Biofuels

ISSN: 1759-7269 (Print) 1759-7277 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tbfu20

Effect of injection timing on the performance and

emission characteristics of a CI engine using diesel
and methyl soyate

Ambarish Datta & Bijan Kumar Mandal

To cite this article: Ambarish Datta & Bijan Kumar Mandal (2015): Effect of injection timing on
the performance and emission characteristics of a CI engine using diesel and methyl soyate,
Biofuels, DOI: 10.1080/17597269.2015.1100039

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17597269.2015.1100039

Published online: 26 Oct 2015.

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 Biofuels, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17597269.2015.1100039

Effect of injection timing on the performance and emission characteristics of a CI engine using
diesel and methyl soyate
Ambarish Datta* and Bijan Kumar Mandal
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur, Howrah
711103, West
Bengal, India

(Received 23 March 2015; accepted 22 September 2015)

Many experimental works have been carried out to check the influence of biodiesels on CI engines during the era of energy
Downloaded by [Bengal Engineering and Science University] at 22:45 23 November 2015

crisis and greenhouse gas emission by fossil fuels throughout the world. However, experimental works are not always
feasible from the prospect of time and money. An attempt has been made in this work to numerically investigate the effect
of injection timing on performance and emission characteristics of a CI engine fuelled with diesel and methyl soyate and
make a comparison between the two. The simulations have been carried out for three different injection timings of 17 , 20
and 23 bTDC. The predicted results indicate a decrease in the brake thermal efficiency and an increase in the brake
specific fuel consumption with the advancement in injection timing for both the fuels, the performance of diesel being
better than the biodiesel. Exhaust gas temperature increases along with the NOx and CO2 emissions, while the particulate
matter and smoke emissions decrease with the advancement in injection timing. NOx, CO2 emissions and exhaust
temperature are found to be more, while PM and smoke emissions are less for methyl soyate when compared to diesel.
Keywords: simulation; injection timing; performance; emission; biodiesel

Introduction seeds such as karanja and ratanjyot.[2,3] Consequently,

Presently, the entire transportation system of the world
is mainly dependent on fossil fuels and these are used
in almost every automobile. However, these fuel reser-
voirs are non-renewable in nature and, with the present
rate of development in the field of science and technol-
ogy, the extinction of these reservoirs in the near
future can be clearly foreseen. Also the harmful
exhaust gases and particulate matters emitted by the
combustion of these fuels are not friendly in nature to
both the human health and the environment. Again, it
is seen that the growth rate of automotive industry in
India is one of the largest in the world. It is now quite
evident that conventional fossil fuels cannot solve the
above-said problems even by imposing very stringent
emission norms.[1] So, to combat with the recent rise
in the population and the urbanization of the world,
the search for alternative sources of energy has
become extremely necessary. Out of the different fuels
tried for the compression ignition engine, biodiesel has
been identified as one of the most promising fuels due
to the similarities in some of the important fuel proper-
ties of biodiesel and diesel. Biodiesel has become the
centre of attention as it is the only existing energy
source that can be used in a CI engine with a very lit-
tle or without any modification. Also, it burns more
cleanly than fossil or mineral diesel. In a country like
India, it is observed that biodiesel can be a viable
alternative automotive fuel and India has huge poten-
tial for biodiesel production from non-edible type oil
for investigating the compatibility of biodiesels with
the existing CI engines many research works have
been carried out and are still ongoing at the present
moment. In diesel engine, fuel is injected through the
nozzle into the engine cylinder at some instant before
the piston reaches the top dead centre. It is observed
that injection timing has significant effect on the per-
formance and emission characteristics of biodiesel
fuelled engines.
Reddy and Ramesh [4] experimentally investigated
the effect of injection timing on the performance and
emission characteristics of a CI engine fuelled with jatro-
pha oil and concluded that advanced injection timing led
to an improvement in the engine performance and emis-
sion characteristics except NOx emission. According to
them, advanced injection timing helped in better combus-
tion which reduced the harmful emissions of HC, CO and
smoke. In an experimental study, Sayin and Gumus [5]
observed an increase in NOx emission with the advance-
ment of injection timing, but the emissions of other pollu-
tants such as CO, HC and smoke were reduced
substantially. Furthermore, brake specific fuel consump-
tion (BSFC) was found to be increased with the advance-
ment as well as retardation of injection timing with
respect to the rated timing of the engine. Balusamy and
Marappan [6] conducted an experimental study with The-
vetia peruviana seed biodiesel and observed an increase
in brake thermal efficiency (BTE) with the advancement
of injection timing. It was noted that after an optimum

*Corresponding author. Email: ambarish.datta84@gmail.com

2015 Taylor & Francis

 2 A. Datta and B.K. Mandal
advancement of injection timing, the efficiency decreased.
At the optimum injection timing, significant reductions in
CO, HC and smoke emissions were observed. Raheman
and Ghadge [7] observed an increase of BTE and decrease
in BSFC and exhaust gas temperature (EGT) with the
advancement of injection timing while conducting an
experimental study on Ricardo E6 engine fuelled with
mahua biodiesel. Kannan and Anand [8] experimented
with cotton seed oil methyl ester and noted an increase in
the BTE as well as in NO emission with the advancement
of injection timing. Mani and Nagarajan [9] observed
experimentally that BTE increased with the retardation of
injection timing in the case of waste plastic oil. Retarded
injection timing resulted in a decrease in BSFC and EGT.
From the environmental point of view, NOx, HC and CO
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emissions were found to be reduced with the retardation
of injection timing whereas the emissions of CO2 and
smoke were noted to be increased. Solaimuthu and Govi-
darajan [10] investigated the influence of injection timing
on a CI engine using mahua oil methyl ester and reported
that the efficiency increased with biodiesel for all blends
with the retardation in injection timing. The BSFC and
exhaust temperature were found to be reduced with retar-
dation of injection timing. The emissions of smoke, CO,
HC and NOx were also noted to be reduced with the retar-
dation of injection timing.
Jindal [11] studied experimentally the effect of
injection timing of a diesel engine fuelled with karanja
oil methyl ester. He observed an increase in BTE,
EGT and NOx emission and a decrease in BSFC with
the retardation of injection timing. The emissions of
HC and CO were found to be less at advanced injec-
tion timing. On the other hand, CO2 emission and
smoke opacity were found to be minimal at the rated
injection timing of the engine. It was also reported by
Suresh et al. [12] that BTE and emissions of HC, CO
and NOx from cottonseed oil methyl ester fuelled die-
sel engine were improved at retarded injection timing.
Ganapathy et al. [13] reported a mixed type of obser-
vation regarding the influence of injection timing with
jatropha biodiesel. According to their experimental
investigation, BSFC increased as the injection timing
was advanced or retarded from the rated value. How-
ever, the thermal efficiency was found to increase with
advancement of injection timing. The late burning at
retarded timing resulted to an increase in CO emission,
though NOx emission was less. On the other hand, the
longer delay period and more complete combustion in
case of advanced timing caused higher HC emission
and low smoke emission, respectively.
Although large numbers of experimental studies are
available with biodiesel as fuel in the literature, the
issue of injection timing has been addressed and inves-
tigated in a few studies only. Moreover, most of these
studies are experimental in nature which consume
much time and involve more cost. Thus, numerical
simulation, capable of successfully predicting the
effect of using biodiesel as fuel in diesel engines, can
save much time, money and manpower. Motivated by
this, a commercially available software, Diesel-RK,
has been used to simulate the engine performance and
emission characteristics for different injection timings
of 178, 208 and 238 bTDC for two different fuels
namely, diesel (B0) and methyl soyate (B100).
Simulation model
The process of diesel combustion has been simulated
using a single zone heat release thermodynamic model
based on first law of thermodynamics. Single zone
model assumes that the cylinder content is uniform in
composition and temperature throughout the cylinder
volume. Phenomenological combustion models are
based on each individual process occurring in engine
cycle such as fuel injection, mixture formation, heat
release, heat transfer and emission formation. Quasi-
dimensional multi-zone models incorporate the develop-
ment of the fuel spray with time and simplified quasi
steady equations are used to describe processes like fuel
injection, atomization, air entrainment, droplet forma-
tion, evaporation, wall impingement, ignition, heat
release and heat transfer. Fluid dynamic based models,
often called multi-dimensional or computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) models are based on solving the gov-
erning equations for conservation of mass, momentum
and energy and species concentration through a definite
discretization procedure.[14] Several software based on
the above model are commercially available that can be
used for the simulation of compression ignition engines.
The present numerical simulation has been carried out
using the commercial software Diesel-RK. The basic
governing equations on which this simulation is based
are presented in the next few subsections from the work
of Fiveland and Assanis.[15]
Conservation of mass
According to the law of mass conservation, the rate
of change of mass within any open system is the net
flux of mass across the system boundaries and it can be
written as:
dm X
D m_ j (1)
dt j
Conservation of species
Mass balance equations for each species are framed taking
into account the formation and destruction for the species
within the combustion chamber. Mathematically, in the
compact form it can be expressed as:
Xm_ j  Vi Wmw
Y_ i D Yij Yicyl C (2)
j
m r
 Biofuels 3

Conservation of energy Hartridge smoke level is also an indicator of soot for-

The generalized energy equation for an open thermody- mation in diesel engine and is evaluated from the follow-
namic system may be written following Fiveland and ing relation:
Assanis [15] as:
Hartridge D 100f1 0:9545exp 2:4226Cg (7)
dmu dv dQht X
D p C C m_ j hj (3) Similar equations are used to calculate Bosch smoke
dt dt dt j
number and Factor of Absolute Light Absorption (K).

The term on the left hand side of the above equation

denotes the rate of change of internal energy. The three
terms on the right hand side represents the rate of dis-
placement work, heat transfer rate and enthalpy flux,
respectively.
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Particulate matter modelling
Particulate matter emission is also calculated by using an
equation in terms of Bosch smoke number as described by
Alkidas.[17] The equation is as follows:

 1:206
NOx formation modelling 10
PM D 565 ln (8)
Out of all of the oxides of nitrogen, NO is predominant in 10 Bosch
diesel engine exhaust.[14] Therefore, only NO formation is
considered through thermal or Zeldovich mechanism. Kule-
shov [16] used this mechanism for the simulation of NO Properties of methyl soyate and methodology
formation in direct injection diesel engine. The model con- Soyabean oil can be converted to its methyl esters (methyl
siders 18 species during combustion in the burnt gas zone soyate) via transesterification process in the presence of
for thermal NO calculation following Zeldovich mecha- catalyst. Biodiesel produced from soyabean oil contains
nism. The oxidation of nitrogen follows a chain reaction very small amount of phosphorus and sulphur and there-
mechanism and basic reactions are written as follows: fore, the emission of oxides of sulphur is almost negligi-
ble. In comparison with commercial petro-diesel, methyl
O2 $ 2O soyate has higher density and higher cetane number. It is
N2 C O $ NO C N (4) a much safer fuel than diesel because of its higher flash
point and fire point. Some of the important fuel properties
N C O2 $ NO C O
of methyl soyate and conventional petro-diesel are pre-
sented in the tabular form for ready reference in Table 1
Concentration of atomic oxygen plays an important
for comparison. Parameters such as BSFC, thermal effi-
role to control the rates of the above reactions. The vol-
ciency, EGT, NOx, CO2, PM and smoke emissions have
ume concentration of NO in combustion products can be
been calculated for three injection timings at constant
calculated using the following equation as described by
engine speed of 1500 rpm, to predict the performance and
Kuleshov:[16]
emission characteristics of the engine. The simulation is
based on a single cylinder diesel engine and detailed spec-
38020 ification of the engine is shown in Table 2. Experiments
dNO p:2:333  107 :e TZ N2 e :Oe :f1 NO=NOe 2 g 1
D    have also been conducted on the same engine using the
du R:TZ : 1 C 2365 :e Tz : NO
3365
v
Tz O2 e base fuel diesel only.
(5) The predicted results from Diesel RK have been vali-
dated with experimental observations for some of the
important parameters at the same operating conditions.
Soot formation modelling
However, the validation is done only for mineral diesel
Soot is a fine dispersion of black carbon particles in a
vapour carrier. It is assumed that the soot is formed
Table 1. Properties of methyl soyate and diesel.
mainly by chain destructive transformation of molecules
of fuel diffusing from the surface of drops to the front of a Property Methyl soyate Diesel
flame and by high-temperature thermal polymerization
Cetane No. 51.3 48
and dehydrogenization of vapour-liquid core of evaporat-
Calorific value (MJkg1) 36.22 42.5
ing drops. In addition, soot particles are oxidised at high
Molecular mass of fuel 292.2 190
temperature zone. Soot formation rate in a burning zone is
Compositions (mass fractions)
calculated using the following equation as mentioned by
C 0.7731 0.87
Alkidas:[17]
H 0.1188 0.126
  O 0.1081 0.004
dC qC dx
D 0:004 (6) Sulphur fraction 0.005 0
dt K V dt Flash point ( C) 168 63
 4 A. Datta and B.K. Mandal

Table 2. Engine specification.

Manufacturer Kirloskar Oil Engines Ltd.

Model TV 1
Type Four-stroke, water-cooled
No. of cylinders One
Rated power 3.5 kW @ 1500 RPM
Compression ratio 18
Bore 87.5 mm
Stroke 110 mm
Connecting rod length 234 mm
Method of cooling Water-cooled

(B0) as fuel. Figures 1 and 2 represent the variation of

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BTE and BSFC, respectively, with brake power. The fig- Figure 2. Variation of brake specific fuel consumption with
ures clearly depict that experimental and simulated results brake power for numerical and experimental results with diesel.
match well at least qualitatively, but Diesel-RK predicts
higher efficiency and lower BSFC. In a similar way, both
the experimental and numerical results for NOx emission
and CO2 emission have been plotted in Figures 3 and 4,
respectively. It can be noted that experimental and numer-
ical results are not much away from each other in both the
cases. Thus it can be said that Diesel-RK gives realistic
results, although the quantitative matching is not always
very good.

Results and discussion

Performance and emission characteristics of the test
engine fuelled with diesel and soyabean oil methyl ester
(methyl soyate) obtained from the software have been
evaluated in terms of BTE, BSFC, EGT, NOx, CO2,
smoke and PM emissions. The variations of the above
said parameters with brake power for different injection Figure 3. Variation of NOx emission with brake power for
timings have been presented and discussed in this section. numerical and experimental results with diesel.

in Figure 5. It shows that, for both diesel and methyl

Brake specific fuel consumption soyate, advancement in injection timing increases the
The variations of BSFC with brake power for three differ- BSFC. At full load, the specific fuel consumption is
ent injection timings of 17 , 20 and 23 bTDC are shown 0.26031 kg/kWh with diesel and 0.32446 kg/kWh with
pure soybean biodiesel (methyl soyate) at standard

Figure 1. Variation of brake thermal efficiency with brake Figure 4. Variation of CO2 emission with brake power for
power for numerical and experimental results with diesel. numerical and experimental results with diesel.

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Figure 5. Variation of brake specific fuel consumption with
brake power for three different injection timings 17 , 20 and
23 bTDC for diesel and methyl soyate.
injection timing (20 bTDC). With methyl soyate as fuel,
the BSFC value increases to 0.26496 from
0.26031 kg/kWh on advancing the injection by 3 CA and
it decreases to 0.25473 kg/kWh on retarding the injection
timing by 3 CA. Advancement in the injection timing
increases the ignition delay period and thus more fuel is
accumulated in the process which increases the overall
fuel consumption. Also, with the advancement of injec-
tion timing (20 to 23 bTDC) more time is available for
combustion, and this leads to a better combustion. When
compared between the two fuels, diesel shows lower
BSFC than methyl soyate for all the three corresponding
injection timings. This is due to the lower heating value as
well as the higher density of methyl soyate which causes
more consumption of fuel to produce same amount of
power output compared to diesel. Thus, the BSFC is low-
est for retarded injection timing (17 bTDC) and highest
for advanced timing (23 bTDC), for both the fuels.
Hence, the figure shows a minimum BSFC at 17 bTDC
for diesel and maximum BSFC at 23 bTDC for methyl
soyate. Jindal [11] also experimentally observed an
increase in BSFC from 0.34 to 0.36 kg/kWh on advance-
ment of the injection timing by 3 CA and a decrease
from 0.34 to 0.32 kg/kWh on retardation of the injection
by 3 CA at full load condition with karanja oil methyl
ester. However, it may be noted that Jindal [11] consid-
ered 23 bTDC as the standard injection time which is
somewhat different from this simulation work.
Brake thermal efficiency
The variations of BTE with brake power for three differ-
ent injection timings of 17 , 20 and 23 bTDC have been
shown in Figure 6. It can be seen from Figure 6 that
advancement in the injection timing decreases the BTE,
for diesel as well as methyl soyate. However, the effi-
ciency with diesel is always higher than methyl soyate at
the same injection timing. At full load, the thermal effi-
ciency is 30.22% with diesel and 28.43% with neat soya-
bean methyl ester (methyl soyate) at rated injection
Biofuels 5
Figure 6. Variation of brake thermal efficiency with brake
power for three different injection timings 17 , 20 and 23
bTDC for diesel and methyl soyate.
timing. With methyl soyate as fuel, the thermal efficiency
at full load increases from 28.43% to 29.83% on a retarda-
tion of 3 CA. On advancing the injection by 3 CA, the
thermal efficiency drops to 26.93%. About 4.92%
improvement in thermal efficiency is obtained by retard-
ing the injection timing by 3 CA in case of methyl
soyate. With the retardation of injection timing, the igni-
tion delay period decreases which results in the continua-
tion of the combustion process up to the power stroke and
eventually gives a better BTE.[18] The higher density and
the lower calorific value of methyl soyate (B100) com-
pared to diesel (B0) result in lower thermal efficiency for
biodiesel than that of diesel for any of the injection tim-
ings. Similar trend of results has also been published for
karanja biodiesel by Jindal.[11] He reported an increase
of BTE from 24.03% to 26.00% on retardation of injec-
tion timing by 3 CA at full load condition. Moreover, the
drop in thermal efficiency due to advancement of the
injection timing by 3 CA is also qualitatively matching
with the present predicted results.
Exhaust gas temperature
Figure 7 shows the variations of EGT with brake power
for the three different injection timings. A slight increase
in the exhaust temperature is noted with the advancement
of injection timing by 3 CA. This may be due to the fact
that advancement of injection timing increases the igni-
tion delay period resulting in higher in-cylinder pressure
and temperature. As compared to diesel, EGT of methyl
soyate is always higher due to its inherent oxygen content
leading to a more complete combustion. Hence, the maxi-
mum EGT is observed with methyl soyate at 23 bTDC.
NOx emissions
The variations of the NOx emissions with brake power for
the three injection timings are presented in Figure 8.
Advancement of injection timing increases the delay
period for both the fuels which in turn increases the
 6 A. Datta and B.K. Mandal
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Figure 7. Variation of exhaust gas temperature with brake
power for three different injection timings 17 , 20 and 23
bTDC for diesel and methyl soyate.
pressure and temperature and creates favourable condi-
tions for higher NOx formation. For methyl soyate, the
NOx emission increases from around 1203 to 1385 ppm
due to the injection advancement of 3 CA and it
decreases to 976 ppm on retarding the injection timing by
3 CA. On the other hand, NOx emission increases to 856
from 775 ppm due to the same advancement in the injec-
tion timing and it decreases to 662 ppm on retarding the
injection timing by 3 CA for diesel. Comparison between
the two fuels shows that methyl soyate emits higher NOx
than diesel at any operating condition. Clearly the effect
of injection timing is much more on methyl soyate than
that on diesel. This is due to the fact that higher pressure
and higher temperature are resulted when the engine is
run with methyl soyate instead of diesel. This causes the
formation of valance oxygen due to disassociation and
finally more NOx is produced.[4] The present predicted
variations of NOx emissions with the change of injection
timing are in consistent with the experimental results of
Kannan and Anand,[8] Jindal,[11] Suresh et al. [12] and
Ganapathy et al. [13] obtained for different types of bio-
diesels. However, there are variations in absolute values
Figure 8. Variation of NOx emission with brake power for three
different injection timings 17 , 20 and 23 bTDC for diesel and
methyl soyate.
Figure 9. Variation of CO2 emission with brake power for three
different injection timings 17 , 20 and 23 bTDC for diesel and
methyl soyate.
of NOx levels in the exhaust because they used biodiesels
different from the present one and also the operating con-
ditions were not the same.
CO2 emissions
The variations of specific CO2 emission with brake
power for the three injection timings have been shown
in Figure 9. It shows an increase in the specific CO2
emission with the advancement of injection for both
diesel and methyl soyate. This may be due to the fact
that the advancement in the injection increases delay
period which provides more time for combustion. This
leads to better combustion, which eventually increases
CO2 emission with a decrease in CO emission. The
CO2 emission is found to be lowest with diesel for
3 CA retardation of injection timing compared to the
standard timing. The emission of CO2 with biodiesel
follows the similar trend with respect to advancement
or retardation of injection timing. However, the corre-
sponding values are higher compared to diesel at all
the operating conditions of injection timing. This may
be attributed to the inherent oxygen content (about
11%) in methyl soyate molecules. It may be noted that
CO2 is a greenhouse gas and its emission to the atmo-
sphere is detrimental to the environment. But during
the cultivation of the oil crops from which biodiesel is
produced, CO2 is absorbed by the plants through the
process of photosynthesis. Hence, the life cycle CO2
addition to the atmosphere is reduced substantially for
biodiesels when used as fuels for CI engines.
Particulate matter and smoke emissions
Figures 10 and 11 show the variation of particulate mat-
ter (PM) and smoke emissions respectively with brake
power for the three injection timings. It can be clearly
seen from Figures 10 and 11 that the specific PM and
the smoke emissions for both the fuels decrease with
the advancement of injection timing by 3 CA. PM and
smoke emissions are the results of incomplete

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Figure 10. Variation of specific PM emission with brake power
for different injection timings 17 , 20 and 23 bTDC for diesel
and methyl soyate.
Figure 11. Variation of smoke emission with brake power for
three different injection timings 17 , 20 and 23 bTDC for die-
sel and methyl soyate.
combustion in the fuel rich zone of the combustion
chamber.[19] Advancement of injection timing provides
more time for combustion as the fuel is injected earlier
into the combustion chamber. This leads to better com-
bustion and reduces PM emissions. Also, the soot par-
ticles get more opportunity to be oxidized and this
reduces the amount of soot in the exhaust.[20] It is also
observed that the specific PM and smoke emissions are
less with biodiesel compared to diesel for the same
injection timing. These are primarily due to the pres-
ence of certain percentage of oxygen in biodiesel and
its higher cetane number compared to diesel.[21]
Finally, it can be noted that the lowest specific PM and
smoke emissions are found with methyl soyate at 23
bTDC and the highest values are recorded with diesel
at 17 bTDC. Kannan and Anand [8] and Ganapathy et
al. [13] also reported a decrease in smoke level with the
advancement of injection timing while fuelling with
waste cooking oil biodiesel and jatropha biodiesel,
respectively.
Biofuels 7
Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn from this numeri-
cal investigation using diesel and soyabean biodiesel (also
called methyl soyate) as fuels in an unmodified CI engine.
Engine performance and emissions characteristics are
influenced by the advancement or retardation of injection
timing for both the fuels. Retarded injection timing
improves the engine performances for both diesel and
methyl soyate. The BTE increases by 4.92% and 2.38%
for methyl soyate and diesel respectively for 3 CA retar-
dation from the standard injection timing of 20 bTDC.
The only drawback of retarded injection timing is found to
be the production of higher PM and smoke. On the other
hand, advanced timing tends to improve the emission char-
acteristics except NOx emission at the cost of engine per-
formance. NOx emission increases by 15.12% and 10.45%
for methyl soyate and diesel respectively as fuels for an
advancement of injection timing by 3 CA. Between the
two fuels, diesel gives better engine performance and
emits less NOx and CO2, but the other harmful emissions
are less in case of biodiesel. The problem of higher NOx
emission can be taken care using exhaust gas recirculation
technique and the life cycle CO2 emission is always much
less in case of methyl soyate. Use of biodiesel as a CI
engine fuel with advanced injection thus can be thought to
be an option in the era of stringent emission norms.
Nomenclature
m_ j mass flow rate of jth species
m total mass within the control cylinder
Yij stoichiometric coefficients on the product side
Yicyl stoichiometric coefficients on the reactant side
Vi Molar Rate of Prod
Wmw Molecular Weight
r Density
P cylinder pressure
Tz temperature in a burnt gas zone
R gas constant
v angular crank velocity
NOe equilibrium concentrations of oxide of nitrogen
N2 e equilibrium concentrations of molecular nitrogen
Oe equilibrium concentrations of atomic oxygen
O2 e equilibrium concentrations of molecular oxygen
V current volume of cylinder
qc cycle fuel mass
dx/dt heat release rate
bTDC before top dead centre
CA crank angle
References
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DIREC_2010_Report.pdf.
 8 A. Datta and B.K. Mandal
[3] Report of the Committee on Development of Bio-Fuel,
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