holes have finite sizes, therefore they start merging and coalesce before t = tcoal . In addition,
when the two stars are close enough, both the slow motion approximation and the weak field
assumption on which the quadrupole formalism relies fails to hold and strong field effects have
to be considered; however, tcoal gives an order of magnitude of the time the system needs to
merge starting from a given initial distance l0in .
 33

WAVEFORM: AMPLITUDE AND PHASE

Since the orbital separation between the two bodies decrases with time as
 1/4
t
l0 (t) = l0in 1 ,
tcoal
q
the Keplerian angular velocity K = GM/l03 changes in time as
s s
in
GM K in GM
K (t) = =h i3/8 , K = .
l03 t (l0 in )3
1 tcoal

Since in the adiabatic regime the orbit evolves through a sequence of stationary circular
orbits, the frequency of the emitted wave at some time t is twice the orbital frequency at that
time, i.e.
s
in
K GW in 1 GM
GW (t) = = 3/8 , GW =
t (l0 in )3 ,
1
tcoal

Similarly, the instantaneous amplitude of the emitted signal can be found from eq. (9)

4MG2
h0 (t) = ;
rl0 (t)c4
2
since K = GM/l03 ,
2/3
4MG2 K (t) 4G5/3 M 2/3 2/3
h0 (t) = 4
1/3 1/3
= 4
K (t) ;
rc G M rc
if we now define the quantity M, called chirp mass,

M5/3 = M 2/3 M = 3/5 M 2/5

and use the relation among K and the wave frequency GW we find

4 2/3 G5/3 M5/3 2/3

h0 (t) = GW (t) .
c4 r

The amplitude and the frequency of the gravitational signal emitted by a coalescing system
increases with time. For this reason this peculiar waveform is called chirp, like the chirp of a
singing bird
 34

20

15

10

5
chirp

-5

-10

-15

-20
retarded time

THE PHASE

According to eq. (10) the wave in the T T -gauge is

h r i
hTijT (t, r) = h0 Pijkl Akl (t ) (27)
c
where Akl is
cos 2K t sin 2K t 0
Aij = sin 2K t cos 2K t 0 .
0 0 0
Since K is a function of time, the phase appearing in Akl has to be substituted by an integrated
phase
Z t Z t
(t) = 2K (t)dt = 2GW (t) dt + in , where in = (t = 0)

Since s
in
K GW in 1 GM
GW (t) = = 3/8 , GW = ,
t (l0 in )3
1
tcoal
and
4
5 c5 (l0in )
tcoal = ,
256 G3 M 2
 3 5/8
in 3/8 3/8

1 c
GW tcoal = 5
8 GM
 35

and GW (t) can be written as

5/8  3/8
c3

1 5
GW (t) = ;
8 GM tcoal t

consequently, the integrated phase becomes

5/8
c3 (tcoal t)

(t) = 2 + in
5GM

which shows that if we know the signal phase we can measure the chirp mass.
In conclusion, the signal emitted during the inspiralling will be

4 2/3 G5/3 M5/3 2/3 h r i

hTijT = GW (t) P A
ijkl kl (t )
c4 r c

where

cos (t) sin (t) 0
Aij (t) = sin (t) cos (t) 0
0 0 0
 36

LIGO[40 Hz 1 2 kHz] LISA[104 101 ] Hz

VIRGO[10 Hz 1 2 kHz]

Let us consider 3 binary system

a) m1 = m2 = 1.4 M c) m1 = m2 = 106 M
b) m1 = m2 = 10 M

Let us first calculate what is the orbital distance between the two bodies on the innermost
stable circular orbit (ISCO) and the corresponding emission frequency
s s
6GM GM 1 GM
l0ISCO 2
, K = 3
= GW GW ISCO
= ISCO
c l0 (l0 )3
(M is the total mass)

a) l0 ISCO = 24, 8 km GW = 1570.4 Hz

b) l0 ISCO = 177, 2 km GW = 219.8 Hz

c) l0 ISCO = 17.720.415, 3 km GW = 2.2 103 Hz

a) and b) are interesting for LIGO and VIRGO,

c) will be detected by LISA
 37

Let us consider LIGO and VIRGO; we want to compute the time a given signal spends in
the detector bandwidth before coalescence.

From
in 3/8
GW tcoal
GW (t) =
[tcoal t]3/8
we get "  in
8/3 #
GW
t = tcoal 1 .
GW (t)

Putting :
in
GW = lowest frequency detectable by the antenna, and

max ISCO
GW = GW we find

LIGO VIRGO
a) (m1 = m2 = 1.4 M ) [40 1570.4 Hz] [10 1570.4 kHz]

t = 24.86 s t = 16.7 m

b) (m1 = m2 = 10 M ) [40 219.8 Hz] [10 219.8 kHz]

t = 0.93 s t = 37.82 s

VIRGO catches the signal for a longer time.

 38

Chirp at 100 Mpc

1e-20

100-100 MSun BHs

1/2 h() [ Hz-1/2 ]

1e-21

10-10 MSun BHs

1e-22

Virgo+
Sn1/2,

1e-23 Adv Virgo

ISCO ISCO
1e-24
100 1000
[ Hz ]

Planned sensitivity curve for VIRGO+ and ADVANCED VIRGO

The plotted signal is the

strain amplitude = 1/2 h() ,

evaluated for the chirp.

Source located at a distance of 100 Mpc.

The chirp is only a part of the signal emitted during the binary coalescence.
 39

Black hole-black hole coalescence

Hybrid waveform at 100 Mpc

1e-20

100-100 MSun BHs

1/2 h() [ Hz-1/2 ]

1e-21

10-10 MSun BHs

1e-22

Virgo+
Sn1/2,

1e-23 Adv Virgo

ISCO ISCO
1e-24
100 1000
[ Hz ]

This hybrid waveform is obtained by matching three signals:

1) chirp waveform for < ISCO

2) waveform emitted during the merger phase of two black holes, obtained by numerical inte-
gration of Einsteins equations.

3) waveform emitted after the final black hole is formed, due to ringdown oscillations.

P. Ajith et al., Phys. Rev. D 77, 104017 2008

 40

WHAT ABOUT LISA?

LISA [104 101 ] Hz

1e-20
LISA 1-yr observation

1e-21
Detection threshold

1e-22

1e-23

1e-24
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1
[ Hz ]
Let us consider 2 BH-BH binary systems

a) m1 = m2 = 102 M
b) m1 = m2 = 106 M

Orbital distance between the two bodies on the innermost stable circular orbit (ISCO) and
the corresponding emission frequency
s s
6GM GM 1 GM
l0ISCO 2
, K = 3
= GW GW ISCO
= ISCO 3
c l0 (l0 )

a) l0ISCO = 1772 km GW = 21.98 Hz

b) l0ISCO = 17.720.415, 3 km GW = 2.2 103 Hz

Time a given signal spends in the detector bandwidth before coalescence.

a) m1 = m2 = 102 M
b) m1 = m2 = 106 M

"  8/3 #
in
t = tcoal 1
GW (t)
 41

LISA

a) [104 101 Hz]

t = 556.885 years

b) [104 2.2 103 Hz]

t = 0, 12 years = 43 d 18 h 43 m 24 s