D2 1 CLASS WP2 SOTA Permeable Pavement Systems and Materials

VTT-R-08222-13
RESEARCH REPORT
Pervious pavement systems and

materials
State-of-the-Art
Authors: Hannele Kuosa, Emma Niemelinen and Kalle Loimula
Confidentiality: Public
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95 p.
RESEARCH REPORT VTT-R-08222-13
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Preface
This is a WP2 State-of-the-Art report in the Finnish CLASS-project (Climate Adaptive
Surfaces, 201214). This project develops surfacing materials and pavement structures to
mitigate impacts of climate change in urban environments. The new materials are surfacing
layers of porous concrete, porous asphalt and interlocking modular paving stones together
with subbase structures of aggregate, pipes, geotextiles and water storage tanks and other
systems. The CLASS-project is funded by TEKES (Finnish Funding Agency for Technology
and Innovation) together with VTT, Finnish cities, companies and organizations.
Participants of the steering group in the CLASS-project are:

Pirjo Sirn (chairperson), Espoon kaupunki, tekninen keskus
Markus Sunela, FCG Suunnittelu ja tekniikka Oy
Osmo Torvinen, Helsingin kaupunki, Rakennusvirasto
Tommi Fred, Helsingin seudun ympristpalvelut kuntayhtym (HSY)
Olli Bk, Kaitos Oy
Pekka Jauhiainen, Kiviteollisuusliitto ry
Lars Forstn, Lemminkinen Infra Oy
Pasi Heikkil, Oulun kaupunki
Mika Ervasti, Pipelife Finland Oy
Tomi Tahvonen, Puutarha Tahvoset Oy
Juha Forsman, Ramboll Finland Oy
Tiina Suonio, RTT Betoniteollisuus
Kimmo Puolakka, Rudus Oy Ab
Kati Alakoski, Saint Gobain Weber Oy Ab
Ismo Hkkinen, SITO
Antti Auvinen, Vantaan kaupunki
Angelica Roschier, TEKES
Eila Lehmus, VTT
Espoo, December 2013
Hannele Kuosa, Emma Niemelinen and Kalle Loimula

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Summary
In the Finnish CLASS-project (Climate Adaptive Surfaces, 201214) new pervious surfacing
materials and pervious pavement structures are developed to mitigate climate change
associated with increased rain intensities and amounts. These pervious structures can
decrease flooding for instance in cities with large areas of impervious surfaces. They can be
a part of the overall stormwater system decreasing the need of conventional drainage
systems.
This CLASS-project State-of-the-Art Report reviews published research results and field
experiences on pervious pavements, especially with regards to the materials and products
needed in these structures. This report is a part of WP2 where pervious pavement materials
are studied also experimentally. Other more specific CLASS-project State-of-the-Art Reports
are sited in this report. These other reports are concentrated on the city demands with
respect to pervious structures, laboratory and field testing methods for pervious pavements
and pavement materials, winter performance of pervious pavements, impact of pervious
pavement on water quality as well as pervious pavement dimensioning and hydrological
permeable pavement models and their parameter needs.
All the CLASS-project State-of-the-Art Reports were made to serve as the basis for the
Finnish guidelines on the construction and maintenance of pervious pavements. For this the
winter performance and durability of pervious pavements in the climates types close to the
Finnish climate, including also hard winter periods, are reviewed especially.
With respect to the surfacing material, the main pavement types included are pervious
concrete pavement (PCP), permeable interlocking concrete pavement (PICP) together with
permeable natural stone pavement (PNSP) and porous asphalt pavement (PAP). Besides,
examples on some other permeable surfacing types as green solutions are included shortly.
Detailed material specific information, such as mix design and durability information or other
essential information on the surfacing type is reviewed to gain State-of-the-Art knowledge
prior to the production of the surfacing materials and pervious pavement structures later on in
the project.
As the whole pavement structure is more than essential for the function of a pervious
pavement, also the materials and products needed to build the substructures are included.
These materials include aggregates used in the different pavement layers (bedding, base,
subbase) below the surfacing layer, as well as geotextiles, impervious liners and water
draining and collection systems.
Clogging is an inherent property of all the pervious pavements, and proper maintenance
actions are therefore also essential. This report reviews also research results and
experiences on these both. Also some studies on how pervious pavement can serve as so
called cool pavement, to mitigate the heat island effect, are reviewed shortly. Besides, some
points of views are presented on the costs and service life of pervious pavements.
The choice of what kind of pervious pavement to use is influenced by site-specific design
factors, and the intended future use of the permeable surface. The major design goal of
permeable pavement is to maximize runoff reduction and nutrient removal. Designers may
choose to use a baseline permeable pavement design or an enhanced design that
maximizes nutrient and runoff reduction. In all there are several functional demands for
pervious pavements to fill, as presented in this report. Below is a list to consider:
surface infiltration capacity, drainage, surface layer permeability
water storage capacity (by aggregate base and subbase, by other draining and
collection systems)
water quality enhancement capacity
bearing capacity
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durability, service life

winter performance
costs (construction, maintenance)
service life
suitability for reuse or recycling.
Yhteenveto
Suomalaisessa CLASS projektissa (CLimate Adaptive SurfaceS, 201214) kehitetn uusia
vett lpisevi ympristrakenteiden pinnoitteita sek niihin oleellisesti liittyvi alusraken-
teita, jotka ovat mys vett lpisevi, mutta toimivat ennen kaikkea vett varastoivina ker-
roksina. Koko rakenteen toiminnan kannalta oleellista on mys se, ett rakenteen kantavuus
ja muut ominaisuudet ovat kyttkohteen asettamien vaatimusten mukaisia. Erityisesti pro-
jektissa kiinnitetn huomiota siihen, ett tllaiset rakenteet soveltuvat Suomen ilmasto- ja
muihin olosuhteisiin. Kylmss ilmastossa on otettava huomioon sek routa ett jtymis-
sulamissyklien vaikutukset.
Vett lpisevt pllysteet ksittvt yleens pintakerroksen ja alapuolisen rakennekerrok-

sen, joka koostuu kiviaineksesta sek pohjalla olevasta suodatinkerroksesta tai -kankaasta.
Lisksi on olemassa monenlaisia muunnelmia, joissa voi olla esimerkiksi erilaisia lpisevi
materiaaleja sek putkirakenteita, siliit ja muita systeemej, erityisesti pohjamaan ollessa
vett lpisemtnt. Avoimessa systeemiss vesi virtaa suoraan rakennekerrosten lpi.
Suljetussa systeemeiss vesi ei siirry alapuoliseen maapern vaan vesi johdetaan salaoja-
putkilla pois. Tm voi olla tarpeen, jos pohjamaa on huonosti vett lpisev tai veden ei
haluta siirtyvn suoraan pohjavedeksi. Tllin vesi voidaan varastoida esimerkiksi muovi- tai
betoniholveihin tai ns. hulevesikasettijrjestelmiin.
Lpisevill rakenteilla voidaan vhent ilmastonmuutoksen eli lisntyvien ja voimistuvien

sateiden haitallisia vaikutuksia kuten tulvimista ja tavanomaisen sadevesiverkoston ylikuor-
mittumista. Lpisevill rakenteilla voidaan vaikuttaa mys hulevesien kemialliseen kuormit-
tavuuteen. Erityisesti ne soveltuvat kaupunkeihin ja muille alueille, joissa erilaisten vett
lpisemttmien pintojen mr on suuri. Muutoin ne soveltuvat ominaisuuksiensa puolesta
parhaiten kevyen liikenteen vylille ja alueille ja sek muille suhteellisen vhisen kuormituk-
sen alueille kuten henkilliikenteen pyskintialueille sek kvelyalueille ja vylille. Pinta-
materiaalin valinnalla voidaan vaikuttaa useisiin tekijihin kuten toimivuuteen vedenlpise-
vyyden ja sen pysyvyyden osalta, silyvyysominaisuuksiin Suomen olosuhteissa sek es-
teettisyyteen.
Tm State-of-the-Art raportti (nykytilakatsaus), joka on tehty CLASS-projetin WP2:ssa

(Material and Products Development) keskittyy lhinn lpiseviss rakenteissa kytettviin
materiaaleihin ja tuotteisiin sek niiden toimintaan. Raportti perustuu julkaistuun tietoon, tut-
kimustuloksiin ja julkaistuihin kytnnn kokemuksiin. Muissa projektin State-of-the-Art
raporteissa, joihin tss raportissa viitataan, ksitelln mm. kaupunkien tarpeita vett lpi-
sevien rakenteiden osalta, rakenteiden ja niiss kytettvien materiaalien tutkimuksessa,
testauksessa ja laadunvalvonnassa kytettviss olevia standardoituja ja muita menetelmi,
rakenteiden talvikyttytymist routimisen ja lpisevyyden kannalta, rakenteiden vaikutusta
vesilaatuun, rakenteiden mitoitusta sek kantavuuden ett hydrologisen toiminnan osalta
sek eri laajuuden hydrologisen toiminnan malleja ja niiss tarvittavia parametreja.
Sek tm ett muut CLASS-projektin State-of-the-Art raportit palvelevat projektin Suomeen

ja sen olosuhteisiin soveltuvan ohjeistuksen laadinnassa. Tm ohjeistus tulee sisltmn
sek rakentamisen ett ominaisuuksien kuten erityisesti riittvn lpisevyyden yllpidon.
Erityist huomiota joudutaan tllin kiinnittmn Suomen talviolosuhteiden kuten routasy-
vyyden sek toistuvien jdytys-sulatussyklein kautta tuleviin vaatimuksiin.
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Vett lpisevt pllysteet voidaan pintamateriaalista riippuen luokitella huokoiseksi tai

lpisevksi ja ne voivat olla joko monoliittisia (yht kappaletta olevia) tai modulaarisia (toi-
siinsa liitettvist kappaleista koostuvia). Huokoisen pintamateriaalin tapauksessa vesi lpi-
see koko pinta-alan; lpisevt pllysteet sen sijaan koostuvat yleens vett lpisemtt-
mist kivist tai laatoista, joiden vliss on kiviainesta, joka pst veden lvitseen. Tss
raportissa lhemmin ksiteltvt lpisevn rakenteen pintamateriaalit ovat lpisev betoni
(pervious concrete pavement, PCP), lpisev betonikivipinnoite (permeable interlocking
concrete pavement, PICP) sek lpisev luonnonkivipinnoite (permeable natural stone
pavement, PNSP) ja avoin asfaltti (porous asphalt pavement, PAP). Lisksi ksitelln lyhy-
esti joitakin muita lpisevi pinnoitteita kuten nk. vihreit ratkaisuja.
Lpisevn betonin huokoisuus, lpisevyys ja lujuus ovat suhteessa toisiinsa. Esimerkiksi

avointa huokoisuutta 1520% voi vastata 2025 MPa lujuus ja noin 12 mm/s vedenlpi-
sevyys. Todelliset arvot ovat kuitenkin aina tapauskohtaisia ja niihin vaikuttaa paitsi betoni-
massan koostumus mys valettavan laatan tiivistystekniikka ja sen teho.
Lpisevn betonin avoin rakenne pst veden materiaalin sislle, mik aiheuttaa haas-
teita kylmss ilmastossa, kuten Suomessa. Ensisijaisesti lpiseviss rakenteissa pyritn
siihen, ett pinta-osa ei pse kyllstymn pitkaikaisesti vedell. Tmn ehkisemisess
alapuoliset vett johtavat kerrokset ovat oleellisessa asemassa. Lisksi on kuitenkin havaittu,
ett lpisevn betonin tulee olla erityisesti kaikkein vaikeimmissa olosuhteissa mys hyvin
jdytys-sulatusrasitusta kestv. Tm asettaa omat vaatimuk-sensa sen koostumukselle
ja mikrorakenteelle. Tutkimustulosten mukaan lpisevn betonin valmistuksessa tulee
kytt huokostavaa lisainetta, jotta mys sen sideaineeseen voi massan sekoitusvaihees-
sa muodostua pieni pakkasvaurioitumiselta suojaavia suojahuokosia. Pelkk avoin vett
lpisev makrotason huokosrakenne ei kykene suojaamaan sementtipastaa kauttaaltaan.
Avoin asfaltti on toinen vett lpisev pllystemateriaali. Avoimen asfaltin huokoisuus on

yleens 1520%. Toiminnallisesti avoin asfaltti vastaa muita vett lpisevi pllystemate-
riaaleja. Avoimia asfaltteja on kytetty 70-luvulta alkaen mm. Pohjois-Amerikassa. Euroo-
passa niit kytetn mm. Sveitsiss ja Hollannissa. Suomen Asfalttinormeissa avointa
asfalttia suositellaan kytettvksi kevyesti liikennidyill asuinalueilla, kentill ja pihoilla.
Avoin asfaltti on yleens halvempi kuin muut vett lpisevt pllysteet. Asianmukaisella
rakentamisella ja snnllisell yllpidolla avoin asfaltti on pitkikinen ja kyttkelpoinen
pllystemateriaali erityisesti paikoitusalueilla ja vhn liikennidyill teill. Avoimen asfaltin
huonot puolet ovat huokosten tukkeutuminen ja heikompi kantavuus kuin tavallisella asfaltil-
la. Kun huokoset tukkeutuvat hiekoituksen ja huleveden mukana kulkeutuvan hienoaineksen
johdosta, vedenlpisevyys huononee kuten kaikilla muillakin vett lpisevill pinnoiterat-
kaisuilla. Tukkeutuminen on potentiaalinen ongelma, mutta riittvn usein toistuva tehokas
puhdistus on havaittu hyvksi keinoksi riittvn lpisevyyden yllpitoon. Tyypillisi puhdis-
tusmenetelmi ovat alipaineimu, pesu ja lakaisu.
Kolmas vett lpisev pllystetyyppi koostuu betoni- tai luonnonkivist tai betoni- tai luon-
nonkivilaatoista. Mys itse betonikivet tai laatat voivat olla vett lpisevi, mutta yleens
saumat tai aukkokohdat lpisevt veden. Sauma/aukkomateriaalin eli yleens kiviaineksen
tulee olla thn tarkoitukseen rakeisuudeltaan sopivaa. Rakeisuus, jossa kivet voivat pak-
kautuvat tiivisti tai suuri hienoaineksen mr eivt ole lpisevyyden kannalta hyvksi.
Lisksi saumojen tai aukkojen mrn tulee olla riittvn suuri, yleens 515 % pinta-alasta.
Pkriteeri on kuitenkin riittv koko pinnoiteratkaisun vedenlpisevyys.
Muitakin vett lpisevi pintaratkaisuja on olemassa kuten reiklaattoja ja -kivi sek nurmi-
ja sorakennostoja. Erilaisten ratkaisujen lpisevyydess on suuria eroja ja aukkojen tytt-
materiaali vaikuttaa siihen oleellisesti. Koko rakenteen hydrologisen toiminnan kannalta
oleellista on mys se, kuinka hyvin valittavat alusrakenteet lpisevt vett.
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Lhemmin ksiteltvien pintamateriaalien osalta niiden koostumuksesta ja ominaisuuksista

olevaa tietoa on kyty lpi niin tarkoin, ett sit voidaan hydynt CLASS-projektin jatkos-
sa, kun materiaaleja valmistetaan laboratoriossa ja kytnnss. Tllainen tietous liittyy mm.
massakoostumuksiin (mix design), eri kytttarkoituksen kiviaineksiin ja niiden rakeisuuteen
(lpisev betoni, avoin asfaltti, erilliskivien asennus- ja saumahiekka), materiaalien huokoi-
suuteen, lpisevyyteen, lujuuteen ja silyvyyteen kuten pakkasen-kestoon ja pakkas-suola-
kestoon (tiesuolaus).
Lpisevn rakenteen toiminnan kannalta pintamateriaalin ja sen lpisevyyden lisksi mys

koko rakenteen eli kaikkien sen kerrosten ominaisuudet ovat erittin oleellisia. Tm raportti
sislt mys alusrakenteissa kytettvt materiaalit ja tuotteet. Nit ovat erityisesti kanta-
van ja jakavan kerroksen kiviainekset sek geotekstiilit ja -membraanit sek veden johtami-
sessa kytettvt tuotteet ja varastoinnissa kytettvt tuotteet kuten silit ja kasettisys-
teemit.
Lpisevn rakenteen luontainen ominaisuus on sen ajan kuluessa tapahtuva tukkeutumi-

nen. Tukkeutuminen on pitklti suhteessa rakenteen sijaintiin ja ympristn tukkeutumiseen
vaikuttaviin tekijihin sek erityisesti lpisevn rakenteen huoltoon ja puhdistukseen.
Yleens kunnollinen huolto ja puhdistus ovat vlttmttmi pitkaikaisen toiminnan takaa-
miseksi. Raportissa kydn lpi lpisevyydest, tukkeutumisesta ja lpisevyyden
palauttamisesta saatuja tutkimustuloksia ja kytnnn kokemuksia.
Vett lpisev rakenne voi toimia mys viilentvn eli nk. Heat island effecti vhent-
vsti (cool pavement). Tst esitetn joitakin tuloksia. Raportissa ksitelln mys teki-
jit, jotka tulee ottaa huomioon lpisevn rakenteen rakentamis- ja kyttkustannuksia
sek kyttik arvioitaessa.
Lpisevn rakenteen tyyppi valittaessa tulee kustannusten ja kyttin lisksi ottaa huo-
mioon kaikki vaikuttavat paikalliset tekijt ja olosuhteet. Nit ovat mm. alueen ja pllysteen
kytt ja sen asettamat vaatimukset sek hydrologian ett kantavuuden ja kestvyyden
osalta. Arkkitehtoniset ja esteettiset tekijt vaikuttavat mys oleellisesti pintamateriaalin
valinnassa. Ulkonltn erilaisia ja erilaisiin kohteisiin soveltuvia pintamateriaaleja onkin
paljon. Raportissa on esitetty joitakin sek ulko- ett kotimaisia esimerkkej. Erityisesti Suo-
malaiselle materiaali- ja tuotekehitykselle on kuitenkin viel paljon sijaa.
Lpisevien rakenteiden oleellisia suunnittelutavoitteita ovat sek mahdollisimman suuri

pintavalumien pienentminen ett niiden mukana ympristn ja vesistihin kulkeutuvien
haitallisten aineiden mrn pienentminen. Suunnittelussa voidaan joko valita tietty nor-
maalitason perusratkaisu tai ratkaisu, joka maksimoi lpisevn rakenteen toiminnan sek
hydrologisen ett vett puhdistavan toiminnan osalta. Kaikkiaan lpisevlle rakenteelle voi-
daan asettaa useita funktionaalisia vaatimuksia. Raportissa on mys esitetty tyypillisi vaa-
timuksia ja soveltuvin osin mys numeerisina arvoina. Alla on lueteltu oleellisimmat tekijt,
joille voidaan asettaa funktionaalinen vaatimus:
pinnan tai rakenteen vedenlpisevyys
veden varastointikapasiteetti (kiviaineskerrokset tai muut vedenjohto- ja/tai varas-
tointituotteet)
vesilaadun parantamiskapasiteetti
kantavuus
kestvyys-, silyvyysominaisuudet
kyttik
huollettavuus, lpisevyyden palautettavuus
talvikyttytyminen (aurattavuus, liukkaus, kitka, routivuus, ym.)
kustannukset (rakentaminen, huolto, peruskorjaus)
materiaalien kierrtettvyys, uusiokytt.
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Contents
Preface...................................................................................................................................2
Summary ................................................................................................................................3
Yhteenveto .............................................................................................................................4
Contents .................................................................................................................................7
Abbreviations .........................................................................................................................8
1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................9
2. Comparison with other stormwater solutions .....................................................................9
3. Surface layer materials ...................................................................................................11
3.1 General...................................................................................................................11
3.1.1 General .......................................................................................................11
3.1.2 Mix design, mixing, compaction and curing ................................................. 13
3.1.3 Porosity, pore sizes, infiltration/percolation rate, hydraulic conductivity,
permeability ................................................................................................22
3.1.4 Strength and mechanical performance........................................................ 25
3.1.5 Freeze-thaw durability with/without chlorides ........................................... 28
3.1.6 Abrasion and raveling .................................................................................33
3.1.7 Noise reduction ...........................................................................................34
3.2 Porous asphalt........................................................................................................35
3.2.1 General .......................................................................................................35
3.2.2 Porous asphalt mix design .......................................................................... 37
3.2.3 Porosity, permeability and drainage ............................................................ 39
3.2.5 Winter durability, freeze-thaw durability with/without chlorides ................. 41
3.3 Permeable interlocking concrete and natural stone pavement ................................ 42
3.3.1 General .......................................................................................................42
3.3.2 Pavers ........................................................................................................44
3.3.3 Joints and joint material .............................................................................. 47
3.3.4 Permeability, surface infiltration .................................................................. 49
3.3.6 Freeze-thaw durability with/without chlorides ........................................... 51
3.3.7 Abrasion resistance ....................................................................................51
3.4 Other pervious solutions .........................................................................................51
4. Subbase systems ...........................................................................................................54
4.1 General...................................................................................................................54
4.2 Aggregates .............................................................................................................55
4.3 Geotextiles, filter layer, geosynthetic barriers, impervious liners ............................. 57
4.4 Water draining and collection systems .................................................................... 62
4.5 Modifying soil for handling water inflow ................................................................... 67
5. Dimensioning ..................................................................................................................68
6. Laboratory and field testing standards and methods .................................................... 69
7. Performance ...................................................................................................................69
7.1 Clogging and maintenance .....................................................................................69
7.2 Winter performance ................................................................................................78
7.3 Cool pavement .......................................................................................................79
7.4 Costs and service life ..............................................................................................80
8. Water quality ...................................................................................................................82
9. Choice of pavement type and functional demands .......................................................... 83
References ...........................................................................................................................85
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Abbreviations
Dynamic viscosity of the fluid, kg/(m s)

a/c aggregate-cement ratio

b Experimental constant
BMP Best management practice
CBR California Bearing Ratio
EOS End of service life
g Acceleration due to gravity, m/s2
HPPC High performance pervious concrete
ICPI Interlocking concrete pavement institute
ITZ Internal transition zones
K Hydraulic conductivity, m/s
LA Los Angeles (abrasion)
NRMCA National ready mixed concrete association (U.S.)
OGFC Open-graded friction course
PA Porous asphalt
PANK Pllystealan neuvottelukunta (The Finnish pavement technology advisory
council)
PAP Porous asphalt pavement
PC Pervious concrete
PCP Pervious concrete pavement
PIBP Permeable interlocking block pavement
PICP Permeable interlocking concrete pavement
PNSP Permeable natural stone pavement
RA Recycled aggregate
RCA Recycled concrete aggregate
SAP Superabsorbent polymer
SBR Styrene butadiene rubber
SF Silica fume
UHI Urban Heat Island
V Void content, %
VMA Viscosity modifying admixtures
w/b water-binding material ratio
w/c water-cement ratio
WWA Wide wheel abrasion (test)
Density of the fluid, kg/m3
Compressive strength,MPa
o Compressive strength of paste at zero void, MPa
Permeability, m2
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1. Introduction
All pervious pavements have normally a somewhat similar structure, consisting of a surface
pavement layer, an underlying reservoir layer composed normally of stone aggregates, and
usually also a filter layer or fabric installed on the bottom. Besides there are several
modifications which can include for instance different kind of pervious subbase materials,
and also water collection pipes, tanks or other systems in connection with more or less
impervious layers. Pervious pavement materials and structures need to be selected and
dimensioned for each case taking into consideration all local demands and circumstances.
Pervious pavement can be defined as porous or permeable pavement based on the surface
type, and it can be either monolithic or modular. Porous pavements are constructed with
pervious material where water can infiltrate through the entire surface area. However, for
permeable pavements, the paver material is made out of impervious blocks while the spaces
between the paver blocks are typically filled with coarse grained materials, normally stone
aggregate, which allow water to pass through. [Ferguson 2005, Zhang 2006]
There are also other paver options, such as concrete grid pavers and reinforced turf pavers.
These solutions are not widely covered by this review. Open void fill media may be
aggregate, topsoil and grass. These structures function in the same general manner as
permeable pavement. Open void fill media can be aggregate, topsoil and grass. [Virginia
DCR 2011]
This report is based mainly on published research results, experiences and guidelines on
pervious concrete, porous asphalt and permeable interlocking concrete pavements. Besides
preliminary Finnish company information on available materials to be used in these
structures is included. The main emphasis is in material properties such as permeability,
strength and durability, and on the performance of the pavements. Information on the
pavement surface layer materials and materials for the subbase system are included.
Besides this report there are separate CLASS-project State-of-the-Art Reports (VTT
Research Reports; see References) on the laboratory and field testing methods for pervious
pavements and pavement materials, winter performance of pervious pavements, impact of
pervious pavement on water quality as well as pervious pavement dimensioning and
hydrological permeable pavement models and their parameter needs.
2. Comparison with other stormwater solutions

Pervious pavements have the potential to be an effective ultra-urban Best Management
Practice (BMP). Conventional pavement results in increased rates and volumes of surface
runoff, PPs, when properly constructed and maintained, allow stormwater to percolate
naturally through the pavement and enter the soil below, or can be forwarded to the selected
water collection system. At the same time they can provide the structural and functional
features needed for the materials they replace in conventional streets, parking lots, sidewalks
and other covers. [FHA 2013]
PP is not generally suited for areas with high traffic volumes or loads. However composite
designs that use conventional solutions in high-traffic areas adjacent to PPs have been
designed. [FHA 2013]
Wahlgren & Kling (2013) have examined background drivers for developing pervious
surfacing materials and solutions for urban storm-water management. They have collected
views of Finnish cities and water authorities on the needs and potentials of pervious
pavement structures, and listed their expectations from the Finnish CLASS-project (Climate
Adaptive Surfaces, 20132014) [CLASS 2012]. Suitable areas in Finland for new permeable
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materials and structures and technical solutions were found to be streets, walking and
bicycling lanes, middle areas, plazas, sport fields and combined areas. [Wahlgren & Kling
2013]
Besides PP, there are several traditional solutions for urban stormwater management such
as wet and dry ponds and vegetative practices. Pervious pavements have a potential to
supplement these especially in highly urbanized, highly impervious ultra-urban areas.
FHA (2013) provides a planning-level review of the applicability and use of new and more
traditional BMPs in ultra-urban areas. In many cases, controlling stormwater discharges in
ultra-urban areas addresses multiple objectives and concerns as protection from flooding
generated by highly impervious surfaces, protection of sensitive downstream conditions such
as stream physical stability, or maintenance of instream water quality. To address these
concerns comprehensively through the development of effective stormwater management
alternatives, both structural and nonstructural practices may be considered. Structural BMPs
control runoff and improve water quality through storage, flow attenuation, infiltration,
filtration, and biological degradation processes. Their use in ultra-urban environment,
however, generally requires deviations from standard designs to meet space limitations and
other site restrictions. [FHA 2013]
In a study by Bckstrm and Viklander (2000) presented in [Westerlund 2007] three general
indicators (runoff control, pollution control and level of integration) and a fourth indicator
specific for cold climate (winter performance) were defined and estimated for a chosen set of
stormwater BMPs. The study was based on a literature review of stormwater BMPs and the
score for each indicator ranged between low (--) to very high potential (++) effect. Table 1
presents the results of this survey. The general indicators were then plotted against the
winter performance as seen in Figure 1. From this figure it was then possible to determine
which BMPs were more or less suitable in a cold climate. This information is based upon
literature reviews and on the perception of the authors: it should not be seen as a definite
answer or solution to the best BMP to choose in a cold climate, but should instead be used
as a base for discussion.
Table 1. Positive (+) and negative (-) effects of different stormwater components.
[Westerlund 2007]
11 (95)
Figure 1. Winter performance vs. general performance indicators (Runoff control + Pollution
control + Level of Integration) for different BMPs for stormwater source control in cold climate
conditions.[Westerlund 2007]
3. Surface layer materials
3.1 General
The main pavement surface layers and surface layer materials covered in this Chapter are
pervious concrete (PC)
porous asphalt (PA) and
permeable interlocking concrete pavement (PICP) with solid blocks, and permeable
natural stone pavement (PNSP).
Other solutions as green solutions are presented shortly.
This Chapter is concentrated mainly on the mix design, strength, porosity, permeability and
durability properties of these surfacing materials and systems. Some information on the
whole structure is included but mainly the material specific data in this Chapter is completed
with the information in Chapters 4 (Subbase systems) and 7 (Performance), to cover the
whole pavement structure. Besides there are separate CLASS-project State-of-the-Art
Reports (VTT Research Reports; see the reference list) on the laboratory and field testing
methods for pervious pavements and pavement materials, winter performance of pervious
pavements, impact of pervious pavement on water quality as well as pervious pavement
dimensioning and hydrological permeable pavement models and their parameter needs.
3.1.1 General
Pervious (porous, permeable, enhanced porosity) concrete (PC) was developed as an

environmentally friendly material in Japan in the 1980s. Since then it has been widely used in
various applications in Japan, USA and Europe because of its multiple environmental
benefits: controlling stormwater runoff, restoring groundwater supplies, and reducing water
and soil pollution. [Bhutta et al.2012] Because of its ability to significantly reduce stormwater
runoff, it is today considered in the United States as stormwater Best Management Practice
(BMP).
PC is a concrete with interconnected pores (typically 18 mm, and with total volume 15
30%) which are intentionally incorporated into concrete. Its physical characteristics differ
greatly from those of normal concrete. Pervious concrete allows for high water and air
12 (95)
permeability. On the other hand, the compressive, tensile, and flexural strength of pervious
concrete tend to be lower than conventional concrete due to the high void ratio and lack of
fine aggregate. The single-diameter aggregate forms the concrete framework. The cement
paste or mortar binds the aggregate together. Load is transferred through the cement paste
between aggregates. (Figure 2) The unit weight of PC is approximately 70% of conventional
concrete, typically from 1600 to 2000 kg/m3. PC shrinks less and has higher thermal
insulating values than conventional concrete.
Figure 2. a) A schematic model of pervious concrete [Yang & Jiang 2003]; A pervious
concrete specimen [Delatte & Cleary 2006]; c) Traditional and pervious concretes during
melting [Kevern 2010].
The typical thickness of a PC layer ranges from 100 mm to 200 mm, in addition to the
granular base or subbase layer.
Also paving blocks made of some kind of pervious concrete type are produced [Beeldens et
al. 2008, PTV 122 2009, EBEMA 2012] to fulfil similar performance. In [PTV 2009], an
example of the permeability demand for pervious concrete paving block is 5.4 10-5 m/s
(average value determined according to the specification).
There are also other benefits associated with PC pavements and other possible applications
for PC. Some of these are the same as for the other porous or permeable pavement types
(see Chapters 3.3 (Porous asphalt) and 3.4 (Permeable interlocking concrete and natural
stone pavements). [Putman & Neptune 2011]:
good acoustic absorption properties - quieter pavements.
Studies have shown that PC has generally produced a quieter-than-normal
concrete, with noise levels from 3% to 10% lower than those of normal
concrete. [Schafer et al. 2006]
allows air to percolate through the matrix into the subsoil beneath,
performs the role of a filter by the degradation and entrapment of contaminants (e.g.,
oils and debris) See Chapter 8 (Water quality) and [Loimula & Kuosa 2013]
potential capability of lowering the urban heat island effect as the open structure of
pervious concrete allows air to flow through it,
roots of plants and trees adjacent to these pavements experience improved watering
and also aeration,
reduces road spray,
improves skid resistance.
In addition to pavements, there are several other applications of PC, such as [ACI 522R-10]:
rigid drainage layers, permeable drain tiles,
greenhouse floors as thermal storage systems and to keep water from bonding, and
to eliminate the growth of weeds,
lightweight noise barriers and building walls to reduce noise, and to increase thermal
insulation,
floors with enhanced acoustic absorption characteristics,
surface course for parks and tennis courts,
13 (95)
artificial reefs.
Typically, unreinforced PC is used because of the high risk of reinforcement corrosion in the
open PC pore structure. [ACI 522R-10]
3.1.2 Mix design, mixing, compaction and curing
3.1.2.1 Mix design

It is essential to have proper mix design and suitable method of mixing and compaction to
produce good porous concrete with the desired strength and durability at the designed void
ratio and permeability. Workability properties are also essential. The correct quantitative
proportions for a specific project depends on the character of the locally available aggregate
and other variable conditions. Mixture proportions for PC are usually less forgiving than
conventional concrete mixtures and tight controls are usually required in order to provide the
required characteristics. [Mata 2008, Ferguson 2005]
Mix design is often based on trial-and-error efforts. Typically PC mix design includes:
270415 kg/m3 cement/binding material and
11901480 kg/m3 aggregate.
Aggregate-cement ratio (A/C) is normally 44.5:1 and
water-cement ratio (w/c) 0.270.34.
Some fine aggregate may be added, e.g. 7% of all aggregate, to increase for instance
durability properties, make air entrainment possible.
Chemical admixtures are used in pervious concrete mainly for the same reasons as
in conventional concrete.
Coarse aggregate is the principal load bearing component.
Aggregates
Fine aggregate is normally not used. If used, fine-coarse aggregate ratio may be from 0 to
1:1. Addition of fine aggregate will typically increases strength but decreases the void
content. When fine aggregate is used, the paste volume should be reduced to maintain the
volume of voids (12% for each 10% of fine aggregate). [ACI 522R-10] However, in places
with severe freeze-thaw exposure, research has shown up to 6% fines in the mix can provide
added durability without losing porosity (see Chapter 3.2.6 (Freeze-thaw durability
with/without chlorides).
Porosity and the size of interconnected pores will be affected by the gradation and type of
the aggregate, as well as on the amount and properties of the paste fraction (water +
cement). It is recommended to use a single sized clean (free of coatings) coarse aggregate
(size 525 mm) or aggregate grading between about 9.5 mm and 19 mm. Rounded and
crushed aggregates, both normal and lightweight have been used. The fine aggregate
portion is limited so as not to compromise the pore system connectedness. Flaky or
elongated particles should be avoided. [ACI 522R-10]
Typically single-sized coarse aggregate is used. The maximum aggregate size is between
4.8 and 25 mm. Aggregate can also be for instance:
from 9.5 to 12 mm,
from 4.8 to 9.5 mm,
from 4.5 mm to 19.0 mm,
from 2.4 mm to 9.5 mm or
from 1.2 mm to 9.5 mm.
Figure 3 and Figure 4 present examples on aggregate gradations used for PC. The main
thing is that the aggregate packing should remain low enough to leave open pores in the
concrete for the desired infiltration rate. A relatively uniform large aggregate size is
14 (95)
preferable for maximum infiltration rate. For high filtration rates, 613 mm large aggregates
have been used. A small amount of fine aggregate (<2.4 mm) has been found to be
beneficial for strength and durability. [ACI 522R-10, Huang et al. 2010a, Kevern 2008]
Figure 3. Optimal area for aggregate gradation in the research by Kevern (2008).
Figure 4. Aggregate gradations for porous concrete in [Huang et al. 2010a].
Both rounded and angular aggregates are used. (Figure 5) Rounded aggregates can pack
tight in the placement process, limiting some of the permeability. Using angular aggregates
can make it a little harder to get the mix out of the trucks and they also increase water
demand slightly.
Figure 5. Examples of round, semi angular, and angular aggregates for PC. [Kevern 2008]
The size of the aggregate will have an effect on aesthetics and the top size of the holes in
the surface. [CPG 2013]
How wet or dry the large aggregates are can make a huge difference in the consistency and
slump of the concrete. Saturated surface dry aggregate is preferable. Very dry or moist
15 (95)
aggregate may cause problems as lack of workability or draining of paste and clogging of the
void structure. [ACI 522R-10] It is wise to keep aggregates wet and cool in the hot summer
time. [CPG 2013]
Aggregates should be good quality, clean and freeze-thaw durable. Dust and debris can add
to clogging the wet pervious matrix.
The amount of aggregate relative to the amount of cement is another important feature. The
more cement paste available for compaction the higher the compressive strength. Again this
will clog the pores and is detrimental to the function of the pervious concrete.
Rizvi et al. (2009) studied if recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) is suitable to be used in
pervious concrete. The purpose of a research study was to incorporate RCA into pervious
concrete to create a very sustainable concrete product for paving. The research methodology
involved substituting the coarse aggregate in the PC with 15%, 30%, 50%, and 100% RCA.
Based on the specific mix design and RCA quality used, the recommendation was that the
optimum percentage of RCA in PC be 15% direct replacement of virgin coarse aggregate.
Binding material, paste content, water-cement ratio
The optimum cementitious material content is strongly dependent on the aggregate size and
gradation. It must be selected so that porosity will reach the designed value. An insufficient
cementitious material content can result in reduced paste coating of the aggregate particles,
and reduced compressive strength. An excessive paste amount may result in filled void
structure and reduced porosity. [ACI 522-R-10]
Figure 6 presents the needed paste content (% of volume) for porous concrete with different
void contents when aggregate is 2.364.75 mm. For a 20% void content the needed paste
volume is 1522%, depending on the compaction (well lightly).
Figure 6. Relationship between paste and void content for porous concrete when aggregate
is 2.364.75 mm. [ACI 522R-10]
The thickness of the paste layer surrounding aggregates can have a significant impact on the
strength of PC.
An appropriate designed void ratio and paste flow is essential for good porous concrete.
There will be slightly less voids in the top portion followed by the middle and the bottom
portions. If the paste content is too low, or if paste flow is not sufficient, there will be too
many voids. [Chindaprasirt et al. 2008] Performing a binder drainage test can help to find
the optimum paste content. [Nelson & Phillis 1994, ACI 522R-10]
16 (95)
The water-cement ratio (w/c) or water-binding material ratio (w/b) is also an essential
parameter. The type of the binding materials will also affect the properties of the paste and
porous concrete. Fly as (FA) and blast furnace slag are often used. In addition to cement
paste, fine aggregates or powder materials can also be included. In this case porous
concrete is composed of fine mortar phase, aggregates and interconnected pores.
Cement paste with relatively low w/c (0.260.40) but sufficiently high workability is needed.
W/c can also be as low as 0.20. In the study by Copra et al. (2007), water was added during
mixing to the aggregate and cement until a sheen was developed throughout the mix, and
w/c was calculated afterwards. In practice, the water content should be controlled strictly as
mix properties are very sensitive to it.
Visual inspection may be used to check if the water content and paste properties are right.
Insufficient water content produces a lustreless, dull-appearing paste. Too much water
causes the paste to flow visibly from aggregate. The quantity of cement paste is considered
sufficient when it coats all coarse aggregate with a shining film giving a metallic gleam.
[Ferguson 2005]
Admixtures, additives, fibres
The rheological and other fresh paste properties should be adjusted so that they are suitable
for making porous concrete. In addition to normal paste workability measurement (e.g. Flow
cone method with impacts), measurement of rheological properties of the paste can give
valuable information, such as yield stress and plastic viscosity. [Chindaprasirt et al. 2008]
Especially paste or mortar fresh properties such as viscosity and stability can be adjusted by
the use of admixtures. Normally the use of water reducing admixture or superplasticizer is
necessary. They can assist porous concrete installations during placement, because wet
porous concrete is by nature stiff and zero slump concrete. Too much plasticizer will cause
paste flow from aggregate.
Retarding admixtures delay setting of concrete and keep the concrete workable during
placement. Hydration stabilizers (hydration controlling admixtures, stabiliser + activator) are
often used to improve handling and in-place performance characteristics. This admixture is
even considered critical to the success of the mix. It has been suggested that every delivery
of pervious should have a water reducer and/or the hydration stabilizer available at the
jobsite for redosing as needed. Ambient temperatures affect pervious concrete even more
than conventional concrete because it is at a lower water cement ratio, and thus admixtures
play a key role in achieving optimal fresh mixture properties. [CPG 2013]
In cold weather a set-accelerator admixture can be used with PC. [Finnsementti 2013]
Cement paste properties can also be adjusted by the use of other concrete admixtures, as by
viscosity modifying admixtures (VMA). The use of VMAs has resulted in better flow, quicker
discharge time from a truck, and easier placement and compaction. Furthermore, VMAs
prevent paste drain down, and may increase both compressive and flexural strength of
pervious concrete. It should be noted that not all VMAs are made with pervious concrete in
mind, and therefore, care should be taken when choosing the right VMA for pervious
installation. There may be too little mix water in PC to get VMA properly dispersed
throughout the mix. VMAs have made the mix sometimes gummy or sticky. [CPG 2013,
Delatte et al. 2007, Bury et al. 2006]
Cement paste, or especially in this case mortar phase, can also include entrained air pores.
Distribution and average spacing of the air pores (0.0200.800 mm) in hardened concrete is
essential for freeze-thaw resistance. For this air-entraining admixture are used. Especially
when paste thickness coating aggregate particles is more than 0.20 mm, air entrainment is a
17 (95)
way to increase freeze-thaw resistance. Freeze-thaw durability is discussed more closely in

Chapter 3.4.6 (Freeze-thaw durability with/without chlorides). [Wang et al. 2006]
New admixtures for pervious concrete are appearing every day. For instance, there are
admixtures including water reducer, hydration stabilizer and viscosity modifying admixture in
one product. [CPG 2013] In Sweden HeidelbergCement AG has lately developed a pervious
concrete especially to be used in railway tunnels between the tracks. This concrete includes
a special admixture (ETONIS 260) by Wacker. By using this admixture, a polymer modified
pervious concrete with enhanced fresh and hardened properties can be produced. Fresh
concrete is easier to process and compact. Thanks to an increase in viscosity, it is less prone
to run through during concrete compaction. Additionally, the new polymer improves the non-
sag properties and extends the fresh concretes processing window. Hardened concrete
flexural and tensile strength increases and resistance to frost and road salts is improved.
(Figure 7) [Wacker 2013, Riffel 2012]
Also according to Gerhardt (1999) the use of a second binder in PC, a polymer emulsion, in
addition to cement can improve the mechanical stability, the resistance to deformation,
meaning no rutting. This is especially true for more trafficked areas such as roads and
motorways. [Gerhardt 1999]
Figure 7. Pervious (drainage) concrete modified with a new polymer admixture is spread
between and beside tracks and thus provides rescue vehicles and fire engines with fast
access to railway tunnels. (photo: Wacker Chemie AG, courtesy of Deutsche Bahn AG).
[Wacker 2013]
Schaefer et al. (2006) have studied the use of silica fume (SF) at 5 % binder replacement to
improve PC strength and bonding characteristics of paste to aggregate. They used also
styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) latex to improve the cement-aggregate bond and the freeze-
thaw durability of PC. [Schaefer et al. 2006]
In some cases macro fibres have also been used in pervious concrete. For instance, in the
greater Kansas City area, polypropylene or cellulose fibres, <38 mm, fibrillated or micro fibre
type, have been included in all locally placed pervious projects. The fibre dosage should be a
minimum. Fibre benefits include preventing excess raveling, preventing too dry of a mix and
preventing over compaction from too wet mix.
Bhutta et al. (2012) developed and evaluated the properties of a high performance pervious
concrete (HPPC) in the laboratory. This PC required no special vibration and showed good
cohesiveness. (Figure 8) The optimum mixture proportions were used containing three sizes
of coarse aggregates with appropriate amount of high water-reducing and thickening
(cohesive) agents. Strength improvement was possible due to the strong bond between
cement paste and aggregate produced by the use of superplasticizer and thickening agent.
With the same porosity, the compressive strength for the HPPC was somewhat higher than
for normal PC.
18 (95)
Figure 8. Slump and slump-flow of conventional pervious concrete (CPC) and high
performance pervious concrete (HPPC). [Phutta et al. 2012]
3.1.2.2 Mixing
For PC proper mixing is very essential. As PC water to cement ratio is very low, an
improvement in the texture and property of the paste is obtained with sufficient mixing time
and efficient mixing. Bond is also created between cement paste and aggregate within
mixing. In addition, as several admixtures are typically used in PC, efficient mixing will
ensure their full functionality. Especially air-entrainment, i.e. creation of small air pores in the
PC paste, demands powerful mixing. On the other hand, if mixing is for some reason
extended too much, or there is too long of a remixing state on site, the PC workability
decreases, and the required compaction energy increases. Different mixing operations have
been used to get good PC mixes. [Chindaprasirt et al. 2008, Wang et al. 2006, Kevern 2008]
Kevern (2008) made PC mixing with a rotating-drum mixer, using the following mixing
procedure:
aggregate was first introduced,
2/3 of the water and the air entraining agent (AEA) was added and mixed until foam
was observed, then
the cement and 1/3 of the water with high-range water reducer were added,
the concrete was mixed for three minutes,
covered and allowed to rest for three minutes, and finally
mixed for an additional two minutes before casting. [Kevern 2008]
To improve the bond between the cement paste and the aggregate, Schaefer et al. (2006)
used a special mixing method:
first dry mixing a small amount of cement (<5% by mass) with the aggregate until
completely coated (about one minute),
add remaining cement and water (with or without high-range water reducer),
mix the concrete for three minutes,
rest for three minutes,
mixed for an additional two minutes before casting. [Schaefer et al. 2006]
3.1.2.3 Placement, compaction and curing

The amount of compaction can have considerable effects on the function of pervious
concrete. It will have an effect on most of the PC properties, as especially permeability,
strength and durability. Normal laboratory concrete compaction methods (vibration methods)
will not represent field compaction methods properly.
For instance, in laboratory trials top surface compaction has often been used. It is simple and
can be applied directly to field construction. The compaction energy should be controlled.
One lift casting can be used since it simulates actual placing condition in the field.
In [Schaefer et al. 2006], specimens were placed by rodding 25 times in three layers while
applying a vibration for five seconds after rodding each layer.
19 (95)
Before vibration and compaction, the paste covering coarse aggregate touches each other
very lightly (small contact area). With the process of vibration, porous concrete is compacted
starting from top to bottom. The top portion undergoes compaction more than the other parts.
With sufficient vibration a large number of adjacent aggregate at the top of concrete
specimen starts to get closer to each other, and also to touch each other. The excess paste
fills the voids and also moves downwards. At this point, compaction should be completed.
Also in the field PC requires alternative placement methods to those used for conventional
concrete placement. PC must be compacted properly and quickly protected. If PC is not
compacted well enough, or is placed too dry, the aggregates will not bond well and the
pavement will be susceptible to raveling. If, on the other hand, the concrete is placed too wet
or is overcompacted, the surface will be sealed and the pavement will not be permeable.
[Delatte et al. 2007]
PC should be consolidated normally by static and vibrating rollers and screeds. Rolling
compaction can be achieved for instance by using a motorized or hydraulically actuated,
rotating, weighted, tube screed that spans the width of the section placed and exerts a
minimum vertical pressure of ca. 70 kPa on the concrete. (Figure 9a) In all, with the wide
variety of placement techniques in use (plate compactor, vibratory screed, roller, high density
paver), an attempt to standardize the equipment used is important. The goal is to seat the
aggregate and enhance the bond between aggregates. Excessive compaction effort shall not
be used. Too heavy compaction will cause the voids to collapse thus reducing the porosity.
[Brown 2006, Putman & Neptune 2011, Delatte et al. 2007]
Cross rolling shall be performed using a roller specifically designed to smooth and compact
pervious concrete. Figure 9b shows an appropriate roller for pervious concrete pavement.
Lawn rollers are not allowed. [CRMCA 2009]
Henderson (2012) compared five field sites in Canada. When there was in one site no
compaction effort applied to the surface of PC, the highest amount of raveling of any of the
sites was detected. In this location placing was with the Bidwell Bridgedeck paver. The other
sites were all compacted during construction and generally performed adequately in terms of
permeability.
Joints
Once the pavement has been placed and compacted, joints may be installed with a jointing
tool. Alternatively, the joints may be saw cut later. According to a field study by Henderston
(2012), both saw cutting and forming the joints had similar long term performance. Formed
joints have been normally the preferred method because saw cut joints may cause raveling.
A joint roller, often called a pizza cutter, quickly and easily forms PCP joints, as shown in
Figure 9c. When joints were not included, cracks developed. Since PC shrinks less than
standard concrete, joint spacing larger than normal 3.7 m has been used, e.g. 6 m. In the
field study by Henderson (2012), the cracks were not observed to have a large impact on
pavement serviceability. [Delatte et al. 2007, Scaefer et al. 2006, Henderson 2012]
20 (95)
Figure 9. a) Roller Screeding Fresh Pervious Concrete; b) Cross Rolling Pervious Concrete;
c) Roller used to make joints in pervious concrete. [CRMCA 2009, Schaefer et al. 2006]
Putman & Neptune (2011) collected some information on how properties of laboratory
specimens compacted by different methods have correlated with the field core properties:
Cylinder ( 150mm; h 300 mm) compacted in two layers, for each layer ten blows of
a standard Proctor hammer (2.5 kg):
o none of the samples were within the range of the void content for the field
cores, but the void contents were within the generally anticipated range of
values for pervious concrete.
Rodding in accordance with ASTM C192:
o compressive strength values were significantly higher and porosity values
significantly lower than for the field cores.
A custom built pneumatic press that applied a compactive effort of 70 kPa uniformly
over the 100 mm diameter cylinders:
o statistically similar properties (compressive strength, permeability, and
porosity) as for the pavement cores.
In the comparison of test specimen preparation techniques for pervious concrete pavements
by Putman & Neptune (2011), the aim was to produce specimens having properties similar to
in-place pervious concrete pavement. In the field a hydraulic roller screed was used. It spun
in the opposite direction than it was pulled. Following the screed, the fresh concrete was
cross-rolled using a 1 m long roller having a 150 mm diameter. Preparation of cylinders
( 150 mm; h 300 mm) were by different consolidation techniques:
by the use of a 15.9 mm diameter steel rod (standard tamping rod)
by a standard Proctor hammer (2.50 kg) and
by dropping a mould on a concrete surface from a height of 50 mm.
In the field slabs with the same thickness as the pavement (150 mm), and by the same
consolidation method as the pavement itself were prepared.
The slabs (600 mm) were most consistent with the in-place pavement density and porosity.
Of the cylinder consolidation procedures tested, the standard Proctor hammer provided the
least variability of results and yielded properties similar to the in-place pavement. Normal
concrete compaction methods (vibration methods) will not represent field compaction
methods properly.
The Modified Proctor compaction test (hammer weight 10 lb = 4.54 kg) was used in the study
by Chopra et al. (2007). Compaction for a specimen ( 101 mm; h 203 mm) was in 5 layers
with 25 blows/layer, dropping height was 0.457 m. This compaction provided a high level of
energy but it was concluded that even higher levels should be tested and compared.
Compaction energy in the Standard and Modified Proctor Compaction can be calculated as
follows, where the Volume is specimen volume [Chopra et al. 2007]:
21 (95)
22 (95)
3.1.3 Porosity, pore sizes, infiltration/percolation rate, hydraulic conductivity,

permeability
In the complex microstructure of normal concrete, the pores can be present from the nano-
scale to the macro-scale, normally from 1 nm to 1 mm. Some bigger than 1 mm compaction
pores may also be included. All these pores are included in cement paste (gel pores,
capillary pores and entrained air voids or compaction pores). Aggregate include also some
pores but good quality aggregate porosity is very small.
The structure of PC differs from normal concrete as it includes also a significant amount of
relatively big interconnected air pores between coarse aggregate particles. Actually the
majority of pores in PC are formed by the spaces left between coarse aggregates. It is
important to distinguish between different porosities defined or determined for PC:
effective porosity (interconnected voids that make the concrete permeable)
total porosity (includes all cement paste nano- and microporosity (gel+capillary)) and
also traditional concrete air content in the mortar phase
air content in the mortar phase (% of mortar phase or % of pervious concrete)
porosity values determined based on different testing methods (see Chapter 6
(Laboratory and field testing - standards and methods).
Because of the unique structure of PC, all the normal standard methods for normal concrete
to measure porosity, and for instance entrained air pore content by pressure or volumetric
method, are not all applicable. (See Chapter 6 (Laboratory and field testing - standards and
methods) [Kevern et al. 2009b]
Porosity of PC is normally 2030% [ACI 522R-10]. Porosity may also be as low as 11% or as
high as 35%. In general, higher porosity means lower strength and normally also higher
permeability. (Figure 15).
The size range of pores, the pore structure and pore connectivity, are all major factors
influencing PCs properties. For large-sized pores, larger aggregate sizes are recommended.
A range of porosities can be obtained by blending aggregates of two different sizes. When
using aggregate blends, the ratio of the smallest aggregate size to the largest aggregate size
may not be too high (should be less than 2.5) so that the smaller aggregates will not fill the
voids between the larger aggregates.
Compaction will also have a great effect on the porosity and permeability. The unit weight of
PC can be e.g. 16801920 kg/m3 depending on the compaction level. With a constant paste
content, the void content is reported to be a function of compaction effort, aggregate particle
shape and texture, and aggregate uniformity coefficient. Smoother, more rounded
aggregates produce lower effective void contents at the same compaction effort. [Crouch et
al. 2006].
Given the value of hydraulic conductivity (m/s) for a system, the permeability (m2) can be
calculated as:
23 (95)
In-situ drainability or infiltration rate (mm/s) is naturally an important property of porous

concrete. In general it will increase when porosity is higher and when there are more
interconnected air pores.
Different infiltration rate values can be found for different studies and mix designs. Below is
some information on porosity and infiltration rate/hydraulic conductivity [ACI 522R-10,
Neithalath et al. 2006, Huang et al. 2010a]:
A minimum porosity for any significant infiltration rate is ca. 15%.
Typical flow water through pervious concrete are from 2 to 5.5 mm/s. [Mata 2008]
For a PC porosity of 20% to 25% the infiltration rate is ca. 24 mm/s, or even
15 mm/s.
o For an accessible porosity of 2029%, the infiltration rate is around 10 mm/s.
For PC porosity of 30%, the infiltration rate is ca. 520 mm/s.
For gravel and coarse sand the infiltration rate is ca. 1 mm/s.
For fine sand the infiltration rate is 10.01 mm/s.
A drainage rate of 100 to 750 l/min/m2 has been reported for several pervious
concretes [Tennis et al. 2004].
Intrinsic permeability of 1 x 10-10 m2 to 5 x 10-10 m2 has been reported for pervious
concretes with porosity ranging from 17% to 28% (Neithalath et al. 2006).
According to Beeldens et al. (2009), in the case a pervious lean concrete is used as a base
layer, a minimum compressive strength of 13 MPa (measured on cores with a surface of
100 cm) has to be reached as well as a permeability coefficient of 0.4 mm/s (410-4 m/s).
[Beeldens et al. 2009]
After all, the efficiency of pervious concrete to drain stormwater is also highly dependent on
the clogging rate with time. (see Chapter 7.1 (Clogging))
Figure 10 presents some examples on how aggregate sizes, pore sizes, porosity, and
intrinsic permeability are related. All the three specimens have similar values of porosity but
the specimen with 3/8 aggregate (9.512.5 mm) shows a remarkably higher permeability,
possibly due to its larger pore sizes (a = 4.76 mm). It can be seen that the specimen that
exhibits the highest permeability neither has the highest porosity, nor the largest pore size.
Permeability generally increases with an increase in porosity but there is no definitive
relationship between these parameters (Figure 11). Porosity is a volumetric property but
permeability is a parameter that defines the flow properties through the material. For this also
the distribution of the pore volume and the pores connectivity are important.
Figure 10. Relationship between aggregate sizes (#8 = 2.364.75 mm; #4 = 4.759.5 mm
and 3/8 = 9.512.5 mm), pore sizes (a [mm]), porosity (), and intrinsic permeability [m2], (a)
single sized aggregate mixtures, (b) blended aggregate mixtures. [Neithalath et al. 2006]
24 (95)
Figure 11. Porosity-Permeability relationship for porous concrete mixtures. [Neithalath et al.
2006]
There is no straightforward methodology to measure the pore tortuosity and connectivity.
There are several methods and standards for the determination of porous concrete porosity
and permeability (see Chapter 6 (Laboratory and field testing standards and methods)).
Hydraulic conductivity will decrease if porous concrete is not homogenous, i.e. there is low
porosity on the bottom or surface portion of the porous concrete layer. That is why it is useful
to also study the void distribution with height. This can be done for instance by cutting a
specimen into three equal portions, and by determining void ratio for each portion. Visual
examination of in half cut specimens can also give good information on the mix and the effect
of compaction.
Chindaprasirt et al. (2008) studied voids and state at the bottom surface of cylinders and
compared it with compressive strength. The strengths with designed void ratios of 15%, 20%
and 25% were between 3844 MPa, 2935 MPa and 1522 MPa, respectively. At full
compaction, void patterns at the bottom surface of concrete cylinders are different depending
on the designed void ratios and flow values of paste. (Figure 12) The low voids contents at
the bottom of the concrete are caused by relatively high flow of paste, high paste content,
and high compaction energy. If paste has a tendency to flow downward it may fill the voids
resulting in non-porous concrete. In the case where the designed void ratio was high, high
paste flow value was favourable. In this case strength was higher than with lower paste flow
value. (Figure 12)
Figure 12. State at the bottom of porous concrete and compressive strength. [Chindaprasirt
et al. 2008]
25 (95)
In [Putman & Neptune 20011], the infiltration rate of pervious concrete pavement was
studied. The results indicate that the infiltration rate varied widely throughout the pavement.
According to [Puttman & Neptune 2011] this is fairly typical. The potential sources for this are
variability during construction (variation in mix properties from truck to truck, mix delivery
delays or queues, equipment malfunction, weather). Anyway the number of locations having
too low infiltration values is limited and they are surrounded by areas having adequate
infiltration where the water can drain to and infiltrate through the surface and into the
underlying infiltration bed. The average infiltration rates for the 3 different projects included in
the study were 5 mm/s, 6 mm/s and 9 mm/s.
3.1.4 Strength and mechanical performance
For PC, strength is as important as its permeability characteristics. The strength of the
system not only relies on the compressive strength of the pervious concrete but also on the
strength of the soil beneath it for support. The needed pavement thickness is dependent on
the compressive strength of the concrete, the quality of the subgrade beneath the pavement,
as well as vehicle volumes and loadings. [Chopra et al. 2007]
In this Chapter only the strength of the PC itself is reviewed. Dimensioning is discussed more
in Chapter 5 (Dimensioning).
In porous concrete the cement paste is limited and the aggregate rely on the contact
surfaces between one another for strength. Therefore harder aggregate, such as granite or
quartz, will yield higher compression strength than a softer aggregate like limestone. [Chopra
et al. 2007]
Strength and permeability tend to counteract one another. In a study by Chopra et al. (2007)
experimental studies on the compressive strength of PC as it relates to water-cement ratio
(w/c), aggregate-cement ratio (a/c), aggregate size, and compaction were made. The aim
was to find a balance between water, aggregate, and cement contents. In this study, the
compressive strengths of acceptable mixtures were less than 12 MPa. On the other hand
extremely high permeability rates were always achieved. Based on the high permeability
rates obtained in this study, it was concluded that a/c ratios to less than 5:1 should be used.
When pore volume increases, strength typically decreases. For PC, strength of paste is also
an important factor because strength of aggregate is generally higher than that of paste.
(Figure 13)
The equation of strength and void ratio of porous brittle material is useful for estimating
strength of porous concrete:
= oexp(-bV), (2)
where is compressive strength (MPa)

o is compressive strength of paste at zero void [MPa]
V is void content [%] and
b is experimental constant.
In [Chindaprasirt et al. 2008] the strength and air void of pastes were found to be 135 MPa
and 1.0%. The fitting of the curve as shown in Figure 13 results in the value of o = 152 MPa,
b = 0,084 (R2 = 0.96). Porous concrete with dripping of paste gave slightly lower strength
than that obtained from the equation.
26 (95)
Figure 13. Porous concrete compressive strength as a function of total void ratio.
[Chindaprasirt et al. 2008]
Too little water or too stiff paste results in no aggregate bonding, and too much water or too
low paste workability will settle the paste at the base of the pavement and clog the pores.
Strength can be increased by using selected aggregates, fine mineral admixtures as silica
fume, by using admixtures and by adjusting the concrete mix proportion. Fly ash has been
used to increase workability. Latex modification is also possible to increase mechanical
properties. For instance in Europe many highways have being constructed with using an
overlay of latex modified PC. Polymer-modified porous concretes have exhibited better
fatigue behaviour than those without polymer. [Yang & Jiang 2003, ACI 522R-10, Pindado et
al. 1999]
Increase in paste volume fractions and larger aggregate sizes resulted in increased
compressive strengths in the research by Deo & Neithalath (2010). All the mixtures were
designed to achieve a volumetric porosity of approximately 20 2%. Figure 14 presents
compressive strength as a function of paste content for two mix designs with different
aggregate contents (aggregate/cement (a/c) ca. 2.75 or 5). Higher paste content resulted in
an increase in the thickness of the cement paste layer around the aggregates and thus better
bonding and increased peak strength. The reduced compressive strength of the smaller
sized aggregate mixtures was attributed to the larger number of pores engaged in the
damage process. [Deo & Neithalath 2010]
Deo & Neithalath (2010) found also that an increase in pore volume fraction by
approximately 10% resulted in a reduction in the compressive strength by about 50%. The
pore structure features other than porosity value alone were also responsible for the
compressive strength. They found that compressive strength was influenced by the pore
sizes, their distributions and spacing. [Deo & Neithalath 2010]
27 (95)
Figure 14. Influence of paste volume on the compressive strengths of pervious concrete
specimens. [Deo & Neithalath 2010]
Schaefer et al. (2006) found that the PC made with single-sized coarse aggregates generally
had high permeability but not adequate strength. Addition of a small amount of fine sand
(approximate 7% by weight of total aggregate) to the mixes significantly improved the
concrete strength.
PC compressive strength is normally 3.528 MPa, and a normal value is 17 MPa. It has been
typical to have PC with strength less than 17 MPa when used in low traffic areas. For more
demanding cases the strength should be higher, for instance in the range of 2428 MPa.
[Schaefer et al. 2006, Huang et al 2010a]
Figure 15 presents some collected values for normal porous concrete strength as a function
of effective porosity. [Yang & Jiang 2003, Huang et al. 2010a, Deo & Neithalath 2001,
Chopra et al. 2007, Delatte et al. 2007]
Figure 15. Some collected values for porous concrete strength as a function of effective
porosity. [Yang & Jiang 2003, Huang et al. 2010a, Deo & Neithalath 2010, Chopra et al.
2007, Delatte et al. 2007]
Flexural strength and dynamic modulus of elasticity are important for the structural behaviour
of pavements. Flexural strength is influenced by many factors, especially the degree of
compaction and porosity.
Flexural strength is not normally tested but it is typically from 1.0 MPa to 3.8 MPa. Many
factors have been shown to influence the flexural strength, particularly the degree of
compaction, porosity, and the aggregate to cement ratio. [Tennis et al. 2004] An increase in
aggregate size results in a reduction in the flexural and compressive strengths of PC, due to
28 (95)
the increased total porosity and pore size. Flexural strength of 3 MPa has been reported with
25% porosity and aggregate size of 6 to 10 mm. A small amount of sand (ca. 5% of volume)
can possibly increase the flexural strength. Polymer addition has also increased flexural
strength [Huang et al. 2010b].
In [Wang & Wang 2011] the elastic modulus of the pervious concrete was chosen to be
13.8 GPa which was considered to be a conservative value comparing to some reported
laboratory testing data.
An estimation and statistical analysis on pervious concrete pavement design inputs (static
modulus of elasticity, split tensile strength and flexural strength) as a function of compressive
strength and effective void content is presented in [Crouch et al. 2008]. According to them
the ACI 318 (Building code requirements for structural concrete) equation appeared to be a
promising but conservative method of estimating static modulus from PC compressive
strength and unit weight. The Ahmad and Shah equation (1985) appeared to be a
promising method of estimating flexural strength of PC compressive strength.
PC shrinkage is much smaller than normal concrete shrinkage. [Huang et al. 2010a]
Nano-modified cementitious materials show the greatest potential of improving internal

transition zones (ITZ) characteristics in conventional concrete and may prove even more
beneficial for use in pervious concrete. By controlling the nanoscale behavior, macrolevel
properties can be improved. [Kevern 2008]
3.1.5 Freeze-thaw durability with/without chlorides
When assessing the durability of pervious concrete pavements in cold climates, there are
two aspects that should be considered:
durability of the pervious concrete material itself and
durability and winter performance of the whole system.
Winter performance of pervious pavements as the whole structure is reviewed more closely
in a Finnish CLASS-project State-of-the-Art Report concentrated on the winter performance
of pervious pavements [Kuosa & Niemelinen 2013]
In all there are several testing methods for assessing conventional concrete freeze-thaw
resistance with de-icing salt solution. In these methods specimens are in contact with salt
solution during the testing. There is solution layer on or below the specimen surface, or the
specimens are immersed in the salt solution. Solution contact is needed for scaling. Most
typically a 3% salt (NaCl) solution is used as it normally is the most critical for the surface
scaling degree. Specimen surface scaling (g/m2) or volume change (vol.-%) is normally
measured. Internal deterioration caused by cracking can also be determined, e.g. the change
of relative dynamic modulus of elasticity.
For instance in the European testing specification for concrete [CEN/TS 12390-9:2006(E)]
there are three testing methods for concrete freeze-thaw scaling with de-icing salt: Slab-Test,
CDF-method and Cube-test. The Slab-Test is normally used in Finland (Figure 16b). This
method is based on the earlier Swedish standard SS 13 72 44 (so called Bors-method). In
this test there is one freeze-thaw cycle per one day. For structural concrete normally 56
cycles are needed. In the testing of paving units the demand (in Finland) is presented based
on the scaling degree after 28 cycles (average <1 kg/m2). The minimum temperature is -
202 C, maximum temperature is +204 C, and cooling is from +0 C to -20 C in 12 hours
(1.7 C/h).
For the estimation of the freeze-thaw resistance of structural concrete with regard to internal
structural damage, there are three different methods in the European testing standard
29 (95)
[CEN/TR 15177 (2006)]. No single test method is established as a reference test method as
these methods produce relatively consistent results. These methods are:
Slab-Test,
CIF-method and
Beam test.
In Finland mostly Slab-Test is used. Besides SFS 5447 (1988) is still in use (Freeze-thaw
durability; normally with beams 500100100 mm3). This method essentially includes
freezing in air (-20 C) and thawing in water (water temperature less than 40 C, and end of
thawing cycle temperature is +20C). SFS 5447 is a very loosely defined method. Besides,
thawing by the relatively warm water (< 40 C) is a harsh method especially for relatively
brittle high strength concrete, and at the same time for low w/c paste. Thus it is also a harsh
method for PC with typically very low w/c (< 0.250.30).
In [By 50 2012] this method (SFS 5447) is an optional quality control method in addition to
CEN/TR 15177 Slab-Test and air pore analysis (Spacing factor). Based on the demanded
design service life and exposure class, the amount of freeze-thaw cycles is 100 or 300. The
acceptance criterion is based on either RDM as measured by UPTT (75%) or relative
flexural or splitting tensile strength (67%). [By 50. 2012]
In North America the most commonly used testing standard for freeze-thaw resistance is
ASTM C666 /C666M-03(2008). This standard includes two methods:
o Rapid Freezing and Thawing in Water (Procedure A) and
o Rapid Freezing in Air and Thawing in Water (Procedure B).
The open structure of PC allows free ingress of water into the specimen. Subsequent
freezing of saturated PC could cause rapid deterioration. Anyway, freeze-thaw damage has
been reported to develop in pervious concrete primarily as paste deterioration of lower
porosity pervious concrete. [Mata 2008]
The general recommendation for pervious concrete systems in freeze-thaw environments is

to install a layer of aggregate base below the PC pavement to store stormwater in order to
avoid saturation of the pervious concrete during freeze-thaw events. According to Kevern et
al. (2008) there are no documented cases of freeze-thaw failures of existing installations
when these recommendations are followed. However, there is still some potential for
saturation of the pervious concrete layer and it is therefore necessary to design pervious
concrete mixtures to be freeze-thaw resistant in case the pervious concrete does become
saturated during freeze-thaw events.
Testing of concrete by freezing and thawing while submerged in water is a harsh

performance test method. This is because cement paste water saturation will get high during
the testing. However, a PC mixture that passes this kind of testing will have a high probability
of performing well in the field. If the pavement system drains well enough to keep the PC
from being saturated, then the harsh conditions represented by for instance the ASTM C 666
(Procedure A) test do not apply. This is, therefore, the goal of the system design. [Delatte et
al. 2007]
According to [Mata 2008] the de-icer salt test described in ASTM C672 [ASTM C672/C672M-
12] may be better suited for evaluation of durability of concrete in paving applications
because it involves slower, more realistic freezing cycles in the presence of a de-icing salt
solution (4 % NaCl) and attempts to more realistically simulate frost exposure conditions in a
pavement. In this test minimum temperature is -18 2 C, maximum temperature is
+23 2 C and there is one freeze-thaw cycle per one day.
In his work Mata (2008) used a modification of the ASTM C672 method. (Figure 16a)
Evaluation was based on mass loss and changes in dynamic modulus of 25 mm thick
concrete disks with 100 mm diameter. The results of this study indicated that small disks,
30 (95)
tested at realistic freezing rates, could be successfully used to evaluate frost resistance of
paving mixtures. To get information on the effect of PC microstructure on the frost resistance,
Mata (2008) used one additional disk specimen to assess qualitatively the entrained air void
system by stereoscopic microscope. The entrained air void system could be interpreted as
inadequate, acceptable, or excellent by an experience analyst.
Mata (2008) concluded that the cement paste alone, i.e. without any fine sand, is not
sufficient to develop the air entrained air voids during the mixing phase, required to protect
the concrete to water expansion on freezing. The results of the freezing and thawing tests
confirmed that the addition of 7% sand by weight as replacement for coarse aggregate
increases the frost resistance of pervious concrete significantly and, when used with an
adequate amount of air entraining agent can provided adequate frost resistance as
measured by the modification of ASTM C672 method used in this study. According to Mata
(2008) additional research is still needed to determine the percentage of entrained air voids
related to air entraining admixture and sand content in a low w/c PC mixture.
For concrete surface scaling the binding material and the also the microstructural changes
caused by carbonation and drying in it (long term ageing) are known to be essential, in
addition to water-cement ratio and amount (vol.-%) and spacing (mm) of small (<0.3 mm)
entrained air pores. [Kuosa et al. 2012]
a) b)
Figure 16. a) ASTM C670 modified pervious concrete freeze-thaw testing with salt solution
[Mata 2008]; b) CEN/TS 12390-9:2006(E) Slab-Test for the determination of surface scaling
and internal deterioration caused by freeze-thaw with de-icing salt solution.
Partially saturated pervious concrete in air has demonstrated substantially higher durability
than those subjected to freezing and thawing under water. This means that a good way to
increase freeze-thaw durability is to take care of good drainage, i.e. bv using a good subbase
system. Caution should be exercised when using pervious concrete in a situation where
complete saturation may occur. [ACI 522R-10]
The NRMCA (National Ready Mixed Concrete Association) in the U.S.A. has defined four
exposure climate categories based on moisture (wet or dry) and temperature (freeze or hard
freeze). Below is some basic information on the expected performance of PC in these
exposure climates. [Delatte et al. 2007]
Dry Freeze and Hard Dry Freeze

As there is little precipitation during the winter (dry) PC is unlikely to be fully
saturated in these environments. No special precaution is necessary for successful
performance of pervious concrete but a 100 mm to 200 mm thick layer of clean
aggregate base below the PC is recommended.
Wet freeze
31 (95)
Since the ground does not stay frozen for long periods in wet freeze it is unlikely
that the PC will be fully saturated, because of drainage. No special precaution is
necessary for successful performance of pervious concrete but a 100 mm to 200 mm
thick layer of clean aggregate base below the PC is recommended.
Hard Wet Freeze

These areas may have situations where the pervious concrete becomes fully
saturated. The following precautions organized in the order of preference, are
recommended to enhance the freeze-thaw resistance of PC:
o Use an 200 mm600 mm thick layer of clean aggregate base below the PC.
o Attempt to protect the paste by incorporating air-entraining admixture in the
PC mixture.
o Place a perforated PVC pipe in the aggregate base to capture all the water
and let it drain.
Laboratory study by Yang et al. (2006) give detailed information on the effects of moisture
conditions on the damage development in PC during cyclic freeze-thaw. The degree of
saturation of the paste played an important role in the damage development in PC. Both the
fundamental transverse resonant frequency and the mass of each specimen were monitored
during freeze-thaw testing. In the beginning of the freeze-thaw testing, mass change included
possible water absorption (if freezing was in water). Vacuum saturation was used in some
cases to get all the pores water saturated, including capillary and air pores in the paste
fraction of PC. It was found that:
PC specimens that were vacuum-saturated and then frozen and thawed in water
exhibited the lowest freeze-thaw durability.
The vacuum saturated specimens that were sealed and frozen and thawed in air
showed a relatively higher freeze-thaw resistance. (Figure 17 a)
The highest freeze-thaw resistance occurred on the PC specimens without vacuum
saturation, which were frozen and thawed in air under sealed conditions.
When PC specimens without vacuum saturation were frozen and thawed in water, a
drastic decrease in the freeze-thaw resistance was observed.
Vacuum-saturated and sealed conventional concrete exhibited very low resistance to
freezing and thawing cycles (completely failed at about 13 cycles), whereas PC with
the same pre-treatment and test conditions showed higher freeze-thaw durability
(lasted for 100 cycles). (Figure 17 a)
o The slow damage development in PC can be attributed to the lower internal
pressure generated during freezing in a thin layer of paste in PC.
Instead, when PC was partially saturated and exposed to a wet environment, it was
found to deteriorate much more rapidly than conventional concrete.
o For PC a drastic increase in weight occurred during the first few cycles. This
was because of the rapid water uptake that occurred at the beginning of the
test. (Figure 17 b)
o PC specimens with air-entraining admixture could resist more than 300 cycles
implying that air entrainment had significant impact on the freeze-thaw
durability in partially saturated PC. (Figure 17 b)
o Conventional concrete (with 5.5% air) was able to resist more than 2000
freeze-thaw cycles. The primary reason for the relatively poor PC freeze-thaw
resistance in water (for PC 300 cycles, and for conventional concrete 2000
cycles) was the fast saturation of air void system in the thin PC paste layer.
(Figure 17 c)
o Partially saturated (water-cured specimens, no vacuum saturation) air
entrained PC was found to be very durable when freezing and thawing was in
air. (Figure 17 d)
It should be noted that the rapid freezing and thawing (ASTM C666 - 6 to 7 cycles per day)
was used in the study by Yang et al. (2005). This is significantly differed from field conditions.
32 (95)
Higher freezing rate typically leads to faster damage development. According to [Yang et al.
2006] and [Mata 2008] using a fast freezing rate may not be suitable for evaluating the
freeze-thaw durability of field PC.
a) b)
c) d)
Figure 17. a) Comparison on freeze-thaw damage development between PC and

conventional concretes with vacuum saturated and sealed specimen (no water uptake);
b) Variation of specimen weight (water uptake + volume loss) as a function of freeze and
thaw cycles for PC with water cured specimen (no vacuum saturation) subject to freeze-thaw
in water; c) Typical slow freeze-thaw damage development in water for conventional
concrete; d) PC specimen weight as a function of freeze-thaw cycles with water cured
specimen (no vacuum saturation) subject to freeze-thaw as sealed (no water uptake) [Yang
et al. 2006]
Schaefer et al. (2006) provide considerable information on developing durable PC mixtures.

His tests indicated that entraining air in the cement paste improved resistance to freeze-
thaw. He also found that addition of a small amount of fine sand (approximate 7% by weight
of total aggregate) to the mixes significantly improved the concrete strength and freezing-
thawing resistance while maintaining adequate water permeability. Shu et al. (2011) found
also that by air entrainment the freeze-thaw durability of PC can be essentially improved, and
besides Mata (2008) found that some sand must be included in the mixture for good freeze-
thaw resistance. Mata (2008) used realistic freezing rates to study freeze-thaw resistance of
PC. [Mata 2008, Schaefer et al. 2006, Shu et al. 2011]
According to Wang et al. (2006) well designed PC can meet freeze-thaw durability
requirements for cold weather climates. In their laboratory study a PC including river gravel
(4.759.5 mm,) 7% sand (90% < 2.36 mm), and air entrainment, showed the best freeze-
thaw durability. For this PC there was only 2% mass loss after 300 cycles (ASTM C 666,
33 (95)
Method A, freeze-thaw in water). Addition of a small amount of fibres (0.03 or 0.10% by

volume) to the mixes increased strength, air void content and freeze-thaw resistance. Fibres
also increase toughness. [Schaefer et al. 2006, Wang et al. 2006]
Henderson (2012) studied the effects of winter maintenance on PC slabs. There were
different exposures besides freeze-thaw. These exposures were moderate or heavy sand
loading with moderate or heavy precipitation. In addition, one group of slaps was with heavy
salt loading and heavy precipitation. Freeze-thaw cycling of the slabs involved moving them
in and out of a walk-in freezer. Freeze-thaw cycling and moisture without salt exposure were
found to alter the internal structure of pervious concrete. The internal structure was altered
when the paste in the PC deteriorated due to the freeze-thaw cycling. This deterioration
created small particles which were able to move throughout the pervious concrete and close
some of the previously available drainage paths. In all, the extent to which this occurs was
anticipated to be highly dependent on the characteristics of the paste in the PC. The surface
distresses that developed on the slab were generally limited in this study, and included only a
small amount of raveling, some paste loss and fracturing of very few aggregates. However,
one group of slabs showed more surface condition deterioration than the others. These slabs
were those with heavy salt loading and heavy precipitation. These slabs had also cracks
developed throughout the slabs, and substantial portions of some of the slabs fell finally off
after 255 cycles, the equivalent of five years of freeze-thaw exposure in Toronto. No
information on the cement type in these PC mixes, or information on the hardened paste air
content and quality (e.g. size of the pores) was given in [Henderson 2012]. The true reasons
for the deterioration of the PC slabs with freeze-thaw exposure with salt remain unclear.
Based on the low durability with freeze-thaw exposure with salt it was concluded that PC
pavement winter maintenance in Canada should preferably not include salt or salt solutions.
[Henderson 2012]
According to [Mata 2008], sedimentation and frost resistance may be directly related in wet
cold climates. If clogging of either the PC or the PC system occurs, water may accumulate in
the pavement and freeze. Based on field observations of PC pavements located in cold
weather climates, with an average of 5 years of service, it appears that the technology to
protect pervious concrete itself from the effects of freezing and de-icing salts already exists
but additional research is needed to determine the percentage of entrained air voids related
to air entraining admixture and sand content in a low w/c pervious concrete mixture. Instead,
combined effects of clogging on potential saturation, reduced infiltration of the subsoil,
changes in the depth of freezing and seasonal differences in storm intensity, including snow
melt have not been fully resolved.
3.1.6 Abrasion and raveling
Because of the rougher surface texture and open structure of pervious concrete, abrasion
and raveling of aggregate particles can be a problem. Especially when pervious concrete is
applied to pavements in areas which undergo freeze-thaw, durability also refers to the
surface abrasion resistance against snow clearing operations. If pervious concrete is to
progress from parking lot applications to low-volume and potentially high-volume
applications, the pavement must be resistant also to all aspects of cold weather
maintenance. [Tennis et al. 2004, Kevern et al. 2009a]
Henderson (2012) found that the surface distress of the slabs subjected to freeze-thaw
showed a common trend. This trend was the initial presence of paste loss and at a later point
the presence of raveling. This tendency suggests that raveling maybe a result of the paste
characteristics. The integrity of the paste to withstand exposure to freeze-thaw cycling may
have a large effect on the amount of raveling experienced by a pervious concrete pavement.
[Henderson 2012]
Kevern et al. (2009) presents results of combinations of four different PC mixtures cured
using six common curing methods. The surface abrasion of the concrete was tested using a
34 (95)
rotary cutter device (ASTM C944). The results show that the concrete abrasion resistance
was improved with a majority of surface-applied curing compounds; however the surfaces
covered with plastic sheets produced the lowest abrasion levels. Of the surface-applied
curing compounds, the best abrasion resistance and highest strength concrete was that
applied with soybean oil. The best abrasion resistance and highest strength overall was the
mixture containing fly ash and cured under plastic for 28 days. [Kevern et al. 2009a]
The addition of fibres has the potential to reduce surface abrasion and increase tensile
strength while potentially increasing at the same time porosity and permeability. Kevern et al.
(2009b) found that the birds nest effect caused by the fibres increased the porosity by 7.9%
and yet produced a tensile increase of 21% over the control without significantly impacting
surface abrasion. [Kevern et al. 2009b]
For the laboratory testing methods for abrasion see [Kuosa & Niemelinen 2013] (Chapter
2.1.7 Strength and resistance to degradation).
Figure 18. Surface raveling (observed at Charter School, Gary, Indiana). [Delatte et al. 2007]
3.1.7 Noise reduction
Significant increases in noise is a problem in urban areas. Noise is typically generated from
many sources, such as various types of vehicles on the road, airplanes, factories, and
construction sites. Normal concrete or thick glass panels can be thought of as sound
shielding materials. Instead, porous concrete and porous asphalt can be used as a sound
absorbing construction materials in urban areas. Many experimental studies have been
conducted in the past to develop efficient sound absorbing porous concrete or asphalt. [Kim
& Lee 2010, Danish Road Directorate 2012]
The open structure of the porous pavement causes a difference in arrival time between direct
and reflected sound waves, as shown in Figure 19. This difference decreases the noise level
intensity, causing porous pavements to absorb the sound. Olek et al. (2003) found that the
pore volume and pore sizes had a significant influence on acoustic absorption. The tortuosity
of the pore network, which forces the waves to travel longer, and the frictional losses in the
pore walls were the main mechanisms responsible for energy loss. [Olek et al. 2003,
Schaefer et al. 2006]
35 (95)
a) b)
Figure 19. Reflection of sound waves resulting from moving vehicle: a) Wave reflection from
a dense surface; b) Wave reflection from a porous surface. [Olek et al. 2003]
Kajio et al. (1998) [Schaefer et al. 2006] compared the noise levels produced from pervious
concrete and dense asphalt pavements at different vehicle speeds. Table 2 Kajio et al.
(1998) showed that, for both sizes of PC aggregate studied, the noise level was reduced
using pervious concrete. Small-size aggregate generally produced a quieter response,
ranging from a 3% to 10% lower noise level, with a maximum difference of 8 decibels (dB).
[Schaefer et al. 2006]
Table 2. Results of measurement of noise from pervious concrete slabs by Kajio et al.
(1998), as presented in [Schaefer et al. 2006]
3.2 Porous asphalt

3.2.1 General
Porous asphalt (PA) is one type of permeable pavement material. It is often called also open-
graded friction course (OGFC). Porosity of the asphalt mastic is usually between 15 and 20
percent. The subbase layers may include water storage systems or normal pavement
structure as used also under impermeable surfaces (overlay structures). Functionality of the
porous asphalt pavement is the same as that of other pervious pavements. Storm water
infiltrates to soil thorough pavement layer and it reduces ponding and need of sewer systems
(Figure 20). Effects on friction and hydrological system are positive [Ferguson 2005].
Additional benefits are also noise reduction, which is desirable feature in residential or high
trafficked areas [Bendtsen et al. 2005] and better visibility when there is hydroplaning,
spraying and light reflection reductions [Ferguson 2005, Hamzah et al. 2012A].
36 (95)
Figure 20. The porous asphalt in the foreground offers a dry surface while a conventional
dense-graded asphalt (background) remains wet. [Hansen 2008]
Porous asphalts have been studied and used already for many years, for example in
Northern America. The very first porous asphalt structures were constructed in the 1970s.
The oldest functioning permeable parking areas may be over 30 years old. One example of
such a structure is a parking lot in Walden Pond State Reservation in Concord,
Massachusetts. [Ferguson 2005] Today research and use of porous asphalts have spread
around the world. In Europe porous asphalts are widely used in Switzerland [Poulikakos et
al. 2006A] and the Netherland [Bendtsen 2011]. User experiences and research results are
widely available. The Finnish The Finnish Pavement Technology Advisory Council (PANK)
specification [PANK 2011] recommends using porous asphalts in fields, yards and other
residential and light trafficked areas.
Choosing porous asphalt instead of other permeable pavements depends usually on

economic factors. Porous asphalts are usually less expensive than pervious concretes or
interlocking structures [Virginia DCR 2011]. Compared to impermeable asphalt structures
including individual sewer system, fibre-reinforced porous asphalt is economically
competitive [Virginia DCR 2011Also the structural demands such as bearing capacity will
have an effect when choosing the pavement material. With proper construction and regular
maintenance, porous asphalt is a long-life and functional pavement material especially for
parking areas and low-trafficked roads.
Disadvantages of porous asphalts are void clogging and lower bearing capacity compared to
conventional impermeable asphalts. When the voids of asphalts clog due to for instance
sanding or debris in storm water, it reduces the infiltration rate. In cold climates (such as
Finland), where sanding and the use of dust releasing studded tyres is common, the clogging
potential is high. A draindown phenomenon in which the asphalt binder creeps and solidifies
onto lower layer in the asphalt overlay (or in asphalt mixture while production or transporting)
is not as common of a clogging occurrence in colder environments [Hamzah et al. 2012B].
However, clogging has to be taken seriously and that is why the regular maintenance, e.g.
sweeping and washing of the surface, is needed.
When designing porous asphalt structures it is taken account location, hydrology, and road
structure [Hansen 2008]. Location planning includes general weather and hydrology,
underneath soil, and surrounding surface structures of the planned area. In cold climate
areas (e. g. Finland) it is necessary to pay attention to freeze-thawing and permafrost.
The asphalt mixture design includes proportioning the aggregate mixture and the binder
recipe. Thicknesses of different layers and general layer structure depend on e.g. traffic
loads, frost depth and hydrology. Several design guides and specifications for porous
37 (95)
asphalts are available. A porous asphalt pavement structure is presented in Figure 21. This
structure is suitable for areas with poor quality soils and high groundwater. [Hansen 2008]
Figure 21. A porous asphalt pavement structure suitable for areas with poor quality soils and
high groundwater. [Hansen 2008]
3.2.2 Porous asphalt mix design
Asphalt mixture consists of aggregate, binder and optional additives [PANK 2011]. The most
important features of the porous asphalts are permeability and hydraulic conductivity. The
other features are adhesion of binder to aggregate, stiffness, resistance to permanent
deformation, fatigue and abrasion, skid resistance, noise absorption and general durability
against ageing, weathering, chemicals, raveling, stripping etc. [EN 13108-7: 2006].
Aggregate proportioning and binder content haves significant effects on properties of porous
asphalts [Suresha et al. 2010]. The Finnish PANK specification (2011) determines also
qualities of e.g. the composition, grading, binder and additive contents, homogeneity,
drainage capacity, water sensitivity, particle loss, binder drainage, temperature of the mixture
and durability of the porous asphalt mixture. If the asphalt mixture is produced according to
the standards and is properly tested (quality controlled), it receives the official CE marking.
There are several ways to design the PA mixtures. This depends on the circumstances,
regulations and project-specific demands. In Finland designers of porous asphalt mixtures
have to follow the standard SFS-EN 13108-7 + AC (Bituminous mixtures. Material
specifications. Part 7: Porous Asphalt) which determines the required properties [EN 13108-
7:2006]. PANK has more accurate specification guide for proportioning porous asphalts.
Alvarez et al. (2006) and Dooley et al. (2009) present wide comparisons on the regularities
and specifications concerning porous asphalts in different states worldwide.
General guideline for designing and proportioning the functional porous asphalt is to make
the mixture sufficiently permeable and durable at the same time [Suresha et al. 2010].
Permeability can be achieved using coarser aggregates and less binder than in conventional,
dense asphalts. Air voids in the mixture are relatively big and are well connected to each
other. On the other hand, high porosity and minor amount of binder may cause the mixture to
be less durable. Additional fibres, e.g. polymer, mineral or cellulose fibres, increase durability
and decrease the drain-down phenomenon [Hansen 2008]. Proportioning can be empirical or
performance based design, depending on how demanding the project is [PANK 2011].
Air void content is usually at least 16 vol.-% [Hansen 2008]. In the Finnish PANK
specification (2011) the tested void content average is 1725 vol.-%. A too high void content
decreases durability. However, it is important to take note that the void content does not
38 (95)
necessarily correlate directly to permeability; the connections between air voids makes the
mixture permeable [Suresha et al. 2010, Qiu & Guan 2011] (Figure 22).
Figure 22. Sample slices of two porous asphalts for image analysis. Dmax is the maximum
aggregate size. [Qiu & Guan 2011]
Thickness of the asphalt overlay depends on the traffic loads and can be between 76 and
180 mm. [Virginia DCR 2011]. In some cases the demand for the thickness depends also on
the other factors such as frost depth and noise matters. The minimum is 38 mm, as thinner
layers cannot bear any loads [Ferguson 2005]. The National Cooperative Highway Research
Program (NCHRP) in the USA recommends a thickness of 1925 mm with + 6 mm tolerance
[Dooley et al. 2009]. Noise can also be decreased by a twin-layer structure, which consist
two separate asphalt layers with different void contents [Masondo et al. 2002].
Aggregate is the skeleton of the porous asphalt. The aggregate amount is 6090 w.-% of the
porous asphalt [Ferguson 2005]. A high proportion of coarse aggregates provides the
sufficient stone-to-stone contact [Dooley et al. 2009]. Aggregate consist mostly of stones or
in some cases recycled stones of asphalt. Grains have to be angular and clean [Dooley et al.
2009]. Durability and stability of the aggregates in porous asphalt must meet the same
standards as in conventional, impermeable asphalt, as resistance to polishing, stripping and
raveling [Ferguson 2005, Dooley et al. 2009]. In colder climates such as in Finland, the
freeze-thaw resistance and durability against studded tyres is important [PANK 2011].
Porous asphalts do not hold water, so the risk of moisture damages is dimished [Hansen
2008]. The aggregate mixture should contain fines as little as possible, because they fill the
void space [Ferguson 2005]. The aggregate grain size is usually 9.5 mm or larger [Hansen
2008]. In a twin layer structures, the grain size of the base layer is larger and in the top layer
it is finer for maintaining the permeability [Hansen 2008]. Aggregate proportioning is project
specific, and depends on the needed strength, porosity and durability, and the available rock
type.
Binder (bitumen, asphalt cement) is the glue between aggregate grains and it makes the
asphalt mixture viscous and flexible [Ferguson 2005]. Binder makes a thin film around the
aggregate grains. Binder consistency is measured with a penetration test. In colder climates
it is recommended to use softer binders to avoid brittleness [Ferguson 2005]. The drain-down
phenomenon happens when the binder trickles deeper in the asphalt layer and releases the
surface aggregate grains. Warm temperature contributes this [Hamzah et al. 2012B], so risks
are lower in northern, colder circumstances. In PA, the binder content is usually 5.75% of the
whole weight of the mixture if the aggregate size is 9.5 mm [Hansen 2008]. On the other
hand, Suresha et al. (2010) have investigated that the maximum binder content is 5.0 % for
maintaining the sufficient void content and permeability. According to Alvarez et al. (2006) in
the European mixtures the binder content is smaller than 6%. Penetration of binder varies
between 60/70 and 100 depending on the project specific needs and used additives.
39 (95)
Additional material can be added to stabilize and enhance strength of the asphalt binder. The
most important properties of these additives are increasing the durability and reducing drain-
down [Dooley 2009]. The more the strength of the binder is, the less the needed amount of it
is. Therefore the void content increases as the binder strength increases. These additives
are mostly fibres as cellulose, as well as minerals and modifiers such as polymer and rubber
[Dooley 2009, Alvarez et al. 2011]. Other additives can be natural asphalt [Alvarez et al.
2006], anti-stripping agents such as lime or other fillers. Additives have also many other
favourable properties, because the film around the aggregate particles can be increased by
them [Wu et al. 2006]. Modifiers make the asphalt less viscose in warm temperatures and
flexible in cold temperatures [Watson et al. 1998]. Wu et al. (2006) have illustrated the
cellulose fibre having e.g. better resistance to abrasion and moisture sensitivity than
polyester fibres. There are many encouraging empirical experiences using the additives
[Dooley et al. 2009, Alvarez et al. 2011].
The Finnish proportioning specification for porous asphalt is described in Table 3 [PANK
2011].
Table 3. Porous asphalt mixture specifications according to the Finnish PANK (2011)
specification.
Aggregate, passing-% (sieve size,

mm) The mass
Porous asphalt Bitumen per unit
Binder 2
type (KB = kumibitumi Addition kg/m
content
(AA = avoin = rubber (optional) (constant
0.063 0.5 2 8 [%]
asfaltti) bitumen) thickness
area)
35/5070/100
AA 5 24 410 1830 100 5.06.0 5075
KB65 or KB75
Cellulose
35/5070/100 fibre or
AA 8 24 510 1223 90 5.05.8 60100
KB65 or KB75 Natural
asphalt
35/5070/100
AA 11 24 59 1019 3353 5.05.5 75100
KB65 or KB75
35/5070/100
AA 16 24 410 919 2743 4.75.3 100125
KB65 or KB75
3.2.3 Porosity, permeability and drainage
Permeability is the key characteristic of porous asphalt. It makes the surface of the pavement
drainable in wet conditions [Alvarez et al. 2011]. Porous pavement allows water not only to
infiltrate into lower layers, but also evaporate to air from water storage layers [Ferguson
2005]. This means that the effects to the general hydrology are positive, and there is no vast
need for stormwater collection systems. Permeability consists of air voids in the asphalt and
connections between the voids and pores. When the liquid reaches the surface of the porous
material, it flows thorough the below layers in some speed. Flow speed, alias hydraulic
conductivity, K, depends on the asphalt mix properties and its construction and maintenance.
Porosity of the pavement and other structures must meet the site specific demands, e.g.
water amount of local rainfall, runoff, and flood occasions in some time range (i.e. for the
design storm). The porous top layer asphalt is less permeable than the reservoir layer. The
underlying soil is usually the most critical layer with regards permeability, whereas the soil
permeability is dependent on the soil material [Stenmark 1995]. The asphalt surface may be
distributed layers of different void contents [Masondo et al. 2002, Bendtsen et al. 2005]. The
subbase layers (chocker course, water storage layer, geotextiles, and underlying soil) are
also with different permeabilities.
40 (95)
If the porous asphalt is laid on the top of a conventional, impermeable asphalt, storm water
drains off to the shoulder of the road [Bckstrm & Bergstrm 2000]. The draining rate is
depended on the porosity of the asphalt, runoff coefficient and road slopes [Ferguson 2005].
Porosity can be easily disturbed by clogging, which makes the porous asphalt voids smaller
and more impermeable. Clogging is a cumulative phenomenon, which is caused by e.g.
debris in the runoff water from adjacent areas, dust in air and winter sanding. Small particles
penetrate into the voids on the surface layer in time. The lifespan of the porous asphalt may
shorten quickly because of clogging in the case of inadequate maintenance. Other factors
reducing permeability are drain-down, compacting and wheel friction, which drags the plastic
asphalt sealing the pores [Ferguson 2005]. The drain-down or binder creep phenomenon is
more apparent in warmer temperatures [Hamzah et al. 2012B].
Clogging of pervious pavements is reviewed more closely in Chapter 7.1 (Clogging and
maintenance).
Mechanical performance of porous asphalts may not be as good as mechanical performance

of conventional dense asphalt. A higher void content makes the pavement more permeable,
but also more susceptible to damages by aging, air and moisture [Poulikakos & Partl 2009].
Porous asphalt surface cannot bear as heavy of loads as conventional asphalts, and the
lifetime is supposed to be shorter. On the other hand, skid resistance and noise reduction are
better for porous asphalt than for dense asphalts [Poulikakos et al. 2006b]. Research of
porous asphalts is focused on permeability properties; the mechanical performance has been
studied less. The mechanical subjects studied are e.g. strength and bearing capacity,
durability, skid resistance, and wearing as raveling, rutting and shoving.
The service life of PA depends on e.g. the binder content, aggregate proportion, traffic and
climate circumstances [Poulikakos et al. 2006B]. Open structure makes material oxidized by
air and damaged by water and moisture faster than in dense asphalt. One of the most critical
component of asphalt against wearing is binder and binder recipe [Alvarez et al. 2006].
Flexible binder contributes to the asphalts resistance to abrasion. Aged binder hardens and
brittles especially in colder weather when susceptibility to moisture increases and adhesion
may be reduced. It may also lead to the bond between aggregate and binder being lost
[Poulikakos & Partl 2009]. Also the bitumen interlayers and binder mortar itself may suffer
fatigue and loss of cohesion [Mo et al. 2008].
The main fatigue problems of PA are raveling and stripping [Alvarez et al. 2006, Hamzah
2012A, Roseen et al. 2012, Poulikakos & Partl 2009]. Raveling begins when the first
aggregate stones are removed from the surface of loosened asphalt layer and the
aggregates around are not supported with each other. The removal of stones expands like a
domino effect and the surface begins to strip [Hamzah 2012A]. Binder hardening caused by
aging can begin 6 - 9 years after installation and raveling progress of the entire surface may
last only for some months [Ferguson 2005]. Other reason for raveling can be in some cases
softening of the binder by oil and fuel dripping [Alvarez 2006]. Drain-down phenomenon can
also contribute the loosening of aggregates [Ferguson 2005]. Clogging and excessive
compaction may decrease permeability causing the susceptibility for moisture to increase
[Poulikakos et al. 2006B].
Inadequate compaction makes the porous asphalt less durable and susceptible for raveling
[Alvarez et al. 2006]. Control of the proper compaction rate is important because it ensures
the stone-on-stone contact and the balance between mixture durability and functionality
[Alvarez et al. 2006]. Also the improvement the adhesion between binder and aggregate
stones makes the asphalt more durable [Mo et al. 2008]. Addition of polymers or other anti-
stripping agents may enhance performance of the binder mixture.
41 (95)
Other, minor damage problems are rutting and shoving [Ferguson 2005]. Rutting is a
phenomenon which makes longitudinal tracks on the road surface. Respectively shoving
makes crosswise tracks, so that the surface will wave. Both are caused by wheel pushing,
tension, distortion and compaction [Ferguson 2005, Poulikakos et al. 2006B]. Moriyoshi
(2013) have studied that even if the rutting depth is smaller than 2 mm at high temperature,
this causes damages to lower layers. Weakness of the lower layers and subgrade can cause
settlement and potholes upward into surface. Oxidized binder is susceptible to form cracks
[Roseen et al. 2012]. Materials can spall around the cracks [Ferguson 2005]. Studded tyres
may also abrade the surface of porous asphalt.
When estimating the bearing value of the whole road structure, the subgrade bearing
capacity must be taken into account because it is ordinarily the weakest part of the pavement
structure. Other important factors are thickness of the whole structure and traffic loads.
Usually porous asphalt is used at low trafficked passenger car roads of parking lots, so the
loads are relatively low. When the thickness of the structure is sufficient, the load spreads
evenly and widely to the subgrade. Thickness design depends on the bearing ratio of
different layers of the structure. In addition, the possible frost protection demand must be
taken onto account. The weaker the subgrade, the thicker will be needed for the structure.
Road edges may need special support to maintain the resistance to deformation. Porous
asphalt can also be used over conventional road structures meant for heavy loads (overlay
asphalt). [Ferguson 2005.]
The European standards require some mechanical properties for porous asphalts. These are
e.g. water sensitivity, particle loss, binder drainage and horizontal and vertical permeability
[Poulikakos 2006a]. There can also be some national Annexes. In Finland, EN 13108-7 +
AC: (Bituminous mixtures. Material Specifications. Part 7: Porous asphalt), and the National
Annex Finnish Asphalt specifications 2011 (PANK 2011) are in use. In this Annex the porous
asphalt is maintained to be suitable for fields, yards and passenger car and other light
trafficked roads.
3.2.5 Winter durability, freeze-thaw durability with/without chlorides
Porous asphalt pavements can be used also in colder climates, where temperature is under
zero in winter. The skid resistance remains good and spring melting is faster than with
conventional asphalt [Houle 2008].
Designing the porous asphalt to resist the frost damages, a sufficient void content of the
surface asphalt must be considered, as well as porosity of the reservoir layer, and thickness
of the whole road structure. Voids allow the meltwater to infiltrate. The asphalt mix must be
also sufficiently soft to avoid winter brittleness [Ferguson 2005].
There are experiences on porous asphalt winter performance from many countries, e.g. from
Denmark, Switzerland, Netherlands, and Sweden and from the northern parts of USA.
Permeability of the porous asphalt in winter conditions consists of infiltration capacity and
e.g. water (ice) content, air temperature and heat properties of the asphalt. [Bendtsen 2011,
Stenmark, 1995, Roseen et al. 2012]
Frost and frost heaving must be taken into account while designing the permeable structure.
Also the maintenance operations differ from the conventional pavement structures. Winter
sanding clogs the pores of porous asphalts, but on the other hand the surface is usually not
as slippery as the surface of a conventional asphalt because water does not pond on the top
layer. The amount of snow is also usually lower on porous asphalt compared to conventional
asphalt [Houle 2008].
Winter performance of pervious pavement structures including porous asphalt pavements is

reviewed more closely in a separate Finnish CLASS-project State-of-the-Art-Report [Kuosa &
Niemelinen 2013b].
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3.3 Permeable interlocking concrete and natural stone

pavement
3.3.1 General
Permeable interlocking block pavement (PIBP) can be permeable interlocking concrete

pavement (PICP) surfaced with manufactured concrete units, or in principal also permeable
natural stone pavement (PNSP) surfaced with setts or slabs of natural stone. Figure 23
presents typical PICP components, and Figure 24 some types of paving units. [Smith 2011]
A lot of technical information on PICP is provided by the Interlocking Concrete Pavement

Institute (ICPI, http://www.icpi.org/). It was founded in 1993, and it is the North American
trade association representing the interlocking concrete paving industry. Figures 2527
presents the three main PICP types with regard to hydrological functioning. [Smith & Burak
2004]
Figure 23. Typical PICP components. [Smith & Hunt 2010, ICPI 2013]
An open-graded bedding course is typically 50 mm thick and consists of small-sized, open-

graded aggregate. This layer provides a level bed for the pavers.
An open-graded base reservoir layer is typically from 75 to 100 mm thick. It is normally made
of crushed stones from 20 mm down to 5 mm. This high infiltration rate layer provides a
transition between the bedding and subbase layers. [Smith & Hunt 2010]
In an open-graded subbase reservoir, the stone sizes are larger than the base, typically from
65 mm down to 20 mm. The thickness of this layer depends on water storage requirements
and traffic loads and may not be required in pedestrian or residential driveway applications.
In such instances, the base layer thickness is increased to provide water storage and
support. The base and subbase layers should have a minimum void ratio of 32% for water
storage.
43 (95)
Arabianranta Yhteispiha 12
Photo by Tiina Suonio
Figure 24. Some types of paving units for permeable pavements. [Smith 2011, EBEMA 2012,
Beeldens et al. 2008]
Figure 25. A typical design for full exfiltration: the system infiltrates most of the water into the
soil. [Smith & Burak 2004]
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Figure 26. Partial exfiltration with perforated pipes located at the bottom of the base. [Smith &
Burak 2004]
Figure 27. No exfiltration of water from the base, the water is completely detained within an
impermeable liner and released slowly to storm sewer or stream. [Smith & Burak 2004]
An underdrain is optional but in sites where PIBP is installed over low infiltration soils,
underdrains facilitate water removal from the base and subbase. The underdrains are
perforated pipes that connect to an outlet structure. Supplemental storage can be achieved
by using a system of pipes in the aggregate layers. The pipes are typically perforated and
provide some additional storage volume beyond the stone base. Significant amounts of
runoff can be stored under or adjacent to PIBP using plastic or concrete vaults or plastic
crates.
Using a geotextile is an optional and can be used to separate the subbase from the subgrade
and prevent the migration of soil into the aggregate subbase or base. (see Chapter 4.3
(Geotextiles, filter layer, impervious liners))
The infiltration capacity of the subgrade determines how much water can exfiltrate from the
aggregate into the underlying soils. The subgrade soil is generally not compacted.
3.3.2 Pavers
For instance in the U.S.A, concrete pavers should conform to ASTM C936/C936M - 13
(Standard Specification for Solid Concrete Interlocking Paving Units). These pavers are
typically 80 mm or greater in thickness for handling load of vehicles. Pedestrian areas may
45 (95)
use 60 mm thick units. The bedding layer is no greater than 50 mm thick. According to
[Virginia 2011], the compressive strength of the pavers should be over/ca. 55 MPa.
In the U.S.A., concrete pavers are manufactured in a range of shapes and colours. They can
also be produced with light coloured surfaces to satisfy a minimum solar reflectance index.
The top surface of units may be coated with photocatalytic cement materials to reduce
nitrous oxide air pollutants. [Beeldens 2008, Smith & Hunt 2010, Swan & Smith 2009]
Interlocking concrete pavers are also produced in Europe. Some examples from [EBEMA
2012] are presented in Figure 24.
In Europe, there are no harmonized standards for concrete interlocking paving units to be
used in pervious pavements. Harmonized standards for concrete tiles and concrete paving
flags are partially applicable also to interlocking paving units to be used in pervious
pavements:
EN 1338: 2003. Concrete paving blocks. Requirements and test methods
EN 1339: 2003. Concrete paving flags. Requirements and test methods.
In Finland there is also a national application standard:

SFS 7017. 2009. Betonista tai luonnonkivest tehdyille ulkotilojen pllystekiville, -
laatoille ja reunakiville eri kyttkohteissa vaaditut ominaisuudet ja niille asetetut
vaatimustasot.
For setts and slabs of natural stone there are harmonized standards:
EN 1342:2012. Setts of natural stone for external paving. Requirements and test
methods.
EN 1341:2012. Slabs of natural stone for external paving. Requirements and test
methods.
In Belgium there is technical specification [PTV 122] including requirements for the raw
materials used, the production and the finished products. PTV 122 (2009) is based on the
above standards for normal concrete paving blocks and flags but gives additional
requirements specific for blocks for pervious concrete surfaces. It does not apply to grass
paving clinkers. For pervious concrete blocks the demand for average permeability is 5.4 *
10-5 m/s, and in the case of pavement blocks with enlarged joints or drainage holes the
demand for an open surface area is 10%.
Figure 28 presents some concrete paving blocks with enlarged joints by Rudus Oy in
Finland. These blocks are today mainly used for green surfaces with, i.e. with turf (see also
Chapter 5.3 (Other pervious solutions)). The jointing material can also be open graded
gravel, and the pavement can be combined with more or less pervious sub-structures.
[Rudus 2013] Anyway, when any kinds of blocks are used in pervious pavements, a large
enough open area and suitability with the jointing material should be considered to enable
the designed drainage (see Chapter 3.4.3 Joints and joint material).
In Finland there are also concrete pavers including some kind of holes. These pavers are
today used for instance in green solutions and for embankment stabilization (see Chapter 3.5
(Other pervious solutions). They can also be filled with open graded gravel in combination
with more or less pervious sub-structures. [Rudus 2013, HB 2013]
46 (95)
Figure 28. Hulelaatta, Hulekivi, Nurmikivi, Akvakivi, Golfkiv, Vihernappula, Louhi-

kivi [Rudus 2013]
47 (95)
Natural stone is also used as a permeable paver because of its durability and aesthetic
appeal. Stone such as Porphyry, a natural granite, is used today to design driveways,
streets, walkways and parking lots. [Chaffee 2010, Monarch Stone International 2013]
(Figure 29)
Figure 29. Examples of reclaimed cobblestone pavers set on a porous or permeable base of
sand, and with permeable sand joints. [Monarch Stone International 2013]
3.3.3 Joints and joint material
PIBP includes joints and/or openings that allow stormwater to enter a crushed stone, open
graded aggregate bedding course. The joints typically comprise 5% to 15% of the paver
surface to provide sufficient drainage. Joints are filled with highly permeable, small-sized
aggregates, e.g. ASTM No. 8, 89 or 9 stone (Figure 30). [Smith 2011, Borst et al. 2010]
Figure 31 presents an example on the gradation of the joint filling material. [Beeldens &
Herrier 2006] The pavers are either pervious or not pervious concrete blocks. For pervious
blocks, the joint filling material can be normal, i.e. as used in normal non-pervious concrete
block pavements.
Borgwardt (2006) found that there is a correlation between infiltration performance and
permeability of the aggregates of joint fillings. Aggregates with a coarse particle size exhibit a
higher infiltration than those with fine grained aggregates. Still joint material aggregate sizes,
if big enough, did not have especially notable effect on the ability of PIBP to take water in.
Borgwardt (2006) noted also that sand provided the lowest infiltration. That is also why sand
is not recommended, e.g. by IPIC, to be used as joint filling material. One reason for this is
also the high clogging potential of sand.
Instead of open area or joint material properties, surface infiltration rates are a better way of
defining permeable pavements (see Chapter 3.4.4 (Permeability, surface infiltration)).
Figure 32 presents some field infiltration rates for both new and aged pavements with
different joint filling materials. [Smith 2011, Borst et al. 2010, Borgwardt 2006] The effects of
clogging are discussed more in Chapter 7.1 (Clogging and maintenance).
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Figure 30. Grain size limits for ASTM No. 8, 89 and 9 aggregates used as joint material in
PIBP.
Figure 31. Gradation of the joint filling material in case of porous pavement blocks (sand 0/2)
and of pavement blocks with widened joints and drainage holes (Porphyry 2/4). [Beeldens &
Herrier 2006]
Figure 32. Infiltration performance in relation to different aggregates for joint fillings. Results
for both new pavements and old pavements with clogging. [Borgwardt 2006]
49 (95)
Table 4 presents laboratory results in a Newcastle University infiltration tests where

permeability (liters/second/hectare) is presented for different joint widths with different joint
filling materials and different joint filling material minimum particle size. [Knapton et al. 2002]
Table 4. Permeability results with different joint filling materials and joint widths. [Knapton et
al. 2002]
3.3.4 Permeability, surface infiltration
The initial surface infiltration rate is typically very high for PIBP, and depends mainly on the
infiltration rates of joint filling material, bedding layer, and base/subbase materials. Instead,
based on research and experience, the key factor affecting the surface infiltration is the with
time decreasing infiltration performance. This means that sediment deposition from traffic,
soil eroding on the surface, and spills of topsoil or mulch are the most important factors for
PIP infiltration. The sources and amounts of sediments will vary from site to site. [Smith
2011, Borst et al. 2010]
There are numerous studies on the short and long term surface infiltration rates of PIBPs.
e.g. [Smith 2011, Borst et al. 2010]:
Borst et al. (2010) outlines the methods and results of the surface infiltration
monitoring of the permeable parking surfaces during the first six months of operation.
For PIBP the measured infiltration rate was from 6.9 to 9.7 mm/s. The measurement
was with ASTM C1701, a single-ring infiltrometer test method (see Chapter 6.2 (Field
testing and quality control)).
average 5.6 mm/s for nine parking lots in Maryland, U.S.,
for continuously unmaintained PIBPs (age of 810 years) 0.00130.104 mm/s (0.5
37.5 cm/hour), i.e. still some infiltration,
Results from Germany demonstrated that PIBP surfaces lose 75% to 90% of their
surface infiltration rate in 78 years due to sedimentation, and after that level off.
Reductions of initial surface infiltration of 75% to 90% still yields rates that will take practically
all storms. For instance, if PICP has an initial infiltration rate of 3.5 mm/s, a 90% reduction
over several years yields an infiltration rate 0.35 mm/s. For design purposes, a conservative
lowest surface infiltration for maintained PICP is 0.07 mm/s. [Borgward 2006, Smith 2011]
More information on long term performance, clogging and maintenance of permeable

pavements is presented in Chapter 7 (Performance).
50 (95)
Borgwardt (2006) found limited correlation between the infiltration rate and the percentage of
paver surface open area. Instead, infiltration rate has been found to be highly dependent on
the joint filling material. The permeability of ASTM No. 8 stone can exceed 14 mm/s, and 89
and 9 stone often exceeds 3.5 mm/s. Gradation of these stone materials is presented in
Figure 30 (above in Chapter 3.3.3 (Joint and joint material)). [Borgwardt 2006, Smith 2011]
Initial infiltration rates of open graded base and subbase reservoirs are very high (thousands
of inches or cm per hour). They are not considered as obstacle for water moving vertically.
Instead, a key design parameter is the lifetime infiltration of soil subgrade. There can be
short term variations from a saturated soil subgrade, and long-term infiltration reductions
caused by deposition of sediments.
In Belgium guidelines for hydraulic design for permeable pavements are developed. They
include standard structures related to the traffic intensity and soil characteristics.
Hydraulically speaking, water-permeable pavements were designed for a 30 years
frequency rainfall event of ten minutes. Belgium statistics indicate this is a rainfall with an
intensity of 270 liters/s/hectare. An initial permeability of 0,054 mm/s (5.410-5 m/s) is
demanded. A safety factor 2 is included to compensate for the fact that the permeability of
the structure may be reduced by air enclosures or by clogging at the surface. [Beeldens et al.
2009]
The strength demands for normal concrete paving blocks and flags are presented in
EN 1338 (2003) and EN 1339 (2003). In principle these demands are applicable also to the
pavers which are to be used in pervious pavements. Only materials with suitability
established in terms of their properties and performance shall be used in the manufacture of
concrete paving blocks.
In Belgium there is technical specification [PTV 122] for the paving blocks to be used in
pervious pavements. With respect to material requirements, the provisions of EN 1338
(2003) for concrete paving blocks, and the provisions of EN 1339 (2003) for concrete tiles
apply also in this specification.
According to EN 1338 The characteristic tensile splitting strength T shall not be less than
3.6 MPa. None of the individual results shall be less than 2.9 MPa, nor have a failure load
less than 250 N/mm of splitting length.
For setts and slabs of natural stone, there are harmonized standards EN 1342 (2012) and
EN 1341 (2012) where the requirements for strength are included.
For instance in EN 1341 informative Annex A, there is guidance for determining the
appropriate thicknesses for natural stone paving slabs for different classes of use. As
pervious pavement structures are not included, this standard can only be used as indicative.
Overall, a number of structural calculation methods are available for determining the
thickness of paving slabs for specific situations and loadings. EN 1341 informative Annex
gives a simple method which can be used as a part of the selection method. In this method
the thickness of a slab is determined by calculation from the minimum required breaking load
P (in kN), where P is the breaking load for the expected use of the paving. Guidance is also
given on the expected breaking loads for different uses (Table 5). [EN 1341]
51 (95)
Table 5. Guidance on the expected breaking loads for different uses for the estimation of the
appropriate thicknesses for natural stone paving slabs. [EN 1341]
In Finland there is a national application standard for concrete paving stones and flags and
setts and slabs of natural stone [SFS 7017: 2009]: Characteristics and requirement levels of
sets, slabs and kerbs made of concrete or natural stone in different outdoor applications. It
gives recommendations on the properties to be declared for the CE-marking according to the
relevant EN-standard. Specific paving products for pervious pavements are not included.
3.3.6 Freeze-thaw durability with/without chlorides
In Finland concrete paving blocks and flags must be resist freeze-thaw exposure with salt
due to their use outdoors [SFS 7017: 2009]. Testing of the scaling degree with salt is done
according to EN 1338, EN 1339 and EN 1340 Annex H (Slab test). After 28 freeze-thaw
cycles the average scaling value must be 1.0 kg/m2, with no individual value > 1.5 kg/m2.
In Finland the methods and demands for passing for slabs of natural stone for external
paving, as well as for setts of natural stone for external paving, are described in [SFS 7017:
2009]. In Finland, according to the test method in EN 12371 (2010), and by using 1 w.-%
NaCl in the testing, passing is if after 48 cycles the breaking load decrease is not more than
20%. In the case of freeze-thaw with no de-icing salts, the demand for passing is the same
but the testing is without salt, i.e. with water. Testing according to EN 12371 (2010) consists
of cycles of freezing in air and thawing in water.
3.3.7 Abrasion resistance
According to EN 1338 for concrete paving blocks, the abrasion resistance is determined by
the Wide Wheel Abrasion test (WWA) or as an alternative by the Bhme test. The Wide
Wheel Abrasion test is the reference test. According to EN 1341 for slabs of natural stones,
the abrasion resistance shall be determined according to EN 14157 (2004). In this standard
the WWA test is the reference method.
In the case of light traffic, there are no demands on abrasion resistance for any paving
product (concrete, natural stone) in Finland [SFS 7017: 2009]. But in the case of vehicle
traffic there are demands which are presented in SFS 7017.
3.4 Other pervious solutions

There are also several paver options, such as concrete grid pavers and turf pavers as well as
modular plastic paving grids which function in the same general manner as pervious
pavements. [Virginia DCR 2011] Besides the pavement type, the sub-structure will decide
the whole function and capacity with regard to water infiltration and retention.
52 (95)
Concrete grid pavers and slabs have been used for a long time especially for erosion control,
to stabilize embankments, in ditch liners and fire lanes but also in green paving areas and to
reinforce grassy areas subjected to wheeled traffic that would otherwise become so
compacted as to inhibit the permeability of the soil that is necessary for the grass to survive
[Virginia DCR 201] They have typically an open void content of 2050%. The openings of the
grids can be filled with grass plugs, topsoil or aggregates. Some examples are presented in
Figure 33. [Rudus 2013]
Figure 33. Concrete grid slabs (Reiklaatta) and pavers (Reikkivi). [Rudus 2013]
Figure 34. Turfstone Grid Pavers. [Angelus 2013]
One green product example is Drivable Grass which is a permeable, flexible and
plantable concrete pavement system. This product is made of wet cast, low moisture
absorption air entrained concrete and is thus also freeze-thaw resistant. The design
eliminates sharp edges. Holes in it allow for infiltration and root penetration. There is a cast-
inside engineered polymer grid which allows it to flex and conform to irregular ground surface
contours. It also can move with frost heave in a freeze thaw cycle with no cracking. The
products interconnecting grid is made from an engineered polymer that remains flexible
even in low temperature conditions. It can also be filled with sand and gravel or other suitable
granular materials. Figure 35). [Soil Retention 2013]
53 (95)
Figure 35. Draivable pervious, flexible and plantable concrete grass/pavement system. [Soil
Retention 2013]
There are also modular plastic grid pavers which can be used for ground reinforcement in the
same way as those made of concrete. Open void fill media may be aggregate, topsoil and
grass. Some examples are presented in Figure 36 and Figure 37.
Figure 36. RITTER Nurmikennosto and Sorakennosto GroundGrid. [Kaitos 2013]

54 (95)
Figure 37. BODPAVE 85 permeable pavers can be installed with either a grass or gravel
filled surface depending on the application required. [TYPAR 2013]
Figure 38. TRUCKPAVEs open plastic grid cell structure can be filled with either a grass
seed/topsoil or gravel. [TERRAM 2012]
4. Subbase systems
4.1 General
Early pervious pavements were built on freely draining sandy soils, so that the water could
flow straight through the pavement and into the soil. If the soil does not drain well, an open
graded crushed stone reservoir base is placed under the pavement to retain water. This
technique is also used to keep the pervious concrete dry where there is a risk of freeze-thaw
damage.
Installations, where the water flows directly downward through the pavement layers, are
referred to as open systems. Instead, in closed systems an impermeable membrane is
placed under the subbase to direct water to pipes. [Delatte et al. 2007, Delatte & Cleary
2006]
As presented for instance in Beeldens & Herrier (2006), carefully chosen materials are a
prerequisite for a permeable paving structure to work well. The foundation can be made of
unbound materials. It is important to find a good agreement between permeability and
stability. The lack of fine material will hamper the compaction of the layer to a large extend.
The use of different compaction equipment, such as a vibration plate can lead to good results
where a drainable structure is obtained with a good mechanical resistance. [Beeldens &
Harrier 2006]
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Another important factor is the possibility to compact the material in-situ. It is also possible to
use cement-bounded materials in the base layer for example porous lean concrete, which
combines high porosity with relatively high strength. To ensure the stability of the structure,
contamination between layers must be prevented, if necessary by separating them with a
geotextile. However, according to Beeldens & Herrier (2006), this should be avoided as
much as possible, to prevent one layer from sliding over another under the action of traffic.
[Beeldens & Herrier 2006]
4.2 Aggregates
Open-graded bases have no fines (0.075 mm) and are typically with 15201920 kg/m3
density. While in dense graded aggregate all void spaces are small, in open-graded
aggregate the voids between the aggregate particles enlarge as particle size increases.
According to one rule of thumb, the diameter of the voids is up to 1/5 of the diameter of the
particles. [Ferguson 2005]
The total porosity does not vary measurably with particle size, and it is 3040%. The exact
value depends on the gradation of the aggregate, particle shape, and degree of compaction.
If the particle sizes are very uniform, porosity is very high, i.e. 3345%. The highest value is
for rigorously angular particles, and the lowest for rounded gravels. Internal pores in
aggregates will increase porosity. [Ferguson 2005]
The permeability of aggregates comes from its total porosity, and from the size of the
individual voids. Open graded, and especially course open graded, aggregates have very
high permeabilities. Table 6 presents approximate permeabilities of aggregate materials.
[Ferguson 2005]
Table 6. Approximate permeabilities of aggregate materials. [Ferguson 2005]
Gradation Permeability, cm/hour (mm/s)
25.5 mm aggregate (uniform size) 63500 (176)
Coarse aggregate 127 (0,35)
Dense-graded sand and gravel 0,635 (0,002)
The aggregate storage layer may be comprised of more than one layer of aggregate, each
layer having a different size aggregate and void content.
Before installing a surface course on top of a base course, it is normally necessary to smooth
and stabilize the top of the base course. This is done by a setting bed or chocking layer of
finer open-graded material. Chocking particles must be smaller than those of base course
but not so small that they would fall through the voids. A combination of two layers must
provide permeability through the whole material while making voids small enough to prevent
small particles from penetrating. Table 7 presents filter criteria for three aggregate layers, i.e.
bedding, base and subbase layer. Dx is the particle size at which x percent of the particles
are finer, based on the sieve analysis result. [Ferguson 2005, Smith 2011]
56 (95)
Table 7. Filter criteria for bedding, base and subbase aggregates. Dx is the particle size at
which x percent of the particles are finer. [Ferguson 2005, Smith 2011]
Permeability D15 Base/D15 Bedding layer >5

D50 Base/D50 Bedding layer <25
Choke
D15 Base/D85 Bedding layer <5
Permeability D15 Subbase/D15 Base >5

D50 Subbase/D50 Base <25
Choke
D15 Subbase/D85 Base <5
According to [CRMCA 2009], PC base course aggregate should be uniformly graded, coarse
aggregate per ASTM No 57, or approved equal, with a loss by wash of no more than 1.0%.
Based on U.S. experience ASTM No. 8 bedding stone chokes well into ASTM No 57 base,
and this ASTM No 57 base material chokes well in ASTM No. 2 subbase material. These
materials also provide high permeability when chocked into each other. [Smith 2011]
Standard gradations for ASTM no 8, No 57 and No 2 aggregates are presented in Table 8.
Table 8. Standard gradations for ASTM no 8, No 57 and No 2 aggregates.
Sieve Passing [%]

size No. 8 No. 57 No. 2
[mm] (bedding) (base) (subbase)
75 100
63 90 - 100
50 35 - 70
37 100 0 - 15
25 95 - 100
19 0- 5
12,5 100 25 - 60
9.5 85 - 100
4,75 10 - 30 0 - 10
2,36 0 - 10 0- 5
1,19 0- 5
The factors that contribute to structural stability and bearing strength are different from those
filling the filter criteria. They include using crushed stone, hard aggregate and interlock of
particles with each other as well as appropriate thicknesses and compaction (see Chapter 5
Dimensioning). For the evaluation of mechanical strength of road subgrades and base
courses (bearing resistance), there are geotechnical testing methods (see Chapter 6
Laboratory and field testing - standards and methods).
Ferguson (2005) presents that jointing, bedding, base and subbase aggregates used in
vehicular PIP applications should be crushed with minimum 90% fractured surfaces.
Minimum Los Angeles (LA) abrasion should be <40 (see Chapter 6.1.7 Strength and
resistance to degradation; ASTM C131, ASTM C535 and EN 1097-3). For base/subbase
material, he recommends a minimum porosity of 32% and a California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
of at least 80% (see Chapter 6.2.3 Bearing strength).
Lightweight aggregates
Lightweight aggregates, e.g. Leca-gravel, have been used in pavement structures. Leca-
products have also been used in e.g. green roofs where the ability to retain water and
behave as an underdrain has been exploited. In courtyard construction, lightweight
57 (95)
aggregates such as Leca-gravel are already used to for instance prevent or diminish
sagging, to prevent frost damage and in drainage and drying. Besides Leca-gravel can be
used to produce Leca-concrete, which can be used for instance in pavement subbase
structure. Leca-products can be considered to be a potential product also in pervious
pavements especially when lightweight and frost protection is needed. [RT-kortti 2005, Maxit
2005a, Maxit 2005b]
Leca-gravel has also been used as a water purification media. This product is called
Filtralite filter media. For several years the main Weber laboratory at Lillestrm, Norway
has carried out testing of Filtralite filter media. The number of tests and characterisation
procedures are continuously increasing, according to the increase in requirements for good
quality filter media. [Weber 2013]
Recycled aggregates (as base/subbase material)
Aggregate is granular material used in construction. Aggregate may be natural,

manufactured or re-cycled. Recycled aggregate (RA) is aggregate resulting from the
processing of inorganic material previously used in construction. For instance it can be
recycled concrete aggregate (RCA). Manufactured aggregate is aggregate of mineral origin
resulting from an industrial process involving thermal or other modification.
Using RCA offers several environmental advantages. But like any other aggregates also
RCA when used in permeable pavements, must be specified and evaluated for gradation and
durability to meet all the project objectives. [Ferguson 2005]
Crushed concrete aggregate may be strong and angular but must be sorted for size to
produce courses with high enough porosity and permeability. Without sorting it may include a
high amount of very fine material. Especially fine material is capable of leaching out alkalinity
which is not good for nearby plants and trees. Recycled concrete aggregate has also a
potential to re-cement to solid and low permeable mass. Both re-cementing and leaching can
be minimized, but not totally. Coarse, single sized material with low surface area exposed to
water is beneficial. [Ferguson 2005]
Beeldens et al. (2009) made also testing on recycled aggregates. Some good results
towards permeability were obtained, but the analysis of the aggregate distribution indicated
that during placement and compaction, fines were formed. A mixed recycled aggregate
(concrete and masonry) 10/40 (10 to 40 mm) was tested. The fraction 0/2 (<2 mm) raised to
almost 10%, only due to friction on the sieves. The risk to create fines due to the loading by
traffic during service life is high, what can result in a decreased permeability. [Beeldens
2009] In the case of using structures with impervious liners and pipes, this is not a problem
as water does not enter the surrounding soil.
4.3 Geotextiles, filter layer, geosynthetic barriers, impervious

liners
Geotextiles, filter layer
Geotextile materials are a common element within permeable pavement and subbase
designs. EN 13249:2000/A1:2005 (Geotextiles and geotextile-related products - Required
characteristics for use in the construction of roads and other trafficked areas) presents the
requirements for geotextiles for use in the construction of roads and other trafficked areas.
Review of the testing methods related to pervious pavements, including the standard testing
methods for geotextiles, is included in a separate CLASS-project State-of-the-Art Report
[Kuosa & Niemelinen 2013] (Pervious pavement testing methods).
58 (95)
The European geotextile product standards do not specify minimum requirements, as these
are related to the construction, in which the geotextile is used. The information the
manufacturer provides should mention a nominal value and a tolerance value, corresponding
to the 95% confidence interval. [Foubert 2009]
In general, geotextiles used in any applications fulfil one or more of the functions presented
in Figure 39. [Foubert 2009]
Figure 39. Geotextile functions [Foubert 2009].
Table 9 presents the properties of geotextiles in different functions provided by the geotextile
harmonization. [Tammirinne et al. 2004]
Table 9. The properties of geotextiles in different functions provided by the geotextile

harmonization. [Tammirinne et al. 2004]
Within permeable pavements, geotextiles can be used mainly in two locations where they
should function as a filter. (Figure 40) An optional upper geotextile can be included at the
laying course/coarse graded aggregate interface, and a geotextile can be used to protect the
bottom of the reservoir layer from intrusion by underlying soils. If a geotextile is not used, the
design of the aggregate layers and their gradation optimization is another option. [Interpave
2007, Virginia DCR 2011]
59 (95)
Figure 40. Location of geotextiles. [Interpave 2007]
According to [Interpave 2007], the geotextile can be either a monofilament woven, non-
woven firmly bonded or needle punched non-woven fabric. It should be manufactured from a
suitable polyethylene or polypropylene filament able to withstand naturally occurring
chemical and microbial effects. Only products with a CE-mark should be used.
Adjacent rolls of the geotextile should be overlapped by at least 300 mm. All vehicles should
be prevented from trafficking directly over the material. The material should be protected
from ultraviolet light. [Interpave 2007]
According to the PC Handbook [CPG 2013], filter fabric, i.e. a 4 oz non-woven geotextile,
shall be placed on the subgrade/soil prior to placing the base material. The filter fabric should
continue up the sides to the surface to keep fines from migrating into the storage layer. It is
also advised to continue the filter fabric up and over the surrounding soils ca. 0.60.9 m
(Figure 41). This will hold the soils under the fabric acting as erosion control until the project
is complete and landscaping is ready to secure the soils next to the pervious pavement.
When the soils are secured the filter fabric can be cut to the edge of the pervious pavement.
Figure 41. The filter fabric should continue up the sides to the surface to keep fines from
migrating into the storage layer, and also up and over the surrounding soils when needed for
erosion control. [CPG 2013]
Some practitioners recommend avoiding the use of filter fabric since it may become a future
plane of clogging within the system. Permeable filter fabric is still recommended to protect
the excavated sides of the reservoir layer, in order to prevent soil piping. [Virginia DCR 2011]
Also, for instance, according to the design guide [UNHSC 2009] filter fabrics or geotextile
liners are not recommended for use on the bottom of the porous asphalt system (at the base
of the stone reservoir subbase) if designing for infiltration. This is because filter fabric usage
in stormwater filtration has caused premature clogging. Graded stone filter blankets are
recommended instead [UNHSC 2009].
60 (95)
The function of a geotextile filter is to retain the soil while allowing the liquid to flow as freely
as possible. In order to achieve this objective, a geotextile filter needs to meet
[Landfilldesign.com 2013]:
Retention criterion: the filter opening size must be sufficiently small to retain soil
particles,
Permeability criterion: the filter must be sufficiently permeable to ensure that the liquid
flow is as free as possible, and
Porosity criterion: the filter should remain a high porosity so the probability for
clogging is small.
Giroud (2010) has studied mainly theoretically criterions for geotextiles and granular filters.
According to him there is also a thickness criterion, i.e. minimum thickness, for geotextiles.
He also showed that porosity criterion and thickness criterion are always met by granular
filters, and therefore, are needed only for geotextile filters. [Giroud 2010]
According to [Smith 2011], the geotextile filter criteria should be checked if it is used between
the subbase and subgrade. For instance the AASHTO M-288 (Standard Specification for
Geotextile Specification for Highway Applications) requirement is that permeability should
exceed that of the soil. The standard practice is that the geotextile permeability is ten times
that of the soil being filtered.
The requirements in [Smith 2011] for the geotextiles to be used in PICPs are presented in
Table 10 and Table 11. These values are from the U.S. M 288-09 (Geotextile Specifications
for Highways Applications), used by permission in [Smith 2011].
According to [Smith 2011], geotextile strength properties should be the highest (Class 1) if
exposed to severe installation conditions with greater potential to damage. Lower strength
properties (Class 2) are typically used the installation conditions are less severe.
Table 10. Geotextile strength property requirements (e.g. application in PICP). [Smith 2011]
Table 11. Subsurface drainage geotextile requirements (e.g. application in PICP). [Smith
2011]
61 (95)
Virginia stormwater design specification [Virginia DCR 2011] describes general material
specifications for the component structures installed beneath the permeable pavement.
Specifications for optional filter fabric are also included. A needled, non-woven,
polypropylene geotextile should be used. The specification includes e.g. a value flow rate
determined according to ASTM D4491 (Standard Test Methods for Water Permeability of
Geotextiles by Permittivity). The demand is >306 m3/h m2 (125 gpm/sq. ft). Other important
geotextile properties are so called Grab Tensile Strength and Mullen Burst Strength, as
well as so called Apparent Opening Size (AOS).
Durability of geotextiles is linked to a number of parameters [Foubert 2009]:

Duration of exposure to sunlight on site
Soil conditions (pH, temperature, contamination)
Expected lifetime of the construction
Composition and structure of the geotextile.
Tota-Maharaj et al. (2012) examined the effectiveness of permeable pavements in treating

concentrated urban runoff for water reuse and recycling, assessing the presence of
geotextile membranes within the permeable pavement structures in terms of its efficiencies
for removing water pollutants. The inflow and outflow water quality were measured from the
three experimental pavement rigs on a weekly basis. Water quality analysis indicates that the
infiltration and absorption capabilities of the geotextile membrane provide higher removal
efficiency for typical contaminants in urban runoff when compared to permeable pavements
without the geosynthetic layer. A more detailed review on the specific studies and
experiences on the effect of pervious pavement on water quality is presented in a separate
CLASS-project State-of-the-Art Report [Loimula & Kuosa 2013] (The impact of pervious
pavements on water quality).
Geosynthetic barriers, impervious liners, geomembranes
Closed systems, where an impermeable membrane is placed under the subbase to direct
water to pipes, may be preferred in some pervious pavement cases. The use of impervious
liners (geosynthetic barriers, geomembranes), represents a conservative approach if there
are concerns about water quality in the soil or about increasing moisture levels under
adjacent pavements. [Delatte et al. 2007, Delatte & Cleary 2006]
EN 15382 (2013) (Geosynthetic barriers. Characteristics required for use in transportation

infrastructure) presents the requirements for geosynthetic barriers used as fluid barriers in
infrastructure works, e.g. roads, railroads, runways of airports, and the appropriate test
methods to determine these characteristics. The intended use of these products is to control
the pathway of liquids through the construction and to limit any contamination, e.g. by de-
icing products, of groundwater or water sources.
There are also harmonized European product standards presenting the characteristics
requires for geomembranes for different use, as for the use in the construction of reservoirs
and dams, use in the construction of canals, use as fluid barrier in the construction of tunnels
and underground structures, use in construction of liquid waste disposal sites, solid waste
storage and disposal sites, and sites for the storage and disposal of hazardous solid
materials.
Product standards for Geosynthetic barriers, as e.g. EN 15382, presents the testing methods
and standards for three different product types, i.e. polymeric (GBR-P), bituminous (GBR-B)
and clay (GBR-C, i.e. bentonite carbets) geosynthetic barriers. Review of the testing
methods related to pervious pavements, including the standard testing methods for
geosynthetic barriers, is included in a separate CLASS-project State-of-the-Art Report
[Kuosa & Niemelinen 2013a] (Pervious pavement testing methods).
62 (95)
According to Bowers (2013) no infiltration design with a geomembrane is typically used in the
following conditions:
The soil has very low permeability, low strength, or is expansive
High depth to a water table or bedrock
To protect adjacent structures and foundations from water
When pollutant loads are expected to exceed the capacity of the soil subgrade to
treat them.
A no infiltration retention design may be used also as a part of a water harvesting and reuse
on site system. [Bowers 2013]
Geomembranes have different engineering properties depending on polymer type, thickness

and manufacturing process. Typically the nominal thickness, density, tensile strength, tear
resistance, dimensional stability and puncture resistance are provided in manufacturers'
literature and referenced in product specifications. [Bowers 2013]
The thickness of the geotextile is typically selected based on the materials placed next to the
geomembrane and the importance of preventing punctures of the geomembrane. When
designing a no infiltration pervious pavement system, there are many factors that must be
considered in selecting the geomembrane and protection materials. Bowers (2013)
recommends consultation with an engineer familiar with the design of a geomembrane.
Geomembranes can be manufactured from a range of polymers including polyvinyl chloride

(PVC), chlorosulfonated polyethylene (CSPE), chlorinated polyethylene (CPE), or, more
recently, polypropylene (PP), ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM), high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) and linear lower density polyethylene (LLDPE), very flexible
polyethylene (VFPE). Each of these polymers is unique and provides varying levels of
resistance to acids, alkalis or petrochemicals. Some geomembrane polymers can also
function in extreme heat or cold. Normally, the surface of a geomembrane is smooth, but
some sloped applications can benefit from a textured surface that provides greater friction
with the adjacent geotextiles or soil. [Bowers 2013]
Tammirinne et al. (2007) studied the life time design and product acceptance of ground water
protection systems for landfills. No tests were made to find out the design parameters for
different materials but general guidelines how to make the comparisons was presented.
Usability criteria for different materials as linings were also given, partly for test use in the
described acceptance procedure.
4.4 Water draining and collection systems

Under-drains (see Figure 23 Typical PICP components in Chapter 3.3, and Figure 42) are
perforated pipes that connect to an outlet structure. Supplemental storage can be achieved
by using a system of pipes in the aggregate layers. The pipes are typically perforated and
provide some additional storage volume beyond the stone base. Sub-drain pipes can exit to
drainage ditches, storm sewers and natural drainage features such as ponds or streams.
[Smith & Hunt 2010, Swan & Smith 2009]
For additional storage volume, the aggregate layer(s) may extend beneath adjacent
impervious pavements on the site, and may include pipes, under-drains, chambers, cisterns,
vaults, tanks or other receptacles, as necessary to economically accommodate the design
storm-water storage volume. [CRMCA 2009, Interpave 2007]
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Figure 42. Perforated pipes will be used at the bottom of the base for projects over slower
draining silt and clay soils. [Smith & Burak 2004]
There are a number of permeable subbase replacement systems on the market. Some
examples on the subbase replacement systems are presented in Figure 43. These enable
the use of pervious pavement in areas with low soil permeability. Significant amounts of
runoff can be stored under or adjacent to pervious pavements using plastic or concrete
vaults or plastic crates. They usually consist of a series of lattice plastic, cellular units,
connected together to form a raft structure that replaces some or all of the permeable
subbase, depending upon the anticipated traffic loading. They may be manufactured also
using recycled plastic. [Interpave 2007, StormTech 2011]
According to the CRMCA (2009) guide, the maximum draw-down time shall be five days; any
combination of subgrade soil infiltration, evaporation, and positive outlets may be used to
achieve draw-down. Perforated pipes are normally used at the bottom of the base for
projects over slower draining silt and clay soils. (Figure 44)
Soil conditions do not constrain the use of permeable pavement, although they do determine
whether an under-drain/sub-drains is needed. Under-drains prevent over-saturation of the
pavement during high depth rain events. To accomplish this, sub-drain pipes are typically
placed above the soil subgrade. They will be filled only after a substantial portion of the base
material under them has become saturated. [Swan & Smith 2009]
The use of under-drains is recommended when there is a reasonable potential for infiltration
rates to decrease over time, when underlying soils have a low infiltration rate, e.g. less than
0.035 mm/s, or when soils must be compacted to achieve a desired Proctor density. High
infiltration rate soils will generally not require under drains in the subbase while some silts
and most clay soils will require under-drains to remove excess water. [Virginia DCR 2011,
Smith & Hunt 2010]
Under-drains can also be used to manage extreme storm events to keep detained storm-
water from backing up into the permeable pavement. [Virginia DCR 2011]
According to [Virginia DCR 2011], 100 to 150 mm diameter perforated PVC [AASHTO M
252: 2012] pipe, with 9.5 mm (3/8 in) perforations at 150 mm on center; each underdrain
installed at a minimum 0.5 % slope located 6 m or less from the next pipe (or equivalent
corrugated HDPE may be used for smaller load-bearing applications). Perforated pipe
installed for the full length of the permeable pavement cell, and non-perforated pipe, as
needed, is used to connect with the storm drain system. Ts and Ys are installed as needed,
depending on the underdrain configuration. Cleanout pipes should be extended to the
surface with vented caps at the Ts and Ys. [Virginia DCR 2011]
64 (95)
Figure 43. Subbase replacement systems. [Interpave 2007, Pipelife 2013a, StormTech 2011,
Pouta 2010]
65 (95)
An impervious liner may also be used to store larger quantities of storm water for re-use.
Barriers can also be used to keep storm water from entering contaminated soils. Figure 44
presents the principle of this kind of closed pavement system. [CRMCA 2009]
Figure 44. PC pavement as a closed system. [Delatte & Cleary 2006]
According to Pouta (2010) it is important to follow in long term the functioning of the
stormwater cassette systems. Also it is important to enforce the separation of harmful
substances from stormwater in the use of stormwater cassettes. [Pouta 2010]
The water storage capacity of a pervious subbase replacement systems is higher than that of
a conventional granular systems. Typically 3040% of the depth of a granular permeable
subbase pavement is needed for the hydraulic design of the pavement. This can lead to a
shallower excavation and reduced material disposal to landfill which, in turn, makes them
particularly economical for brown field and contaminated sites. [Interpave 2007]
Permeable subbase replacement system design is specialised and advice should be sought
from the suppliers/manufacturers of these systems. For instance, Pipelife Oy has its own
dimensioning program including statistical climate data. [Pipelife. 2013a]
The manufacture provides also information on the mechanical performance and guidance on
the use of the products especially in trafficked areas. The bearing capacity of the cassettes is
small and it is essential to consider the capacity of the ground layers above them in the
dimensioning. Table 12 presents basic properties for some subbase replacement systems.
[Pouta 2010]
There may be also restrictions with regard to the ground water level, and ways to keep the
systems stable against buoyancy. [Pipelife 2013a, Stormtech 2004]
Subbase replacement system should be inspected after every half year and the accumulated
sludge should be cleaned at least after every 3 years. [Pouta 2010]
Subbase replacement systems may also be useful to form inlets or outlets to and from the
permeable subbase as they can be placed at a much shallower depth below trafficked areas
than most pipes.
66 (95)
Table 12. Basic properties for some subbase replacement systems/cassettes. [Pouta 2010]
Water that penetrates the pervious pavement can also be drained and collected or harvested
in high volume places where it is detained before infiltration, reuse or drainage to sewer or
natural water systems. Figure 45 presents some examples. It is important to select
appropriate materials, especially when ground water must be protected. In connection with
plastic materials (HDPE, LDPE, PVC, PP), also bentonite blankets may be useful. [Pouta
2010] There are also rainwater management solutions which include catching the water on
roofs or streets and getting the water both cleaned, stored and/or reused. [Pipelife 2013b]
Underground stormwater basins

Row of big pipes. made of concrete
HDPE-membrane sealed
stormwater casettes
Figure 45. Possibilities for high volume stormwater collection. [Pouta 2010]
Rainwater harvesting is a system where rainwater from roofs and hard surfaces is collected
and used in or around buildings for instance for watering gardens. The runoff used for
harvesting needs to be of reasonable quality and free of debris and sediments. Permeable
pavements will provide filtration to achieve this. It is important to note that the storage volume
for reuse should be separated from that for rainfall attenuation. Figure 46 presents an
example layout of rainwater harvesting system. [Interpave 2007]
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Figure 46. Example layout of a rainwater harvesting system below permeable pavement.
[Interpave 2007]
4.5 Modifying soil for handling water inflow

Subgrade is the soil below the paving and the subbase. The subgrade upon which paving
and subbase is constructed is critical to the design and performance of a system with
detention. Infiltration rate of the subgrade soil will affect the design of the stormwater storage
layer. In most cases, porous paving is designed to encourage water to saturate the subgrade
below the paving.
Structural and drainage capacity of the subgrade must be known before specifying a
compaction range. Pervious pavement subgrades and cuts necessary to establish proper
subgrade level are compacted less or not at all, and are not subjected to excessive
construction equipment traffic prior to coarse aggregate bed placement. When fill is needed
to meet proper subgrade level, some compaction may be necessary. Field testing of the
subgrade after compaction is also important to confirm that they still conform to both
structural and hydraulic calculations used for the site. [ACI 522R-10, CRMCA 2009]
According to [Zhang 2006], the pavement design will depend on physical properties such as
permeability and California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of the sub-grade soil. Recommendation by
Knapton et al. (2002) is that soil tests such as soil classification, moisture content (as %) and
soaked California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of the sub-grade soil should be carried out before the
construction of the pavement. They pointed out that the optimal permeability should exceed
0.01 mm/s and CBR values should exceed 5 % for a successfully performing permeable
pavement. Additional aggregate layers should be added between the subbase and sub-
grade if the sub-grade cannot reach the above standards.
Once storm water runoff is captured by the system, runoff will be stored until it exfiltrates the
system. The exfiltration rate can be defined as the rate at which runoff leaves the permeable
pavement and enters the underlying soil. The time it takes for the storm water to exfiltrate the
system will depend on the infiltration rate of the underlying soil. It has been recommend that
the permeable pavement to be designed to drain fully in no more than five days. [Kevern
2008, Leming et al. 2007]
Soil infiltration capacity can be measured through on-site testing with a double-ring
infiltrometer (ASTM D 3385:2009 or ASTM D 5093:02(2008). For more details, see the
separate Finnish CLASS-project report on pervious pavement testing methods [Kuosa &
Niemelinen 2013a].
According to Beeldens et al. (2009), soil that mostly consisted of sand with a permeability
ranging from 0.02 mm/s to 0.045 mm/s was very suitable for infiltration in a project in
68 (95)
Belgium. For sandy soils, the infiltration rate may be 0.20.4 mm/s but for silty to clayey soils
only 0.050.005 cm/s.
According to Smith & Hunt (2010), permeable pavements should be located at least 30 m
from drinking water wells and with a minimum of 0.6 m of soil above the seasonally high
ground water table. With an impermeable liner, there should be at least 0.3 m between the
bottom of the liner and the seasonal high groundwater table.
In the UK, a permeable pavement is required to absorb 180 litres/second/hectare, but most
UK subgrades would only absorb a fraction of this. The remainder has to be retained in the
pavement to gradually percolate into the subgrade or to be directed to a sub-surface
drainage system. [Knapton et al. 2002]
In order to ensure complete drainage of water between rain events and reduce the potential
for freezing during winter, consideration should be given to requiring underdrains with
adjustable flow restrictors to be installed in facilities located on fine-textured soils with
percolation rates less than 15 mm/hour (0.004 mm/s). [Toronto and Region Conservation
2009]
While guidelines in some jurisdictions discourage the application of infiltration practices on

sites with fine textured soils containing greater than 20% clay, recent studies have shown
that substantial volumes of stormwater can be infiltrated in tight soils beneath permeable
pavement installations. [Toronto and Region Conservation 2009]
Concerns about the effectiveness of infiltration practices in cold climates and on fine-textured
soils have been topics addressed in several recent studies on stormwater infiltration
technologies. Permeable pavements have been observed to function well in cold climates
during winter months, even with frost in the ground, albeit at lower efficiencies than during
warm weather. [Toronto and Region Conservation 2009] More comprehensive review on the
winter performance of pervious pavements is presented in a separate Finnish CLASS-project
State-of-the-Art Report. [Kuosa & Niemelinen 2013b]
5. Dimensioning
Pervious pavement differs from conventional pavement in that both structural and hydraulic
requirements must be met. Hydrological analysis determines if the volume of water from
user-selected rainfall events can be stored and released by the pavement base. Designer-
selected parameters determine how much water infiltrates the soil subgrade and/or is carried
away by subdrains. In many cases the hydrological requirements will require a thicker base
than required for supporting traffic. [Smith 2011, Swan & Smith 2009, Smith & Hunt 2010,
Korkealaakso et al. 2013]
Review of pervious pavement hydrological and structural dimensioning is included in a

CLASS-project report by Korkealaakso et al. (2013). This report include also a
comprehensive review of available computational models that are able to integrate
permeable pavement systems into the overall urban drainage modelling, and can help in
designing and sizing the permeable pavement structures.
A complete design of a permeable pavement must consider many factors, including:

geotechnical support value and permeability of the soil
transportation traffic weights, volumes, geometrics
pavement structural design layer thickness, load carrying capacity, fatigue life
hydraulics and hydrology the amount of water, where it comes from, and where it
goes
environmental water quality, pollutant capture within the pavement structure
69 (95)
durability and service life resistance to freeze-thaw cycles, de-icing chemicals,

abrasion
costs and project management. [Korkealaakso et al. 2013]
6. Laboratory and field testing standards and methods

There are several testing methods needed in the development and quality control of pervious
pavement materials and structures. Both laboratory and field testing methods are needed.
For instance field and laboratory methods for hydraulic conductivity and water infiltration are
essential. In material studies, besides all the traditional methods for strength and bearing
strength, also methods for durability as methods or freeze-thaw resistance are important.
All the suitable methods and testing standards are typically material specific. For instance
there are different standards for porous asphalt and pervious concrete. For porous asphalt
pavements, also some EN-standards are already available. In many cases testing methods
for pervious pavement materials and structures in Europe must be adapted today from the
testing methods and standards for non-pervious structures, and also from some other
international methods (such as USA-based ASTM standards).
Information on the testing methods related to pervious pavements is included in a separate

CLASS-project State-of-the-Art Report [Kuosa & Niemelinen 2013a] (Pervious pavement
testing methods).
7. Performance
7.1 Clogging and maintenance

Infiltration performance is a design criterion for drainage and sewer systems. That is why
also clogging and maintenance of permeable pavements and constructions are essential
factors during their whole service life. Attention must be paid to the construction phase and to
correct, regular maintenance. [Borgwardt 2006, Hansen 2008]
Basically, permeable structures are filters, and filters remove particles from fluids. The flow
rate is reduced when particles are removed, and maintenance is required to restore the flow
rate. The rate of clogging of a filter is based on the initial permeability and pore size, type and
amount of material to be filtered, rate of the fluid carrying the material, and the level of
service requiring regeneration of the filter. [Kevern 2010]
Clogging is defined as the processes of reducing porosity and permeability (and hence
decreasing the infiltration rate of the system) due to physical, biological and chemical
processes. In storm water systems, clogging occurs primarily due to the deposition of
sediments. Pavement clogging is a key issue associated with porous pavements. Porous
pavements when new often have infiltration capacities >4500 mm/h (1.3 mm/s). While
some systems with 1520 years of operation still provide infiltration rates far above the
design storm requirements of 1001000 mm/h (0.030.3 mm/s), many have reported
clogging, with infiltration rates reduced to unacceptable levels within the same period.
[Siriwardene et al. 2007, Yong et al. 2013]
The rate of sedimentation depends on the amount of traffic and other sources that wash
sediment to the joints or pores, base and soil. Clogging may occur on the surface due to
debris and fines. This can be readily observed from the surface. Clogging can also occur
from the bottom (in the base) due to penetration of fines into the drainable base. Subsurface
clogging is generally addressed through filter fabrics, and the condition of these cannot be
inspected without removing part of the pavement. [Delatte et al. 2007, Smith 2011]
70 (95)
Permeable pavement is typically designed to treat storm water that falls on the actual
pavement surface area, but it may also be used to accept run-on from small adjacent
impervious areas, such as impermeable driving lanes or rooftops. However, careful sediment
control is needed for any run-on areas to avoid clogging of the down-gradient permeable
pavement. Permeable pavement is not intended to treat sites with high sediment or
trash/debris loads. Many sites that have become clogged have become so from large
amounts of nearby unstabilized soil running onto the pavement during construction. [Virginia
DCR 2011, Kevern 2010]
The fact of a decreasing infiltration performance means that both accurate design,
application and maintenance instructions are needed to achieve a long lasting infiltration
performance on a high level. The property owner should clearly understand the unique
maintenance responsibilities inherent with permeable pavement, particularly for parking lot
applications. The owner should be capable of performing routine and long-term actions (e.g.,
vacuum sweeping) to maintain the pavements hydrologic functions, and avoid future
practices (e.g. winter sanding, seal coating or repaving) that diminish or eliminate them.
[Borgwardt 2006, Virginia DCR 2011]
There are several studies on the clogging of PICP, and also on the effect of different
maintenance actions. As clogging is often considered the main concern with regards PICPs,
several research or field results and conclusions based on these are presented below, to
give a truthful and realistic understanding on this subject.
As there are some differences in the clogging scenario and maintenance of pervious
interlocking pavement (PICP) over pervious monolithic pavements, i.e. pervious concrete
pavement (PCP) and porous asphalt pavement (PAP), these are reviewed below separately.
PICP
The enrichment of fines in the joint material over the years will have a significant influence on
the PICP water infiltration rate. According to Borgwardt (2006), an overall trend of the
infiltration performance during the service life of a permeable pavement allows constructing
the hypothesis of a decrease to 10 to 25% of its original output power.
PICP must be properly maintained to prevent the surface from becoming clogged, which
reduces permeability. Most PICP sites function well without regular maintenance if protected
from sand. Waniliesta & Chopra (2007) investigated field sites which had a service life from 6
to 20 years, and were with no notable maintenance. Before rehabilitation the average
infiltration was from 0.09 cm/min to 3.17 cm/min (0.0150.5 mm/s), including zero rates for
those pavements not properly installed. The results by Waniliesta & Chopra (2007) on the
effectiveness of vacuum sweeping and pressure washing indicated that pressure washing,
vacuum sweeping and the combination of the two methods could restore infiltration rates of a
clogged pervious concrete surface on a magnitude of 100%, 90% and 200% respectively
(Figure 47). As a general rule of thumb, one or a combination of these techniques should be
performed on an annual basis. However, it was noted that pressure washing may dislodge
pollutants that cannot be captured before entering receiving waters, thus in these situations,
vacuum sweeping may be the preferred method. They also recommend that Embedded
infiltrometer should be used to annually test the system infiltration capability, and if it is less
than acceptable, one of the recommended remediation techniques should be performed.
[Waniliesta & Chopra 2007]
71 (95)
a) b)
Figure 47. Comparison of original clogged and a) vacuum swept infiltration rates, and b)
pressure washed and vacuum swept infiltration rates. The pervious pavement at sites D2
and SC2 were not installed properly and exhibited the density and zero infiltration
characteristics common to regular concrete. [Waniliesta & Chopra 2007]
According to Smith (2011), when monitoring PICP the surface infiltration can be detected by
two methods:
by observing drainage immediately after a heavy rainstorm for standing water or
by conducting surface infiltration test (ASTM C1701:2009, see [Kuosa & Niemelinen
2013a]
Cleaning is recommended if the surface infiltration rate falls below 25 cm/h (0.07 mm/s).
[Smith 2011]
Borgwardt (2006) found that the long-term in-situ infiltration of PICP performance and its
observed decrease depend on the grain size of the aggregates used for joint filling. It has
also been detected that much of the sediment will be trapped in the first 1225 mm of the
jointing aggregates in PICP. A maintenance advantage of PICP over pervious monolithic
pavement is the ability to restore also heavily clogged joints only by the removal and
replacement of the jointing material by vacuum machine adjusted to that. [Borgwardt 2006,
Smith 2011]
Figure 48a presents a comparison of a joint material from the upper 20 mm of a joint with
unaffected material from below. The fines (particles < 0.063 mm) increase from original
3 mass-% in the average up to 26 mass-%. The difference is highly significant and relate to a
drop of permeability from 2.4 to 0.2 cm/min (0.40.03 mm/s), as presented in Figure 48b.
[Borgwardt 2006]
72 (95)
a)
b)
Figure 48. Effects of PICP joint clogging: a) Particle-size distribution for the joint material
from the upper 20 mm of a joint, and for the unaffected joint material from the below of the
joint; b) Relation between permeability and particle fraction < 0.063 mm in the joint material.
[Borgwardt 2006]
As much of the sediment is trapped within the joints and bedding aggregates at the surface,
and removal of this sediment is possible, this also helps slow down the deposition of
sediment onto the soil subgrade. However, deposition rates on the soil subgrade are almost
impossible to predict. A conservative approach should be taken with regards the soil
subgrade infiltration rate over the long term. For instance, ICPI recommends applying a
safety factor of 2 for hydrologic design. Even a higher safety factor should be used e.g. for
sites with highly variable soil filtration rates. [Smith 2011]
Also Beeldens et al. (2009) reported a decrease in permeability of different pervious

pavements with time. These pavements included pavements with pervious pavement blocks.
The results indicated, especially in the case of pavement blocks with enlarged joints and
drainage holes, a very large permeability just after construction which however diminishes
with time and stabilized around 0.020.05 mm/s. The permeability remained sufficient to
73 (95)
pass the rain of 270 l/s/ha, i.e. 0.027 mm/s, and the original demand of 0.057 mm/s was still
reached after 10 years in service.
Lucke & Beecham (2011) presented results from an investigation of a PICP system that had
been in service for over eight years. They found that the majority of the sediment was
retained in the 25 mm aggregate bedding layer, irrespective of the pavement blockage
conditions. A maximum of only 8.3% of the total sediment mass was retained in the geofabric
layers which were located below the bedding aggregate. Over 90% of the sediments were
trapped in the paving and bedding aggregate layers. Figure 49 presents accumulation of
sediments between the pavers. The conclusion by Lucke & Beecham (2011) was that he
beneficial role of geofabric in filtering out sediments and protecting the integrity of the
underlying base course may not be significant enough to warrant its inclusion in permeable
pavement installations below the bedding layer. The overall infiltration performance of the
PICP system was still satisfactory after eight years of continuous service in spite that no
maintenance was performed on the PICP system during these eight years in service.
However, it was not possible to quantify future maintenance requirements based on this 8
year result. [Lucke & Beecham 2011]
Figure 49. Accumulation of sediments between the pavers. [Lucke & Beecham 2011]
If not necessary, sand should not be applied on the PICP as it will accelerate clogging. If
needed, the joint material type should be used (ASTM 8. 89 or 9 stone or similar (see Figure
30), and vacuuming after the winter period should be performed. [Smith 2011]
PCP
For a pervious concrete pavement (PCP) the main controlling aspects in clogging are:
the initial permeability and pore structure of the pavement,
the amount of additional surrounding stormwater designed to infiltrate through the
surface,
the amount of soil in the stormwater, and
the slope of the pavement.
The maintenance required for a permeable pavement is very site dependent. [Kevern 2010]
Sediment can fill the voids in pervious concrete or the stone base and form layers on the
surface or along the bottom of the PCP. The most critical aspect of sedimentation may be the
formation of a layer of fine-entrained material on the bottom of the PCP structure. [Kevern
2008]
However, as a particle enters the pervious concrete system, the torturous path causes
particles to become caught near the surface. As more and more particles become filtered out
there is a progressive failure of permeability from the top. This causes the top layer to clog,
protecting the middle and bottom of the concrete from clogging. The progressive clogging at
74 (95)
the surface is highly desirable because surface cleaning is both relatively easy and effective
at remediating lost permeability.
Leming et al. (2007) estimated conservatively (depositions were estimated to be

1125 kg/ha/year or higher) that fine grained sediments deposited in the PC pavement will
most likely occupy less than 12 mm of the depth of the aggregate base in 20 years of
service, resulting in only a few percent loss in storage capacity. An extra 25 mm of aggregate
base was estimated to be adequate to supply sufficient storage capacity.
Instead, according to Leming et al. (2007) the effects of sedimentation on PCP permeability
may be more significant. Research has shown that sand-sized particles are more likely to be
retained on the surface. Instead silt and clay sized particles are more likely to become
deposited at the bottom of the aggregate layer. [Kevern 2010] Sedimentation of larger
particles (sands) may be concentrated at the typically denser surface such that flow into the
pervious concrete is reduced. This kind of sedimentation may be largely restored by routine
maintenance operations. The most significant effect on hydrological behaviour of the PCP is
likely to be the introduction of another element, a layer of material (sediment) which could
affect the exfiltration of stormwater runoff from the PCP into the underlying soil. Sediment
accumulation at the base of the PCP could reduce the exfiltration of the system if the layer of
sediment is fundamentally different from the underlying soil. [Leming et al. 2007]
Mata (2008) examined the sedimentation rates of pervious concrete with 20% porosity with
three different soil types: sand, clayey silt, and clayey silty sand. Storage capacity was
minimally affected by sediment. Instead, he found that exfiltration rate can be affected in
some situations. A simple and economical test for estimating exfiltration rates of the system
in these situations was developed. The results of the study were used to develop design
guidelines that complement the hydrological design of PCP considering the effects of
sedimentation of the system at end of service.
Mata (2008) found that recovery of PCP permeability is never complete with sediments
containing fine grained particles. This observation is consistent with blocking of small
diameter voids that may be connecting much larger voids. Additional studies of the
relationships between void size distribution, porosity and sediment characteristics was
recommended.
The specific effects of sedimentation will depend on the volume of sediment. Precise
estimation of the quantity of sediment is very difficult, if not impossible. The concentration of
pollutants found in urban runoff is directly related to the land use. Some estimates are
presented in Table 13. [Mata 2008, US EPA 1999]
Table 13. Typical Pollutants Loadings from Runoff by Urban Land Use. [Mata 2008]
The main conclusions and recommendations in Mata (2008) are:

PCP subjected to typical loads of clayey silt or sandy sediments will most likely not be
affected either in the storage capacity or the exfiltration rate at the End of Service Life
(EOS). The addition of 25 mm of the base layer should be sufficient in most cases to
overcome storage capacity losses.
75 (95)
A simple test was developed to estimate the exfiltration value of the PCP at EOS
conditions including the effects of sedimentation.
Analysis did not include the effects of significant quantities of organic material that
could be washed onto the PCP from the application of mulch on additional top soil to
adjacent areas. Runoff in these conditions must be strictly controlled until these
ground covers have stabilized.
Some dust will inevitably be deposited on all surfaces. This fine grained material must
be considered in design and analysis if the site will be exposed to unusually large
quantities of dust, such as at or near an industrial site with limited dust abatement
controls.
The substantial loss in permeability found with severe cases of sedimentation
(multiple applications of sediments and washing) indicates internal clogging.
Permeability between 40% and 50% can be lost. With this type of sediment,
maintenance by sweeping vacuuming will not be effective since the sediment trapped
within the PCP will be very difficult, if not impossible, to be recovered. In most
practical cases, the permeability of the PC is so much greater than that of the
subgrade, a reduction of even 100% would have little meaningful effect on
hydrological behaviour.
o It is not known if this clogging will be different in pervious asphalt pavements
or if warmer temperatures in service resulting in viscous flow of the asphalt, in
conjunction with the clogging make pervious asphalt more susceptible to
clogging. Additional research to address this possibility was recommended.
Many factors control how often maintenance must be performed on PCP pavements.
Generally, if the site is infiltrating large amounts of water or there are substantial amounts of
fine soil from the surrounding areas, maintenance activities will be more frequent than if the
pavement experiences lower hydraulic and solid loading. The chance of clogging is highest
during and just after construction, and the site must be protected by an erosion control fence
until vegetation has been established on the adjacent ground. [Schaefer et al. 2006]
In a field survey of PCP by Delatte et al. (2007), the sites visited were less than four years
old. Both vacuuming and pressure washing had worked well to restore infiltration capability.
Some of the pavements had very poor infiltration capability due to improper installation. Too
aggressive pressure washing, however, may damage the surface of the pavement. [Delatte
et al. 2007]
Henderson (2012) found in his permeability renewal maintenance methods evaluation that:
the initial permeability of the pervious concrete pavement can influence future
performance,
power washing using personal sized equipment can push debris deeper into voids
and decrease permeability rather than improve it,
sweeping of the surface can be effective in removing debris off the surface but not
from deeper voids, therefore not necessarily improving permeability,
washing the surface with a large diameter hose can dislodge debris deep in voids and
renew permeability, in some cases, to near initial permeability values,
intense rain events may increase permeability. [Henderson 2012]
In the study by Henderson (2012), the application of sand as the winter maintenance method
decreased the permeability but not to an unacceptable level. When a salt solution was used
the permeability also decreased. However, the decreased permeability was not as large as
compared to when sand was applied. Instead the surface conditions of the slabs with salt
exposure were worse than without salt, and finally the slabs deteriorated to a point where the
original size and shape of the slabs was not apparent.
Studies by Borgwardt (2006) on the long term surface permeability demonstrated high
infiltration rates initially, a decrease, and then a levelling off with time typically within 5 to 7
76 (95)
years. With initial infiltration rates of hundreds of centimetres per hour, the long term
infiltration capacity remained high even with clogging. When substantially clogged, surface
infiltration rates still usually well exceeded 2.5 cm/h (0.007 mm/s). [Borgwardt 2006]
Measures should be taken to protect permeable pavements from high sediment loads,
particularly fine sediment during and after construction. This is especially critical during and
after construction while adjacent vegetation is growing. [Smith & Hunt 2010]
According to [Virginia DCR 2011], the property owner should clearly understand the
maintenance responsibilities inherent with permeable pavement, particularly for parking lot
applications. The owner should be capable of performing routine and long term actions to
maintain its hydrologic function (such as vacuum sweeping). He should also avoid practices
such as winter sanding, seal coating or repaving. Permeable pavement is not intended to
treat sites with high sediment or trash/debris loads.
Reported best practices for maintaining pervious concrete includes sweeping with a streets
weeper that uses water in conjunction with brushes, to agitate the debris in the voids, and
using a vacuum to clean debris from the surface. If the extent of clogging is too severe to be
effectively treated by vacuuming, washing the porous pavement with low pressure water and
vacuuming the surface after washing has been recommended. [CRMCA 2009, Wang &
Wang 2011 Cahill Associates 2009, Danish Road Institute 2002, Henderson & Tighe (2011]
Table 14 presents the typical maintenance activities for porous pavement according to
Georgia Stormwater Management Manual 2002. [Shirke et al. 2009]
Table 14. Routine Maintenances for Porous Pavement Data from Georgia Stormwater
Management Manual 2002 [Shirke et al. 2009]
Activity Schedule
Initial inspection Monthly for three months after
installation
Ensure that the porous paver surface is free of sediment
Monthly
Ensure that the contributing and adjacent area is stabilized and
mowed, with clippings removed
As needed, based on inspection
Vacuum sweep porous concrete surface followed by high
pressure hosing to keep pores free of sediment
Four times a year
Inspect the surface for deterioration and spalling
Check to make sure that the system dewaters between storms

Annually
Spot clogging can be handled by drilling ca. 13 mm holes
through the pavement every few 30 cm
Rehabilitation of the porous concrete system, including the top

and base course as needed
Upon failure
Shirke et al. (2009) studied by laboratory experiments a potential process of removing

particles trapped in the pores of the pavement by flushing water from the bottom to the top of
the pavement. This method was called reverse flush process. There were four variables
included to determine the effects on particle removal, i.e. water pressure, clogging material,
pavement porosity and number of flushes. Results indicated that the reverse flush process
was effective on both types of clogging material (sand) evaluated, and was independent of
the pavement porosity. The highest pressure of 21 kPa and the next highest of 14 kPa
removed particles equally well (with no statistical difference) at about 80% and 73%,
respectively. Although statistically different than these pressure levels, percent removal at
3.5 kPa of about 66% was also considered encouraging. The conclusion in [Shirke et al.
2009] was that reverse-flushing of porous pavements with water at relatively low pressure
levels may be an effective process for maintaining porosity. Sand mixed with clay or pure
77 (95)
clay might be more difficult to remove, and was not included in this study. According to
Shirke et al. (2009) a full-scale experimental trial should be conducted to determine how this
technology could be implemented.
PA
Also the clogging and permeability loss of porous asphalt begins usually soon after
construction. The change of permeability may be significant, and the reduction can be up to
90% [Ferguson 2005]. On the other hand, if the initial void rate is sufficiently big, even this
relatively high reduction does not always disturb the permeability too much [Stenmark 1995].
Figure 50 shows the effect of aggregate size on the clogging rate. The porous asphalt
including coarser aggregate and therefore a larger void content maintains permeability better
than asphalt with finer aggregate. The infiltration rate declined rapidly in the first few months,
but later on the clogging rate leveled out. After 22 months the permeability had declined to
less than 50% of the initial rate. (Croney and Croney 1998) [Ferguson 2005, Bendtsen et al.
2002]
Figure 50. Decline in infiltration in porous asphalt overlays. 50 in/hour is 0.35 mm/s. (Croney
and Croney 1998) [Ferguson 2005]
Also in the case of porous asphalt pavements, the most important ways to maintain
pavements are vacuuming, washing and sweeping [Ferguson 2005]. Cleaning frequency is
depended on the site-specific clogging rate. In motorways there may be less need for
cleaning compared to low-trafficked roads, because the tires of cars push/sucks the water
rinsing in the pores and reduce clogging rate [Yildrim et al. 2007, Roseen et al. 2012].
However, the cleaning is most effective when it is done before it is too late and the surface is
fully clogged. Regular clogging control is important. If cleaning and other maintenance
procedures are unhelpful, the most damaged layer can be removed and it is possible to
construct a new porous layer onto the old structures [Ferguson 2005]. Clogging concentrates
mostly on the uppermost part of the porous asphalt; underlying courses usually stay clean
and permeable.
Figure 51 presents a comparison of clogged and washed asphalt in Issaquah city,

Washington, USA. The city streets were sanded every winter and the asphalt pores were
filled by fine sand and moss within five years. The first attempt to clean the asphalt with a
regular vacuum sweeper and a heavy-duty straight suction truck was ineffective. After a
21 MPa power washer was used with success, and the infiltration rate returned close to the
initial value. When the water was no more ponding on the surface, the sanding need was
also reduced. [Ross 2012]
78 (95)
Figure 51. a) Clogged asphalt. b) Asphalt surface after washing. [Ross 2012]
Al-Rubaei et al. (2013) studied how high pressure washing and vacuum cleaning would
restore old, clogged porous asphalt roads at two different sites in northern Sweden. The
Lule site was 18 years old and was sanded two to four times each winter with 2/4 mm
gravel, swept every spring, washed and vacuumed regularly. Over the last 5 or 6 years
before cleaning study the washing and vacuuming was interrupted. The Haparanda site was
24 years old and was sanded 5 to 10 times each winter with 0/6 mm sand mixed with 2% salt
and only swept at spring. At this site a soil piles had been stored on the porous asphalt while
nearby construction work was performed, with no maintenance or cleaning actions
afterwards. Porosities and infiltration rates initially, before and after cleaning are presented in
Table 15. The oorosities had not significantly changed, but the infiltration rates changed
remarkably over the years. Although the infiltration capacity was only a few percentages of
the initial rates at the Lule site, there was still some functionality left before cleaning. The
cleaning procedure was also partly successful at the Lule site; infiltration capacity
increased. At the Haparanda site there was no effect. This study shows the importance of
regular cleaning procedures and moderate winter sanding with coarser sand for maintaining
the infiltration capacity of porous asphalts. [Al-Rubaei et al. 2013.]
Table 15. Effects of high pressure washing and vacuum cleaning (VC) at northern Sweden
[Al-Rubaei et al. 2012].
Initial rates Before VC (mean) After VC (mean)

Porosity Infiltration
[%] [mm/min] Porosity Infiltration Porosity Infiltration
Lule 18 290 17,2 0,5 16,03 3,48
Haparanda 18 470 15,7 0,22 17,9 0,12
7.2 Winter performance

The usage of permeable pavements in cold climates has many challenges, most of which
relate to the extreme cold and frost penetration into the porous media. Permeable pavement
winter performance consists of mainly:
surfacing material performance in freeze-thaw, including the effects of possible de-
icing chemicals,
overall structural performance in freeze-thaw, i.e. the effects of frost heave caused by
subgrade performance and pavement reservoir performance,
water infiltration during wintertime and snowmelt periods,
effect of winter on the chemical purification properties of pervious pavement systems,
performance in winter maintenance:
79 (95)
o clogging caused by sanding,

o effects of the possible use of de-icing chemicals, widely including also the
effects on subsoil and groundwater,
o mechanical effects of snow removal as plowing.
Freeze-thaw durability of the porous pavement surfacing layer materials (PC, PA and pavers
in pervious pavements) is reviewed in Chapter 3 (Surface layer materials). Clogging caused
by sanding is included in Chapter 7.1 (Clogging and maintenance).
Ice formation may also clog the pores of porous asphalt [Stenmark 1995]. In this case
clogging is not a permanent phenomenon, but when the temperature is around zero, the
melting water may not be able to infiltrate into the lower layers. In northern climates the
porous asphalt could be very beneficial to even out flow peaks of melting water in spring, so
the ice clogging effect must be taken into account e.g. in the dimensioning of the reservoir
layer, and by regular maintenance (snow plowing). Then the water does not pond and freeze
on the surface, and sun can melt possible ice formations quickly. Usually the infiltration rate
reduces a little during winter time while temperature decreases, but the infiltration capacity
remains still sufficient [Roseen et al. 2012]. Additional information on the specific studies and
experiences on the winter performance of the whole pervious pavement system is included in
a separate CLASS-project State-of-the-Art Report [Kuosa & Niemelinen 2013b] (Pervious
pavement winter performance).
Effect of winter on the chemical purification properties of pervious pavement systems is

included in a separate CLASS-project State-of-the-Art Report [Loimula & Kuosa 2013] (The
impact of pervious pavements on water quality).
7.3 Cool pavement

Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect means the occurrence of higher air and surface temperatures
occurring in medium and large sized urban centres due to the retention and emittance of
mainly solar heat from roads, buildings and other structures, than in surrounding rural areas.
[Gilbert 2013]
Cool Pavements mean materials and construction techniques which act to reduce the
absorption, retention and emittance of solar heat. Porous materials allow for convective
cooling because air can flow through the pavement voids and also allow for evaporative
cooling because water can also enter the pavement voids in a rain event. The use of high
reflective and porous materials can significantly reduce the heat gain of pavements by the
sun. (Figure 52) [Gilbert 2013, Cambridge Systematics 2005]
The combination of high albedo (reflection ratio) and pervious pavements are especially well
suited for relatively light traffic flow areas such as driveways and parking lots while helping to
mitigate the heat island effect. [Gilbert 2013]
80 (95)
a) b)
Figure 52. a) Heat-Related characteristics and processes in a pavement b) Porous pavement

promoting cooling through evaporation. [Cambridge Systematics 2005, Gilbert 2013]
Higher pavement temperatures can heat stormwater runoff. Higher water temperatures can,
in turn, affect metabolism and reproduction of aquatic species. Permeable cool pavements
can help water quality through reduced heating of runoff. Laboratory tests with permeable
pavers have shown reductions in runoff temperatures of 24 C, in comparison to
conventional asphalt paving. [Cambridge Systematics 2005]
Flower et al. (2010) addressed the need to present results quantifying the impact of pervious
concrete on surface temperatures in semi-arid (semi-dry) urban environments. They
monitored surface and internal temperatures at a new pervious concrete site, at an adjacent
traditional concrete site, and at a traditional asphalt pavement site. The results from the
summer of 2009 showed a significant reduction of surface temperature at the PC site
compared to the asphalt site. Interestingly, as the monitoring moved into June the traditional
concrete site became shaded, providing a comparison between pervious concrete and
shaded traditional concrete. The surface temperatures were very similar, leading to the
conclusion that pervious concrete may serve as an Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect mitigation
measure equivalent to shading of traditional concrete. [Flower et al. 2010]
Compared to asphalt, grassed grid pavements can reduce surface air temperatures by 1 to
2 C and radiometric temperatures by 2 to 4 C. [Angelus 2013]
According to [CPG 2013], pervious concrete pavements are able to lose 1925 mm of water
a day in the summer time to evaporation. This means that a 76 mm rain would be gone in
4 days just due to evaporation.
Pervious concrete like regular concrete is light reflective, especially when there is blast
furnace slag included in the mix, and therefore cooler because of the colour. This helps also
in the fight against the UHI effect. [CPG 2013]
7.4 Costs and service life

In comparison to traditional drainage systems, stormwater retention and infiltration is often
considered to be sustainable and cost effective process, which is suitable for urban areas.
[Scholz & Grabowiecki 2007] In this Chapter only some general or limited experiences on
permeable pavement costs and service life are reviewed. A more detailed analysis will be
done in 2014, based on Finnish solutions generated in the CLASS project.
The effective life of a pervious pavement is defined as the number of years it is in service,
until which the hydraulic performance drops to a level where the drainage design storm
81 (95)
event is unmanageable and remedial works are required. One barrier to use of porous
pavements more widely has been susceptibility to clogging. Along with careful design and
construction, proper maintenance of a pervious pavement is a good method to ensure a long
term life-span. At the same time, an essential maintenance cost for porous pavements is
caused due to the measures which prevent clogging of the void spaces within the pavement.
[Yong et al. 2013, Zhang 2006, Waniliesta & Chopra 2007]
Overall project costs and impacts must always be considered. For instance pervious
concrete pavement is likely to cost more than conventional asphalt and concrete pavement.
However, the additional cost may be offset by even greater savings in drainage and water
treatment systems. [Delatte & Cleary 2006]
According to [FHA 2013], installation costs for porous asphalt are approximately 105%
higher than those for regular asphalt. Porous concrete pavement is about 25 % more
expensive than regular concrete pavement. Requirements for site preparation or the use of
specialized equipment may also increase these costs. The use of modular paving stones can
be up to four times as expensive as either regular asphalt or concrete.
The higher costs of installation of porous pavements can be offset to some extent by the
elimination of curbs, gutters, and storm drains. In some cases this may lower the overall cost
for a project [Field et al. 1982]. The final economics associated with a particular site are also
affected by site-specific conditions, such in-situ permeability, and the cost and proximity of
gravel supplies.
Also according to [Hein et al. 2010] the cost of a permeable pavement section is typically
higher than the cost of a conventional pavement primarily due to the fact that the permeable
pavement is thicker to allow sufficient water storage and to provide sufficient structural
capacity to accommodate vehicle loading. However, cost comparison of the entire permeable
pavement system compared to a conventional pavement shows a reasonable cost
comparison when taking into account the reduction or elimination of catchbasins,
underground piping, drainage ditches and stormwater management ponds required for
conventional designs. There are also other advantages such as reduced downstream
erosion, reduced pollutant loads, and less impact on existing stormwater management
infrastructure.
The lifetime of porous asphalt has been studied at laboratory and also in-situ. Alvarez et al.
(2006) claims the service life of open-graded friction courses to be 710 years. Roseen et al.
(2012) says that the typical life span of porous asphalts is about 15 years in northern
climates. Huber (2000) and Bendtsen (2011) have collected information about the lifespan of
open-graded asphalt mixtures in North America and Europe. These results are presented in
Table 16. The main finding is that a typical porous asphalt is less durable in every
country/state than dense asphalts. Use of fibres in binder will strengthen the porous asphalt
so that the lifespan may be longer. Construction costs are usually higher than for
conventional asphalt, so the shorter lifespan may raise the price even more. Results of Swiss
research and experiences show that with proper design and maintenance, porous asphalt
can obtain up to 15 years lifetime with good mechanical, permeability, and acoustical
behaviour [Poulikakos et al. 2006a].
82 (95)
Table 16. Comparison of different asphalts lifetime in years. PA = porous asphalt. [Huber
2000, Bendtsen 2011]
Lifetime (years)
Arizon
Mixture Georgia California Wyoming Germany Switzerland Netherlands
a
1)
Neat/normal PA (1 layer) 7 8 3-5 15 7 - 10 8 - 12 11 - 17
PA with modified binder 13 12
1)
2-layered PA 9 - 13
1)
Dense asphalt 11 - 20 10 5 - 10 10 - 24 16 + 15 12 - 18
1) Depends on road type.
Based on information from the U.S. National Ready Mixed Concrete Association, Henderson
(2012) presents pervious concrete pavements to have the potential to exhibit the same low
life cycle costs as conventional concrete pavements. The life cycle cost of conventional
concrete pavement is low because concrete has a longer life time than other paving
materials and can require less maintenance throughout the life cycle. Pervious concrete that
is well designed and constructed should also exhibit similar life cycle performance.
From the results generated during the monitoring period of the field sites and the laboratory
testing in [Henderson 2012], it was anticipated that pervious concrete pavement in Canada
can achieve a design life of 15 years, when used in a suitable application. Based on the
experiences, it was expected, that similar to any paving material, opportunities for
advancements will always be present.
As pervious pavement maintains the natural water cycle, it can offer economic benefits to
individuals using it on their own property. Since pervious pavement is a low impact
development it ensures that surrounding vegetation, such as gardens and lawns, receive
higher amounts of natural moisture. This limits expenses for the home owner related to
watering. In the case of both private and commercial properties, pervious pavement can be
used in a water harvesting system which reduces the public water demand. [Henderson
2012]
The use of pervious pavement can also give economic benefits as it eliminates the need for
land and infrastructure to support other stormwater management systems. Additional land is
often required for e.g. stormwater retention ponds. Stormwater management systems also
require infrastructure such as pipe networks. [Henderson 2012]
8. Water quality
Urban surfaces are being covered with impermeable materials at increasing speed. This
leads to increase in surface runoff as the ground is not able to take in all the rainwater at a
sufficient rate. Surface runoff can transfer pollutants like heavy metals and hydrocarbons into
sewer systems and natural watercourses.
Pervious pavements offer a solution for the problem of increased stormwater runoff and
decreased stream water quality. These pavements are designed to take in a sufficient
amount of water causing practically no surface runoff during normal storm events. Permeable
pavements can also act as pollution sinks because of their particle retention capacity.
Impurities such as heavy metals, hydrocarbons and organic compounds are absorbed onto
suspended solids and trapped inside the permeable pavement structure.
Effluent quality from pervious pavements has been studied to be significantly better than
typically monitored from impermeable sources in similar residential areas.
83 (95)
A more detailed review on the effect of pervious pavement on water quality is presented in a
separate CLASS-project State-of-the-Art Report [Loimula & Kuosa 2013] (The impact of
pervious pavements on water quality).
9. Choice of pavement type and functional demands

The choice of what kind of pervious pavement to use is influenced by site-specific design
factors, and the intended future use of the permeable surface. As an example Table 17
presents one general comparison of the engineering properties of the three major permeable
pavement types, basically as presented in [Virginia DCR 2011].
Table 17. Comparative Properties of the three major pervious pavement types. Modified from
[Virginia DCR 2011].
Design factor Pervious Concrete (PC) Porous Asphalt (PA) Interlocking Pavers (IP)
Small and large scale Small and large scale Micro, small and large scale
Scale of application
paving applications paving applications paving applications
1) 1) 8)
Pavement thickness 127 - 203 mm 76 102 mm 76 mm
1) 8) 51 mm No. 57 stone 51 mm No. 8 stone
Bedding layer None
(2.4 37.5 mm) (1.2 --12.5 mm)
No. 2 stone (19 - 75 mm)
2) 8) No. 57 stone No. 2 stone
Reservoir layer 76 - 102 mm of No.57 stone
(2.4 37.5 mm) (19 - 75 mm)
(2.4 37.5 mm)
Cast in place, No cure period; manual or
Construction Cast in place,
3) seven day cure, mechanical installation of pre-
properties 24 hour cure
must be covered manufactured units
4)
Design permeability 0.035 mm/s 0.021 mm/s 0.007 mm/s
Relative construction
5) 2 6.5 0.5 - 1 5 - 10
cost
2
Min. batch size 46 m NA
6)
Longevity 20 to 30 years 15 to 20 years 20 to 30 years
Drop inlet or Surface, drop inlet or
Overflow Drop inlet or overflow edge
overflow edge overflow edge
Temperature Cooling in the reservoir Cooling in the reservoir Cooling at the pavement
reduction layer layer surface & reservoir layer
Limited range of colours Black or dark grey colour Wide range of colours,
Colors/texture
and textures (if with no painting) textures, and patterns
Traffic bearing
7) Can handle all traffic loads, with appropriate bedding layer design.
capacity
Replace paved areas or Replace paved areas or Replace permeable stone
Surface clogging
install drop inlet install drop inlet jointing materials
Other issues Avoid seal coating Snowplow damage
U.S. National Asphalt U.S. Interlocking Concrete
American Concrete Institute
Design reference Pavement Association Pavement Institution (ICPI)
(ACI)
(NAPA) (Jackson 2007) (Smith 2006)
1 Individual designs may depart from these typical cross-sections, due to site, traffic and design conditions.
2 Reservoir storage may be augmented by corrugated metal pipes, plastic arch pipe, or plastic lattice blocks.
3 ICPI (2008)
4 NVRA (2008)
5 WERF 2005 as updated by NVRA (2008)
6 Based on pavement being maintained properly, Resurfacing or rehabilitation may be needed after the indicated
period.
7 Depends primarily on on-site geotechnical considerations and structural design computations.
8 Stone sizes correspond to ASTM D 448: Standard Classification for Sizes of Aggregate for Road and Bridge
Construction.
The major design goal of permeable pavement is to maximize runoff reduction and nutrient
removal. Designers may choose to use a baseline permeable pavement design or an
enhanced design that maximizes nutrient and runoff reduction. [Virginia DCR 2011]
84 (95)
In all there are several functional demands for pervious pavements to fill, as presented in this
report:
surface infiltration capacity, drainage, surface layer permeability
water storage capacity (by aggregate base and subbase, by other draining and
collection systems)
water quality enhancement capacity
bearing capacity
durability, service life
capacity for restoration of the infiltration capacity
all winter performance properties (easiness for ploughing, slipperiness, friction,
degree of frost resistance)
costs (construction, maintenance)
service life
suitability for reuse or recycling.
85 (95)
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VTT-R-08222-13

Pervious pavement systems and

Authors: Hannele Kuosa, Emma Niemelinen and Kalle Loimula

Participants of the steering group in the CLASS-project are:

Espoo, December 2013

Hannele Kuosa, Emma Niemelinen and Kalle Loimula

durability, service life

Vett lpisevt pllysteet ksittvt yleens pintakerroksen ja alapuolisen rakennekerrok-

Lpisevill rakenteilla voidaan vhent ilmastonmuutoksen eli lisntyvien ja voimistuvien

Tm State-of-the-Art raportti (nykytilakatsaus), joka on tehty CLASS-projetin WP2:ssa

Sek tm ett muut CLASS-projektin State-of-the-Art raportit palvelevat projektin Suomeen

Vett lpisevt pllysteet voidaan pintamateriaalista riippuen luokitella huokoiseksi tai

Lpisevn betonin huokoisuus, lpisevyys ja lujuus ovat suhteessa toisiinsa. Esimerkiksi

Avoin asfaltti on toinen vett lpisev pllystemateriaali. Avoimen asfaltin huokoisuus on

Lhemmin ksiteltvien pintamateriaalien osalta niiden koostumuksesta ja ominaisuuksista

Lpisevn rakenteen toiminnan kannalta pintamateriaalin ja sen lpisevyyden lisksi mys

Lpisevn rakenteen luontainen ominaisuus on sen ajan kuluessa tapahtuva tukkeutumi-

Lpisevien rakenteiden oleellisia suunnittelutavoitteita ovat sek mahdollisimman suuri

a/c aggregate-cement ratio

2. Comparison with other stormwater solutions

3. Surface layer materials

Other solutions as green solutions are presented shortly.

Pervious (porous, permeable, enhanced porosity) concrete (PC) was developed as an

3.1.2 Mix design, mixing, compaction and curing

3.1.2.1 Mix design

Figure 4. Aggregate gradations for porous concrete in [Huang et al. 2010a].

Binding material, paste content, water-cement ratio

Admixtures, additives, fibres

way to increase freeze-thaw resistance. Freeze-thaw durability is discussed more closely in

3.1.2.3 Placement, compaction and curing

3.1.3 Porosity, pore sizes, infiltration/percolation rate, hydraulic conductivity,

In-situ drainability or infiltration rate (mm/s) is naturally an important property of porous

There is no straightforward methodology to measure the pore tortuosity and connectivity.

3.1.4 Strength and mechanical performance

where is compressive strength (MPa)

Nano-modified cementitious materials show the greatest potential of improving internal

3.1.5 Freeze-thaw durability with/without chlorides

The general recommendation for pervious concrete systems in freeze-thaw environments is

Testing of concrete by freezing and thawing while submerged in water is a harsh

Dry Freeze and Hard Dry Freeze

Hard Wet Freeze

Figure 17. a) Comparison on freeze-thaw damage development between PC and

Schaefer et al. (2006) provide considerable information on developing durable PC mixtures.

Method A, freeze-thaw in water). Addition of a small amount of fibres (0.03 or 0.10% by

3.1.6 Abrasion and raveling

3.1.7 Noise reduction

3.2 Porous asphalt

Choosing porous asphalt instead of other permeable pavements depends usually on

3.2.2 Porous asphalt mix design

Aggregate, passing-% (sieve size,

3.2.3 Porosity, permeability and drainage

3.2.4 Strength and mechanical performance

Mechanical performance of porous asphalts may not be as good as mechanical performance

3.2.5 Winter durability, freeze-thaw durability with/without chlorides

Winter performance of pervious pavement structures including porous asphalt pavements is

3.3 Permeable interlocking concrete and natural stone

Permeable interlocking block pavement (PIBP) can be permeable interlocking concrete

A lot of technical information on PICP is provided by the Interlocking Concrete Pavement

An open-graded bedding course is typically 50 mm thick and consists of small-sized, open-

In Finland there is also a national application standard:

Figure 28. Hulelaatta, Hulekivi, Nurmikivi, Akvakivi, Golfkiv, Vihernappula, Louhi-

3.3.3 Joints and joint material

Table 4 presents laboratory results in a Newcastle University infiltration tests where

3.3.4 Permeability, surface infiltration