ASM Handbook, Volume 15: Casting
Volume 15 Handbook Committee, p 1-8
DOI: 10.1361/asmhba0005200
Vacuum Induction Melting
MELTING UNDER VACUUM in an induc-
tion-heated crucible is a tried and tested process
in the production of liquid metal. It has its origins
in the middle of the 19th century, but the actual
technical breakthrough occurred in the second
half of the 20th century. Commercial vacuum
induction melting (VIM) was developed in the
early 1950s, having been stimulated by the need
to produce superalloys containing reactive
elements within an evacuated atmosphere. The
process is relatively exible, featuring the inde-
pendent control of time, temperature, pressure,
and mass transport through melt stirring. As such,
VIM offers more control over alloy composition
and homogeneity than other vacuum melting
processes.
Vacuum induction melting can be used to
advantage in many applications, particularly in
the case of the complex alloys employed in
aerospace engineering. The following advan-
tages have a decisive inuence on the rapid
increase of metal production by VIM:
 Flexibility due to small batch sizes
 Fast change of program for different types of
steels and alloys
 Easy operation
 Low losses of alloying elements by oxidation
 Achievement of very close compositional
tolerances
 Precise temperature control
 Low level of environmental pollution from
dust output
 Removal of undesired trace elements with
high vapor pressures
 Removal of dissolved gases, for example,
hydrogen and nitrogen
Vacuum induction melting is indispensable
in the manufacture of superalloys. Compared
to air-melting processes such electric arc fur-
naces (EAF) with argon oxygen decarburization
(AOD) converters, VIM of superalloys provides
a considerable reduction in oxygen and nitrogen
contents. Accordingly, with fewer oxides and
nitrides formed, the microcleanliness of vac-
uum-melted superalloys is greatly improved
compared to air (EAF/AOD)-melted superal-
loys. Additionally, high-vapor-pressure ele-
ments (specically lead and bismuth) that may
enter the scrap circuit during the manufacture
of superalloy components are reduced during
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the melting process. Accordingly, the vacuum- The charge generally consists of three
melted superalloys (compared to EAF/AOD- portions:
melted alloys) are improved in fatigue and
stress-rupture properties.  A virgin portion, which consists of material
Control of alloying elements also may be that has never been vacuum melted
achieved to much tighter levels than in EAF/  A refractory portion, which consists of those
AOD products. However, problems can arise virgin elements that are strong oxide formers
in the case of alloying elements with high vapor and have the tendency to increase the
pressures, such as manganese. Vacuum melting
also is more costly than EAF/AOD melting. Crucible
The EAF/AOD process allows compositional Power
modication (reduction of carbon, titanium, supply
sulfur, silicon, aluminum, etc.). In vacuum
melting, the charge remains very close in com-
position to the nominal chemistry of the initial
charge made to the furnace. Minor reductions
in carbon content may occur, and most VIM
operations now include a deliberate desulfuriza-
tion step. However, the composition is substan-
tially xed by choice of the initial charge Induction coil
materials, and these materials are inevitably
higher-priced than those that are used in
arc-AOD. To vacuum pumps
Process Description Fig. 1 Basic elements of a vacuum induction melting
furnace
A VIM furnace is simply a melting crucible
inside a steel shell that is connected to a high-
speed vacuum system (Fig. 1). The heart of
the furnace is the crucible (Fig. 2) with heat-
ing and cooling coils and refractory lining.
Heating is done by electric current that passes
through a set of induction coils. The coils are
made from copper tubing that is cooled by
water owing through the tubing. The passage
of current through the coils creates a magnetic
eld that induces a current in the charge Shunt
inside the refractory. When the heating of
Heating
the charge material is sufcient that the charge coil
has become all molten, these magnetic elds Brick
cause stirring of the liquid charge. The opti- crucible
mal induction coil frequency for heating the Cooling
charge varies with the charge shape, size, coil
and melt status (liquid or solid). Older equip-
ment used a single frequency, but newer Ground
detection
power supplies are able to be operated at var-
iable frequencies and are adjusted throughout
the melt to obtain the most rapid heating/melt- Fig. 2 Schematic of vacuum induction melting
crucible (shell, coil stack, backup lining, and
ing conditions. working lining)
2 / Vacuum Induction Melting

Bulk charger master melt, may use single-piece crucibles.

Crucible
Refractory brick linings are usually two layers.
Melting The backup lining protects the induction coil
chamber (pouring)
in the event of a failure of the outer or working
lining. The working lining is the primary inter-
Cover (removed) face with the metal and is replaced when
Launder erosion of the lining becomes excessive.
Tundish car Refractory life is also affected by the expansion
Operating
platform of the refractory during the repeated melting
Mold cycles. Refractory brick is chosen with regard
chamber Electric room to resistance to erosion and expansion. Com-
mercially available refractory brick may be
Power incompletely sintered and expands during use,
supply causing loss of crucible integrity.
The refractory material used for the crucible
lining is based on oxides such as Al2O3, MgO,
CaO, or ZrO2 (Table 1). The lining is almost
always rammed and sintered; prefabricated
Molds Shop floor brick is used in larger furnaces. Dried silicate,
combined with small oxide additions, appears
Mold
to be very suitable for crucible lining because
car of its thermal characteristics. Because of an
Vacuum system irreversible thermal expansion of 8% above
1000  C (1830  F), a high densication of the
lining takes place during sintering. For this rea-
son, this active lining is suitable for foundries.
Fig. 3 Schematic of a top-opening, double-chamber vacuum induction melting furnace The behavior of the lining refractory with
regard to stability at high temperature under
Table 1 Typical refractories used to line vacuum induction melting crucibles vacuum must also be considered.
The melting crucible material is not inert and
Maximum melt temperature Refractory density
 
is actually another source of oxygen and other
Refractory C F g/cm3 lb/in.3 Resistance to thermal shock Applications
impurities, depending on refractory type and
MgO 1600 2910 2.8 0.101 Good Superalloys, high-quality steels condition. Therefore, both melt rening temper-
Al2O3 1900 3450 3.7 0.134 Good Superalloys, high-quality steels
MgO-spinel 1900 3450 3.8 0.138 Poor Superalloys, high-quality steels
ature and rening duration are carefully scruti-
Al2O3-spinel 1900 3450 3.7 0.134 Relatively good Superalloys, high-quality steels nized. Proper melt stirring is integral to the
ZrO2 2300 4170 5.4 0.195 Poor Superalloys, high-quality steels deoxidation process and must be optimized
Graphite 2300 4170 1.5 0.054 Excellent Copper, copper alloys through proper furnace power frequency and
application procedure to prevent refractory lin-
ing erosion, a potential problem particularly
solubility of oxides and nitrides in the virgin Older VIM furnaces may have been designed during the controlled but more vigorous CO
charge as single-chamber systems with the mold put boiling portion of the process.
 A revert (or scrap) portion, which consists of inside the furnace before the beginning of the Process Sequence. Figure 4 shows a typical
both internal and external scrap that previ- melt. The molten charge is then poured into the process prole for the VIM of nickel- and
ously has been vacuum melted mold inside the furnace. Single-chamber furnaces cobalt-base superalloys. Before operation or at
thus must be opened after each heat to extract the the completion the preceding heat, the melt
Vacuum-melted scrap has already had its gas molds and put in the new molds. Most furnaces chamber is isolated from the mold chamber
content reduced to levels consistent with vac- have some system of large vacuum locks for trans- and the vacuum integrity of the furnace is veri-
uum production. Scrap, however, has the possi- ferring the prepared molds into the melt chamber. ed. Specic practices with regard to vacuum
bility of having become contaminated during In double-chamber furnaces (Fig. 3), there is a measurements will differ in detail. The deterio-
the production process, and care (expense) must separate chamber for the molds. The molten metal ration rate of the vacuum is a measurement of
be taken in the segregation and preparation of is transferred via launders (refractory-lined steel the inherent vacuum integrity of the furnace.
scrap materials for vacuum melting. troughs) to a refractory tub (tundish). Some sys- This integrity cannot be measured by vacuum
In most VIM furnaces there is a vacuum lock tems are designed to pour directly from the cruci- alone, because the large pumping capacities of
bulk charger located directly over the crucible ble into the tundish. the pumps used in VIM are able to achieve
(Fig. 3). Charge material may be added to the The tundish contains a considerable volume of low vacuum pressures even with signicant
heat through the bulk charger while melting is metal and allows residence time for entrained slag leakage into the furnace. It is considered bad
in process in the crucible. The material to be to oat to the top of the tundish and be removed practice to continuously draw air into the vac-
added is placed in bottom-opening buckets, from the pour stream. The pour stream exits the uum furnace and across the melt.
placed in the bulk charger, and the charger is bottom of the tundish. The pour time is regulated Immediately after ensuring that the furnace is
evacuated. The valve isolating the charger from by pour temperature and the nozzle diameter of vacuum-tight, the virgin portion of the charge is
the melt chamber is opened, and the bucket is the tundish. The typical tundish is designed to pro- placed into the VIM furnace rst. This may be
lowered to a point close to the crucible top vide a low-velocity ow path from the point of done by opening the furnace or, more commonly,
and the bottom opened so as to drop the charge entry of the metal to the bottom nozzle. by charging the furnace through hoppers lowered
material into the crucible. In constant operation, Refractories. Crucibles with a capacity of through a large vacuum lock (bulk charger)
if a furnace is not to be opened to the atmo- approximately 4500 to 22,500 kg (10,000 to located over the crucible. The furnace is capable
sphere, all charge material for a heat will be 50,000 lb) are generally built up from refractory of quickly pumping down to or maintaining vac-
added by this process. brick. Smaller furnaces, used for production of uum levels below 100 mm (and often into the
 Vacuum Induction Melting / 3

105 1000

Installed power
1200
104 100
Pyrometer temperature
1100
1500 2732

1400 1000
103 10 2552

Melt chamber pressure, mbar

900 Melting power

Pyrometer temperature, F
1300 2372
Pressure
Melt chamber pressure, Pa

Pyrometer temperature, C

800 rise test

100 1200 1.0 2192
Melting power, kW

1100 700 2012

Casting end
1000 600 Casting start 1832
10 0.1
900 500 All liquid 1652

800 400 1472

1.0 Additions/Sampling 0.01
Pressure rise test
300 Additions
200 Sampling
200 392
0.1 103
100 212
100
1. Charge 2. Charge 3. Charge
0.01 0 0 104 32
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Melting Refining Superheating Casting

Time, h

Fig. 4 Typical vacuum induction melting protocol for nickel- and cobalt-base superalloys

<10 mm) range. The virgin material is melted by Process Controls. Process computerization  Determination of the process steps, such as
application of current to the induction coils sur- and automation continue to enhance better completion of the rening period and the
rounding the refractory crucible. reproducibility of the melts and computer mod- suitable time for tapping
When the virgin material has been eling. Using charge and alloy calculations, it is  Advance detection of leaks in the furnace
completely melted (all molten), it outgasses. easy to achieve the required chemical analysis chamber, cooling water system, or hydraulic
The outgassing is monitored until it is com- with minimal cost. For this application, in the system
plete. The outgassing is a response of the gas ideal case, the computer is linked to the analy-  Monitoring of the state of degassing of the
in solution in the melt to the low partial pres- sis system computer so that the additives can crucible refractory lining
sures of gases in the vacuum chamber. Some be calculated and, if necessary, weighed and
degassing is accomplished because carbon in added directly after the analysis. If this alloy Remelting by VIM for Shape Casting. Vac-
the charge will form CO with the oxygen and calculation is laid out as a charge calculation, uum furnaces for precision casting are used to
also be evolved from the melt. The progress the charges and the amounts of scrap necessary remelt alloys that have already been treated in
of degassing is followed by measuring the can be optimized. The complete calculation vacuum. The remelted alloy is then precision
leak-up rate at set time intervals. When a con- system enables a calculation of the alloying ele- cast into preheated ceramic molds. Heating and
stant leak-up rate is obtained, this indicates that ments, starting with the amount of scrap needed melting in such furnaces almost always takes
degassing (rening) of the melt is complete. and proceeding to the necessary alloy addition place by induction, although some electron beam
After degassing is complete, the reactive and at the end of the rening period. melters and vacuum arc furnaces are used. Elec-
revert charges are added to bring the charge to A computer-controlled mass spectrometer tron beam furnaces offer the advantage of
its planned weight. A ladle sample is taken after system, specially developed for the VIM pro- ceramic-free melting, but they do not permit a
all additions are complete. Based on the analysis cess, can make a signicant contribution to sufciently accurate and reproducible tempera-
of this sample, trim additions are made to bring the optimization of the melting process and its ture control for charges of more than approxi-
the melt into a very precise compositional range. economics. Using a computer evaluation of mately 5 to 7 kg (11 to 15 lb). Vacuum arc
Because there are no ongoing chemical changes the gas composition in the furnace chamber, furnaces are used for titanium precision casting.
in the melting, as there are in EAF/AOD, the com- information about the state of the degassing Remelting with VIM furnaces for precision
positional requirements of a melt may be met as process and of the chemical reactions in the casting is done with two-chamber furnaces
closely as allowed by the reproducibility of chem- melt can be continuously obtained. (Fig. 5a), where the melting crucible and mold
ical analysis. After the trim additions have been The melting process can thus be controlled are in separate chambers. The mold chamber is
made, the temperature of the heat is brought pre- more exactly. Process parameters that can be preferably placed under the melting chamber so
cisely to the desired point, and the heat is poured. closely controlled include: that, in connection with another chamber for
The heat, although produced in vacuum, will still the charge or melting material, semicontinuous
have generated signicant amounts of slag from  Determination of the correct time for the operation with minimal cycle times is possible.
the products of deoxidation, desulfurization, and addition of chemically active elements and For cobalt- or nickel-base superalloys, the melt-
the deterioration of the refractory crucible lining. the sequence of addition of such elements ing chamber pressure is of the order of 0.01 Pa
4 / Vacuum Induction Melting
(104 mbar, or 7.5  105 torr), while the mold
lock would be evacuated to approximately 5 Pa
(0.05 mbar, or 0.038 torr) within 1 min.
In addition to the casting of equiaxed, direc-
tional solidication, and single-crystal blades for
gas turbine engines, vacuum precision casting
can be used for large parts (melt weights up to
1000 kg, or 2200 lb) or for the large-scale produc-
tion of small parts. Examples of large parts pro-
duced using vacuum precision casting include
compressor sections of jet engines and structural
parts for stationary turbines.
(a) (b)
Fig. 5 Shape casting with vacuum induction melting, (a) Computer-controlled vacuum furnace with mold chamber.
(b) Precision-cast turbocharger wheels for automotive engines. From left: mold with integrated crucible, bar
stick, cast part, machined turbocharger wheel
Fig. 6 Potential processing routes for products cast from vacuum induction melting (VIM) ingots or electrodes. VAR, vacuum are remelting; ESR, electroslag remelting; EB, electron
beam; HIP, hot isostatic pressing. Source: Ref 1
A typical small casting produced by this
method is a turbocharger wheel for automotive
engines (Fig. 5b). Automotive turbocharger
wheels weighing 400 to 500 g (0.9 to 1.1 lb)
are produced in automatic precision casting
machines. Total cycle time, including 40 s for
melting, is typically 90 to 100 s. In the produc-
tion of such small parts, the crucible is often
integrated into the mold. Casting yields of 80
to 90% are obtained.
Filters. One of the most critical stages with
respect to cleanliness is the pouring of the melt.
Ceramic foam lters are used in some master
metal operations to remove relatively large melt
inclusions by means of entrapment. Foam lters
are most effective where extremely high pour
rate conditions and gross cleanliness problems
prevail. Filter performance often varies because
of the occasional use of lters with poor
mechanical strength and/or thermal shock resis-
tance. Foam cell particle breakage often results
from handling during shipment or tundish
installation and, if undetected, results in lter
particulate in the alloy bar stock and subse-
quently cast components. Optimized VIM tech-
nology and practice without lters provide a
clean alloy, without the inherent risks asso-
ciated with lter use when applied to master
metal production.
VIM Metallurgy
Vacuum induction melting is often done as
the primary melting operation followed by sec-
ondary melting (remelting) operations such as
electroslag remelting (ESR) and/or vacuum arc
remelting (VAR).Various processing routes fol-
lowing VIM are illustrated in Fig. 6. Some
superalloys are produced by a triple-melt
sequence (VIM/ESR/VAR), where the VIM
ingot is typically referred to as an electrode
for subsequent ESR and/or VAR operation.
The casting weight can vary from a few kilo-
grams to 30 Mg (33 tons), depending on
whether the VIM furnace is being used for

precision casting or for the production of ingots
or electrodes for further remelting.
There are many different metallurgical factors
that arise with induction furnace melting. The
crucible material has an extraordinary effect on
the metal/slag reaction because the ceramic outer
wall reacts with the liquid metal and with the
slag. In a VIM furnace, slag would be transported
to the crucible wall by the characteristic bath
movement. The result is that the slag solidies
at the wall and therefore has an insufcient reac-
tion with the melt. It is therefore benecial to use
a slag that is more or less saturated with the oxi-
des of the crucible lining in order to minimize
heavy slag attack of the lining.
In contrast to the ladle metallurgy processes
with EAF, the crucible wall lining is susceptible
to signicantly higher erosion than the brick wall
of a ladle. For this reason, metallurgical opera-
tions such as dephosphorization and desulfuriza-
tion are limited. The metallurgy of VIM is
primarily limited to the pressure-dependent reac-
tions, such as carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, and
hydrogen, and the evaporation of undesired ele-
ments with high vapor pressures, such as copper,
lead, bismuth, tellurium, and antimony.
Cleanliness can be signicantly improved if a
reactive liquid slag capable of absorbing oxides
and suldes is in contact with the melt. Vacuum
induction furnaces are generally not operated
with active slags. Therefore, reaction products
can precipitate only on the crucible walls, and
the melt may not be as clean as with other pro-
cessing methods.
Because the various alloys produced in vac-
uum induction furnaces must meet the highest
quality requirements and because the vacuum
induction furnace is primarily a consolidation
unit and only secondarily a rening unit, the fol-
lowing methods are used to produce clean melts:
 Selection of a more stable refractory mate-
rial for the crucible lining
 Rinsing of the melt with inert gas
 Minimizing the contact time of the melt in
the crucible
 Exact temperature control to minimize cru-
cible reactions with the melt
Fig. 7 Vacuum induction rening process
 Suitable deslagging and ltering techniques
during pouring
 Conception of a suitable tundish and launder
system for good oxide removal
For particular applications, however, the
quality of the material produced by VIM will
not be sufcient to satisfy the highest quality
requirements with respect to cleanliness and
primary structure. In this case, the VIM-pro-
duced material must undergo secondary melting
processes (Fig. 6).
VIM Renement Process. The primary pro-
cess of melt renement is the removal of melt-
contained oxygen by means of a reaction with
carbon to form carbon monoxide (CO). The reac-
tion occurs most readily at or near the melt sur-
face, with the reaction kinetics being affected
by crucible geometry and melt stirring. The CO
bubbles form along the walls and, sometimes,
bottom of the melt/lining-refractory interface
(Fig. 7). This occurs preferentially at small cre-
vices existing in the lining, with the bubbles
growing during movement toward the molten
metal/vacuum interface (Ref 2). Actual bubble
formation is dependent on the number of gas
molecules present, the pressure in the liquid at
the level of the bubble, the temperature of the
gas, and, for very small bubbles, the interfacial
tension between the gas and the liquid metal.
Following formation, bubble growth and
mass transport within the liquid toward the liq-
uid/vacuum interface is dependent on:
 The quantity of the dissolved gas
 The decreased pressure exerted on the bub-
ble as it rises in the melt
 The bath temperature
 The time it takes for the bubble to rise
through the melt to the surface, which, in
turn, is a function of melt stirring
 The pressure above the melt
 The interfacial tension between the bubble
and the liquid metal
The relatively vigorous, but controlled, portion
of the boiling process results in the greatest
CO removal. Concurrently, a slight nitrogen
Vacuum Induction Melting / 5
loss is realized because of scavenging asso-
ciated with the CO bubbles, and a slight sulfur
reduction may occur during the CO supersatu-
ration stage via sulfur dioxide (SO2) evolution.
Minor tramp elements such as lead, silver, bis-
muth, selenium, and tellurium are partially eva-
porated during this period as well as throughout
the entire rening process (Ref 3). Some unde-
sirable elements, however, such as arsenic and
tin, must be controlled through raw materials
selection because they are not removed by
vacuum rening.
Bath rening from a somewhat vigorous CO
boil is undertaken at a temperature and duration
long enough to reach the so-called system equi-
librium conditions, the assurance of which is
provided by the attainment of consistent fur-
nace leak-up rates. At this point, there is the
addition of the refractory charge, which
includes elements with reactivity toward oxy-
gen (for example, aluminum, titanium, zirco-
nium, and hafnium) that were withheld from
the virgin charge because of their reactivity.
Revert charge is also added. Once the boiling
subsides, surface desorption of additional CO
occurs, and it is during this nonboiling period
that nitrogen removal (desorption) is most
effective (Ref 4).
Trace Element Removal. The removal of
undesired volatile trace elements, such as arse-
nic, antimony, tellurium, selenium, bismuth,
and copper, from the vacuum induction furnace
is of considerable practical importance. These
elements must be held to very low concentra-
tions to avoid the risk of premature part failure,
particularly for the production of superalloys
for critical applications, such as jet engine
parts. Figure 8 shows the inuence of some
trace elements on the stress-rupture properties
of alloy 718. Because of the high vapor pres-
sures of most of the undesirable trace elements,
they can be kept to very low levels by distilla-
tion during melting under vacuum.
Figure 9 shows how the different trace ele-
ments behave under vacuum. In a nickel-chro-
mium melt, arsenic, antimony, and tin cannot
be reduced over the gas phase, while copper,
lead, selenium, tellurium, and bismuth can be
reduced to a level far below 10 ppm.
Nitrogen Degassing. Nitrogen gas can be
decreased because its solubility at constant tem-
perature is directly proportional to its partial
pressures. As long as no strong nitride-forming
elements are present in the melt, there is no dif-
culty in reducing the nitrogen content to 20
ppm (Ref 79). When nitride-forming elements
such as chromium, vanadium, aluminum, and
titanium are present, the activity of the nitrogen
is very low; therefore, removal of nitrogen
under high vacuum is difcult. If low nitrogen
contents are desired in alloys containing
nitride-forming elements, raw materials low in
nitrogen must be used.
Figure 10 shows the reduction in nitrogen
levels obtained in the VIM of a die steel. From
an average level of approximately 400 ppm at
the beginning of treatment, the nitrogen has
6 / Vacuum Induction Melting

200 99.9
99.5
99

160 97.5 After treatment

95

Frequency, %
Silver 90
Selenium

Concentration, %
80
Rupture life, h

120 70 Before treatment

Lead 60
50
40
80 30
20
Bismuth
10
40 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
Hydrogen, ppm

0 Fig. 11
Reduction in hydrogen content of
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 X38CrMoV51 die steel after vacuum
induction degassing
Impurity content, ppm

Fig. 8 Effect of trace elements on the stress-rupture properties of alloy 718. Test conditions: 650  C (1200  F), 690
MPa (100 ksi). Source: Ref 5 prevent refractory lining erosion, a potential prob-
lem particularly during the controlled but more
(0.5)
vigorous CO boiling portion of the process.
99.9
Arsenic The nal attainable oxygen content for a
99.5 given carbon content is directly proportional
Tin 99 After treatment
97.5
to the CO partial pressure. The theoretical
0.1 equilibrium values for oxygen are below 1
95 With argon bubbling
Frequency, %

Antimony 90 ppm in carbon-containing iron or nickel melts

Without argon bubbling
at 1600  C (2910  F) and at a pressure of 0.1
80
70
Pa (103 mbar, or 7.5  104 torr). However,
the actual values are up to 1 order of magnitude
Concentration, %

Selenium
0.01
Copper
Lead
103
Tellurium
(3103)
0 20 40 60
Time, min
Fig. 9 Evaporation of trace elements from Ni-20Cr
melts under vacuum. Source: Ref 6
been reduced to a level of 50 ppm. Additional
argon purging during melting of the steel
did not improve nitrogen removal. In the case
of iron-nickel melts, however, the additional
argon purging reduces nitrogen to much lower
values.
Hydrogen Degassing. Like nitrogen, hydro-
gen can be decreased via the gas phase because
its solubility is directly proportional to its par-
tial pressure. The solubility of hydrogen at
atmospheric pressure and at 1600  C (2910
 melt stirring is integral to the deoxidation process
F) in iron or nickel melts is in the range of
30 ppm. During VIM, the hydrogen can be
removed to very low concentrations. Figure 11
60
50
40
30 Before treatment
20
10
0 100 200 300
Nitrogen content, ppm
Bismuth Fig. 10 Reduction in nitrogen content of X38CrMoV51
(Fe-0.38C-5.2Cr-1.3Mo-0.4V-1Si-0.4Mn) die
steel after vacuum induction melting processing
80 100 120 shows the hydrogen contents of a die steel
before and after vacuum treatment.
It is evident from Fig. 11 that nal hydrogen
contents below 1 ppm can be routinely
achieved. The reduction in hydrogen during
the degassing treatment amounts to approxi-
mately 80%. Argon purging had no perceptible
inuence. The bath agitation in the case of this
furnace, which is operating at normal fre-
quency, is sufcient for hydrogen removal.
Similar results were also obtained for the VIM
processing of superalloys.
Deoxidation of the melt in the vacuum induc-
tion furnace can be done via the generation of CO
gas (C + O ! CO). The removal of oxygen from
the melt as CO is favored by decreased melt
chamber pressure, elevated bath temperature,
and increased carbon activity (Ref 10). Proper
and must be optimized through proper furnace
power frequency and application procedure to
higher. These higher oxygen contents result
from impurities in the crucible lining, crucible
outgassing and leakage, and, above all, the fact
that the reaction does not reach equilibrium
with decreasing oxygen content because of the
400 500
difculty of CO nucleation.
In addition, the hydrostatic pressure of the
liquid metal in the melt must be taken into
account because only a relatively small bath
surface area is in direct contact with the pre-
vailing vacuum pressure. However, the inu-
ence of the liquid-metal hydrostatic pressure
can be minimized through the use of additional
agitation effects.
The CO reaction occurs in two stages
(Ref 1). The rst stage is boiling, that is, the
formation of CO bubbles within the melt along
with a strong bath agitation as a result of this
gas formation. The second stage is desorption,
in which no more CO bubbles form inside the
melt, and CO formation takes place only at
the bath surface.
Deoxidation with carbon is also a decarburi-
zation reaction, which is used for the produc-
tion of low-carbon high-chromium steels. By
using the CO reaction under vacuum, very low
carbon contents can be achieved without a
noticeable loss of chromium. The oxygen con-
tent in such alloys is higher because of the
decrease in oxygen activity due to chromium.
In this case, precipitation deoxidation using alu-
minum, silicon, or titanium must be applied.
The CO partial pressures at which the lining
oxides are reduced by carbon in the melt are:

Carbon monoxide partial pressure
Lining material kPa
CaO 0.04
ZrO2 0.13
MgO 0.53
Al2O3 0.53
SiO2 81.1
Source: Ref 1
It is evident that CaO represents the stable
crucible material, while SiO2 is reduced at rela-
tively high pressure. Apart from that, SiO2 can
be reduced by alloying elements such as man-
ganese, chromium, aluminum, titanium, or zir-
conium. This can cause a heavy chemical
erosion of the lining, accompanied by an unde-
sired silicon pickup in the melt. Because of
these undesired reactions with a silica lining, a
spinel-forming basic refractory material is used
for the melting of high-grade steels and superal-
loys. The spinel formation during sintering
leads to volume growth; therefore, as with the
oxidic material, a densication of the rammed
lining takes place.
The vacuum induction degassing and
pouring (VIDP) furnace (Fig. 12) is a varia-
tion of the conventional VIM furnace. The
VIDP furnace design employs a modular con-
cept that allows for connecting it to casting
units for ingot casting, horizontal and vertical
continuous casting, or powder production.
Because of the smaller volume of the VIDP fur-
nace compared to the VIM furnace and signi-
cantly lower desorption and leakage rates, it is
possible to obtain very low pressures with
lower pumping capacity. The lower part of the
furnace can be decoupled and replaced rapidly;
therefore, the VIDP furnace enables faster
replacement of different furnace vessels with
changes of alloy.
Fig. 12 Schematic of the vacuum induction degassing
and pouring furnace
Melting Bath Agitation. As noted, melt agi-
torr tation is an important process factor. Agitation
is caused by the induction coil itself, depending
0.3
1.0 on the power input and the installed frequency.
4.0 Stirring is directly proportional to the amount of
4.0 induced power and inversely proportional to the
610.0 square root of the frequency. Therefore, a more
intense stirring for a given size furnace occurs
at a higher power and a lower frequency.
Bath agitation from the induction coil is basi-
cally limited to the meltdown period. It can be
done with the induction coil alone only if there
is a high-power input and therefore strong bath
heating. This high temperature increase is not
always metallurgically desirable. For this rea-
son, two agitation systems are offered in state-
of-the-art vacuum induction furnaces:
 Electromagnetic agitation with an additional
coil
 Agitation by argon purging through the bot-
tom of the crucible
The difference between the electromagnetic
agitation by a separate coil and the agitation
caused by the electromagnetic forces of the main
coil lies in the fact that the bath can be more vig-
orously stirred without a temperature increase.
A second transformer would be needed.
Another method of bath agitation is derived
from the principle of argon purging usually
applied in ladle metallurgy. Argon purging has
a long history of use in atmospheric melting
furnaces. A characteristic of this purging is that
the porous plug is not in direct contact with the
liquid melt. Instead, the plug is covered with
refractory material identical to that used for
the crucible lining (Fig. 13). The basic differ-
ence is that the porous plug is in direct contact
with the melt and is suitable for operating under
Crucible lining
Fig. 13 Argon purging system for vacuum induction melting furnaces
Vacuum Induction Melting / 7
vacuum. This ensures that the admitted purging
gas ows through the melt and does not take
the path of least resistance through the lining
of the crucible.
Both agitation processes offer advantages
with regard to higher reaction rates, correct
temperature adjustment, homogenization with
simultaneously lower erosion of the crucible
lining, and better cleaning of the melt. Figure
14 shows the three different agitation methods
operating in a typical VIM process sequence.
The agitation effect at 200 to 500 Hz in
the melting phase assists in shortening the
melting time. In the rening and superheating
periods, it is better to use electromagnetic agita-
tion at 50 to 60 Hz or argon purging through a
porous plug.
Production of Nonferrous Materials
Apart from melting high-grade steels and
superalloys, VIM is being increasingly used
for the production of nonferrous metals and
alloys. Table 2 shows some examples for possi-
ble use in nonferrous metallurgy.
Aluminum alloys with additives such as zir-
conium, titanium, beryllium, cerium, tellurium,
and cadmium must be melted under vacuum
or under inert gas atmosphere because of their
high reactivity with air and, in some cases, their
toxicity. Aluminum-lithium alloys are also can-
didates for VIM processing.
Copper Alloys. The production of high-
purity copper having less than 2 ppm O can
be accomplished only in a vacuum induction
furnace. Oxygen content inuences the electri-
cal conductivity of copper alloys; the lower
the oxygen content, the higher the electrical
conductivity (Ref 11). For the production of
Exchangeable
porous plug
Basic set
8 / Vacuum Induction Melting

oxygen-free copper, melting and casting must
be carried out under vacuum.
Selective Evaporation of Alloying Ele-
ments. The use of vacuum metallurgy is primarily
linked with degassing and decarburization. A side
effect of these treatments is the evaporation of
elements with high vapor pressures. In nonferrous
metallurgy, this effect is used for the distillation of
metalsfor example, for the separation of
lead and zinc in lead rening, in zinc production,
and for the reduction of magnesium and
nonalkali metals. Similarly, copper can be rened
from copper scrap by using the vacuum to evapo-
rate volatile elements such as lead and zinc
(Ref 12).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Portions of this article were adapted from:

 A. Choudhury and H. Kemmer, Vacuum
Melting and Remelting Processes, Casting,
Vol 15, ASM Handbook, ASM International,
1988, p 393425
 M. Donachie and S. Donachie, Superalloys:
A Technical Guide, ASM International, 2002
 G.L. Erickson, Polycrystalline Cast Superal-
loys, Properties and Selection: Irons, Steels,
and High-Performance Alloys, Vol 1, ASM
Handbook, ASM International, 1990

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