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After the almostsimultaneous, independent invention of radar in (similar to that used on the French liner 5.5.NORMANDIE
several countries of the world in the mid-l930s, radar development in the summer of 1935) [4, ch. 61.
progressed rapidly with its use by both sides during World War 11.
Since then, radar has been growingthroughthe years inboth By September 1935, Dr.Rudolph KOhnold, headofthe
capability and in applications. In this paper, highlights of the first German Navys signals research department, demonstrated
fifty years of modern radar development are briefly reviewed, on board ship a 600-MHz pulseradar to the German Navys
current areas of interest are mentioned, andillustrations of many of Commander-in-chief [5].
the radars of the 7980s are given.
In the Spring of 1935, GuglielmoMarconi was demon-
strating in Italy CW Doppler radar detection of vehiclesand
INTRODUCTION people [4, ch. 81.
Although it is hard to define a precise date for the origin - A group led by B. K. Shembel at theLeningradElectro-
physics Institute (latercalledtheScientific Research In-
of modern radar, its serious development began indepen-
dently and almost simultaneouslyin several countries of the stitute No. 9) demonstrated on October 22,1935 the detec-
world during the middle ofthe 1930s, about fifty years ago. tion of aircraft at a distanceof 5 to 6km usingaCW
Thus this Special Issue on Radar of the PROCEEDINGS OF THE Doppler radar at a wavelength of 25 cm (1200 MHz-todays
IEEE (February 1985) and the IEEE International Radar Con- l-band), with 8 Wofpowergeneratedby a split-anode
ference (May 1985) both occur, more or less, on the Golden magnetron, and two separate 2-m-diameter parabolic trans-
mitting and receiving antennas mounted side by side [6].
Anniversary ofmodern radar. Asan introductionto this
special issue, a brief review of the accomplishments of the - A bit later, in 1936, theDoppler
proposedandlaterdemonstratedby
radar principle was
Prof.K. Okabe in
past fifty years will be given, along with the current status
of radar. Japan [4, ch. 91.
Fifty yearsago, the following radar events were taking Each of thesecountriesdevelopedanddeployed some
place: form of military radar during World War It. It appears that
At the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington, DC,A. the initial development in all countries was done in secret
Hoyt Taylor, L. C.Young, and Robert Page hadjustcom- without knowledge of what was being done elsewhere.
pleted tests of a 60-MHz pulse radar that detected aircraft
in December 1934 (but not with completesuccess since the RADAR DEVELOPMENTS OF THE FIRST FIVE DECADES
receiver was narrow-band andcaused stretchingofthe
-
echo 111, 121).
In Great Britain, Robert Watson-Watt,Superintendent of
the Radio Department of the National Physical Laboratory,
7 930s
The basic principle of radar was demonstrated by Heinrich
deliveredamemorandumtothe Tizard Committee in Hertz in 1888 [7]; and a working device for the detection of
February 1935 describing how radio waves could be used to ships, based on his experiments, was tested in Germany in
detect aircraft. He was allowed to proceed to demonstrate the early 1900s [8]. Nothing was done to exploit these early
in June 1935 what would now be called bistatic CW radar, demonstrations, even though for many years prior to the
followed in September 1935 bypulse radar detectionof actual invention of radar in the mid-1930s therewerere-
aircraft at a frequency of 30 MHz [I], [3]. ports of radio waves being reflected by objects. It can also
In February 1935, the French Navy arranged for compara- be argued that the basic radio technology needed for radar
tive tests of a 4-m-wavelength (75-MHz) bistatic CW radar existedor was known prior to the 1930s. It remained,
conceivedby Pierre David, an engineer at theNational however, until the mid-1930s before radar appeared in most
Radioelectricity Laboratory, and a 16-cm wavelength radar of the countries which hadagoodtechnological base in
radio.Apossible reason forthe surge ofsimultaneous
interest in radio detection at that time was the maturing in
Manuscript received October 12, 1984.
The author is with the Nwal Research Laboratory, Washington, the early 1930s ofthemodern airplane as along-range
DC 20375, USA. military bomber capable of causing significantdamage with
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183
crowave radar at MIT was made before the US had knowl- Eagle AN/APQ-7 wasan X-band (9375-MHz) high-resolu-
edge of the development of thehigh-powercavity mag- tion radar for blind bombing at high altitude (40 kft). It had
netron by the British [13, sec. 2.41.)The MIT Radiation a unique phased-arrayantenna, 16ft in length, which
Laboratory was highly successful in applying the new mi- produced a 0.4" beamwidth that could be scanned f30' in
crowave technology to military radar for air, land, and sea azimuth at a rate of 1.5scansper second by mechanically
applications. Approximately 150 distinct radar systems were varyingthe width of its waveguidelinear-arrayantenna.
developed as a result of the Radiation Laboratory program (This is called anEaglescanner or delta-a scanner.)The
[13,sec. 2.11.As examples of the accomplishments of the pulsewidth could be as short as 0.4 ps. With peak power of
Radiation Laboratory, three microwave radars will be briefly 50 kW and average power of 30 W the radar could provide
described: 1) the SCR-584 gunlaying radar producedby images of cities atranges up to 160 mi. Total weight was
General Electric and Westinghouse,2) the SCR-720 Airborne 764 Ib. Work began in November 1941.Therewas much
Intercept (AI) radar manufactured by Western Electric Co., scepticism about the approach within the Radiation Labora-
and 3) the Eagle (AN/APQ-7) airborne bombing radar built tory, except within the Eagle group itself, so that the project
by Western Electric. was forced to work with low priority [13, sec. 6.51. However,
The SCR-584was the first and most widely used micro- sound technical solutions were found to each of the prob-
wavegunlaying radar. It employedconicalscanning and, lems and the Eagle was given its first flight test in June 1943.
with its 4" beamwidth, it had sufficient angular accuracy to InJune 1944,1660 sets wereordered. The Eagle radar
directanti-aircraft guns on target withoutthe needfor became operational too late to be used in Europe, but was
searchlightsoroptics as was the case with theolder used with success in the Pacific.
sequential lobing VHF SCR-268 radar. The SCR-584 operated As mentioned previously, the Army andNavy laboratories
at S-band(2.7 to 2.9 GHz) with a 6-ft-diameter parabolic concentrated their radar efforts at frequencies lower than
reflector antenna. Volume searchwas conducted by heli- microwaves. An example is the US Navy radar calledthe
cally scanning the pencil beam to cover any 20" elevation ASB, the first operational US airborne radar widely used for
sector. The range against bomber aircraft was about 30 nmi. bombing, detection of ships and surfaced submarines, and
The development of the SCR-584 commenced at the MIT airborne intercept. Over 26000 equipments were procured
RadiationLaboratory in January 1941, a roof-top system (from 1942 to 1944), the largest procurement of anyradar
wentintooperation one month later, a mobiletruck- during the war [2]. Theradar operated at 515 MHz (UHF)
mounted unit was demonstrated in December 1941, pro- with a peak power of 5 to 10 kW and an average power of
duction began in April 1942, the first production setwas about 4 W. The pulsewidth was 2 ps and the PRF was 400
delivered on June 15, 1943, and the radar was first used in Hz. Total weight was 120 Ib. identical Yagi antennas with
combat early in 1944 on the Anzio Beachhead [13, sec. 3.41. 60" beamwidth were mounted under each wing. The two
(Its introduction was quite timely since the Germans had antennas could be rotated individually through 90" by the
virtually silenced its predecessor, the SCR-268, by electronic operator [14]. It has been said[13,sec. 3.11 thatthe ASB
countermeasures. The introduction of the microwave radar "was one of the most successful of all ASV [airborne surface
caughtthe Germans unprepared.)Nearly 2000 of these search] radars."
radars were ordered. The SCR-584 was a fine radar. It could It was noted previously that the Germans probably were
be found in use for various diverse radar applications many well ahead of any other country in radar development and
years after the end of the war. deployment at the start of World War 11. Britain and the US
It was realized quite early at the Radiation Laboratory that acceleratedtheirefforts in the early 194Os, butnotthe
microwave radar would make it possible to achieve, with Germans. Radar development did not have high priority in
reasonable size antennas, airborne radar with narrow Germany during thewar. Near the end of 1940, the German
beamwidths. The SCR-720 was an S-band (3.3-GHz) AI radar High Command thought the war would be won in a short
used in nightfighteraircraft. The 29-in-diameter paraboloidal timeandthat existing radars would be adequate. They
reflector was rotatedcontinuously in azimuthandslowly stoppedall research that wouldnot producefinished
tilted in elevation (helical scan) to cover an elevation angle equipments in less than a year and many of the scientists
of 25'. It had a I O " beamwidth, a peak power of from 100 were drafted into the Army. This policy was in effect until
to 150 kW, average power from 112 to 170 W, pulsewidth of early 1943. By thetime the Germans realizedtheywere
0.75 ps, 1575-Hz PRF, installed weight of 415 Ib, and was behind, it was too late to catch up [5], [27].
supposed to have a range of about 4 nmi onfighters and 8.5 At the time of the German invasion of the Soviet Union,
nmi on bomber aircraft [12,sec.15.21,[14]. Delivery of the 45 RUS-1 bistatic CW radars had been manufactured by the
SCR-720 began in the spring of 1943 and several thousand Soviets [6]. These were sent to the Far East and the Cauca-
had been produced by D-day (June 6,1944). sus. Production of the RUS-1 ceased with the start of
There were many remarkable radars developed during the production of the RUS-2 and the R U S - ~ C both
, pulse radars.
war, but the Eagle high-resolution bombing radar They operated at 75 MHz with a peak power of 70 to 120
(AN/APQ-7) stands out as a product of innovative thinking kW, I O - to 12-pspulsewidth, 900-Hz PRF, andbroad-
thatchallengedthe available technologyby its advanced beamwidth Yagiantennas.The maximum radarrangewas
designand
capabilities. (The writer has sometimes about 150 km. The RUS-2was truck-mounted for mobility
wonderedwhether such a radar would everhave been and employed separate transmitter and receiver systems on
developedanddeployedoperationallywithoutthe pres- separate vehicles, spaced about 300 m apart to provide
sures ofwartime exigency; that is, i f it had not been antenna isolation. TheRUS-2cwas able to operate with a
successfully developed during the war it might never have single antenna for both transmit and receive, making it a
been evenattemptedduringpeacetimeconditions.) The more useful equipment. In addition to these two surveil-
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known [19]. North showedthatthere is an optimum re- US Air ForcesAN/FPS-85 satellite-tracking radar were put
ceiver filter shape which maximizes theoutput signal- into operation.The AN/SPS-33 was an 5-band phased-array
to-noise ratio; and hence, maximizes target detection. This radar with electronic(ferrite) phase shifters to steer the
is calledthematchedfilter. It has a frequency response beam in azimuth while frequency scan steered the beam in
functionproportionaltothe complexconjugateofthe elevation.The AN/FPS-85was the first large operational
spectrum, s*( f ) , of the radar signal s( t ) , where S( f ) is the array to steer the radiated beam in both angular coordinates
Fourier transform of s ( t ) . Almost without exception, every by means ofelectronic(7-bit diode) phase shifters. The
radar receiver is designed as a matched filter or as a close developmentofthe AN/FPSdSalso showedthe impor-
approximation. tance of the digital computer for the control of phased-array
Statistical Theory of Detection: j. Marcum, in a classical radar and that computer software can be a significant frac-
Rand Corporation report written in 1947, reissued in 1952, tion of total system cost.
and published in the IRE TRANSACTIONS ON INFORMATIONThe growth of digital technology in the late 1960s caused
THEORY in1960, clearlyenunciatedtheneed to consider a revolution in radar signal processingwhich is still continu-
radar detection on a statistical basis [20]. He showed that ing.Digital processingallowedthepracticalimplementa-
theprobabilityofdetection and theprobabilityof false tion of radar theory that had only been of limited utility
alarmhad to bespecifiedbeforethesignal-to-noiseratio when analog methods were the only ones available. Digital
required at the radar receiver could be determined. He also technology was introduced into radar quietly without the
showed the quantitative effectiveness of utilizing a number excessive exposure in the trade literaturethat sometimes
ofpulses(pulseintegration)fordetection. Prior to this, accompanies new technology. Designers were too busy
many predictions of radarrange did not correctly include incorporatingdigital processing into their radars and did
thesignal-to-noiseratio so thatthe measuredrange of not have time, or the need, to worry about advertising its
actual radars was often disappointingly less than predicted. promise. Except for some analogpulsecompression de-
Although Marcums report was unclassified and was widely vices, almost all signal and data processing is now digital.
knownthroughout the US radar community, it was of The special modifications to an MTI radar to allow it to
limited distribution, and not until 1960 was it published in operate. on an aircraft as an AMTl radarwere brought to
full in the I R E TRANSACTIONS ON INFORMATION THEORY along fruition during the 1960s with the deployment of the Navys
with Peter Swerlings extension to fluctuating targets. E2 AEW (Airborne Early Warning) radar in 1964. The success
Ambiguity Diagram: In a book published in 1953, P. M . of AMTl radar was due to its use of DPCA and TACCAR for
Woodward describedtheAmbiguityDiagram which is a motion compensation [23].(TACCARcompensates for the
plot of the output of the matched filter as a function of variation of the doppler frequency shift of the clutter echo
time and doppler frequency shift [21].The Ambiguity Di- and DPCA compensates for the spread in the clutter Dop-
agram portrays the ch.aracteristics of a waveform with re- pler spectrum due to the finite antenna beamwidth.) AMTl
gard to its ability to resolvetargets in range andrelative was first attempted during World War II, but it took almost
velocity, the accuracy with which range and relative veloc- 20 years to reliably detect aircraft targets over water with a
ity can be measured, and the ambiguities produced in the radar on amovingplatform.Ittook almostanother ten
determination of range and relative velocity. It is a pictorial years beforetheAMTltechniquecould besuccessfully
method for readily discerning the attributes of a particular extended to overland operation where the clutter is much
radar waveform. Woodward also introduced the mathemati- greater than over the sea.
cal statisticsconceptof inverse probability to radar and During the 1960s the NavalResearchLaboratory Madre
applied it to radar detectionandthepredictionof radar HF Over-the-Horizon (OTH) experimental radar, capable of
measurement accuracy. target detection out to 2000 nmi or more, pioneered in the
M T / Theory: The principle of MTI radarwas introduced demonstrationof thecapabilitiesof OTH radar that in-
during the war, but it was the classicalRand Corporation cluded the detection of aircraft, ballistic missiles, and ships,
Report of Emerson in 1954 which provided a firm theoreti- as well as the determination of sea state and wind condi-
cal evaluation of its limits and indicated how MTI radars, tions over the ocean [24].
their waveforms and processing, should be designed [22]. The era of satellitesthatstarted in the late 1950s also
He described the concept of the optimum MTI filter, the initiatedthe use of radar forthedetection andtrack of
use of transversal filters, range-gated filters, and staggered space vehicles. The first experimental radar used in this role
pulserepetition frequencies. Emersons reportremained was the MIT Lincoln Laboratory Millstone Hill UHFradar.
classified for some time and was not readily available.It has The AN/FPS-85, previously mentioned, was the first oper-
sincebeendeclassifiedandpublished.(Whenthereport ational phased arrayused for space object detection and
was classified, it was primarily of academic interest since tracking. The Spasur system, consisting of three high-power
signalprocessingtechnology had not advanced to where VHF fan-beam radars installed across the southern portion
the theory could be readily applied. Practical application of of the US, was used to detect satellites crossing the US. A
thetheorybecamepossible in thelate 1960s whenMTI modest, but novel, radar was installed in theGemini
acoustic delay lines were replaced by digital processing.) spacecarft for demonstratingrendezvous between a
spacecraft and other space objects.
The incorporation of ECCM to counterthedeleterious
1%
effects of hostile jamming was beginning to be of concern
The 1% are notedforthe first large electronically in the 1%. The radars of the Armys Nike-Hercules AAW
steered phased arrays and the start of the digital processing system (now available on the surplus market), were a good
revolution late in the decade. The US Navys AN/SPS-33 air example ofthe radarECCM philosophy of thattime. It
defense phased-array radar (installed on two ships) and the included an L-bandair-surveillance radar which operated
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applications as observation of the weather and ionospheric aircraft and at the major airports of the world for the safe
sounding, two applications where the radar engineer was controlof airtraffic.Commercialairborne radar provides
probably not even aware of the term remote sensing of the altitude of the aircraft, indicates regions of rain to be
the environment when these equipments were first devel- avoided, determines the aircrafts velocity vector (doppler
oped anddeployed. Thesame is probablytrueofthose navigation), and identifies ground features. All large ships at
who first used radar fortheinvestigationofmeteorsand sea carry one or more radars for collision avoidance and
aurora. Remote sensing from space has been considered for navigation. These are among the cheapest of radars, are the
many applications and several different radar systems have most reliable, and one of the most widely used (in terms of
been tested for various purposes. Spaceborne-radar remote numbers).There i s also, of course, the well-known and
sensing, however, has yet to reach thepoint where it is widely used police radar formeasuringvehicle speed. In
something with enough interest and potential so that it is space,radarsareused for spacecraftrendezvous, docking,
employed on a routine basis, as is weather radar. Commer- andlanding, as well as forremote sensing of the earths
cial applications of radar remote sensing (those where an environment and planetary exploration.
investor is willingto risk hiscapital in returnfor some
monetary gain) have been rare, but there are two that might OPERATIONAL RADARS OF THE 1980s
bementioned: 1) petroleumcompanies in the pasthave
used both conventional high-resolution side-looking radar Figs. 1 to 29 are a sample of radars now operating,or
and synthetic-aperture radar for determining regions of the which will be operating, during this decade. The examples
world wheregeological features showpromiseof oil de- shown are not all that could have been included. Space, as
posits,and 2) powercompanies use high-resolutionim- well as a lackofcomplete information available to the
pulse radar to probeundergroundforburiedpipesand author, limit the number that can be included. The author
power lines. Radarhas also proved to be of considerable apologizes in advance for any inadvertent omissions. Radars
value to ornithology and entomology. illustrated in the other papers of this issue are not included
Ground-based radar is employed for en-route tracking of here.
THEFUTUREOF RADAR
It i s relatively easy to predict what might be available in
radarsystems to be deployedthree to five years hence,
since these systems are already in the development pipe-
line (it sometimes takes up to fifteen years or more from
start of development to extensive operation in the field).
O n the other hand, it is not easy to predict the long-term
future of a technology like radar; it is foolish to attempt to
do so, unless it is written in disappearing ink. One of the
difficulties in predictingfuture radar is thatunforeseen
developments can appear (and usually do) from other tech-
nicaldisciplines or from a newtechnology notknown
previously. This has happened many times. Examples from
the past of suchunpredicteddevelopmentsincludethe
high-power klystronamplifier, geodesicradome, ferri-
magnetic materials, the transistor, the low-noise amplifier,
SAW delaylines,wide-bandmagneticrecording, mini-
computer, and digital processing technology. It should be
Authorized
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saturated technology or no one has taken a hard look at
possibleimprovements.Both thepowertube and the
mechanically scanned antenna will continue to be used in
future radars; hence, it is important to be alert for potential
improvements.
Phased-ArrayRadar: There has been much money and
time spent on the development of the phased-array radar,
andthere are many examples of success. However, the
prediction heard in the 1960s that all radars in the future
will be phased arrays has not materialized, and is not likely
, _
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apply.
to do so in the foreseeable future. This should not detract
fromthe factthat phasedarrays can have animportant
place in radar. The phasedarray could have even greater
application if it could be made more economical. Perhaps a
new, now unknown, approach to agile beamsteering i s
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Fig. 15. Artistconceptionofthenew phased-array radar
system for the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System
(BMEWS), based on the Raytheon UHF Pave Paws radar. The
two-faced, 92-ft phased-array antenna has an 84-ft aperture
with 2560 activeelementsper face.The solid-state trans- Fig. 17. AEGIS AN/SPY-1A 5-band radar system onboard
mit-receive modules are similar to those developed for Pave theCC-47 (USS TICONDEROCA). Each ofthe four fixed
Paws. The radar i s to provide warning of a mass ICBM attack phased-arrayantennascontainabout 4ooo radiatingele-
on thecontinentia1 US or IRBM/SLBM attackdirected to- ments. (Courtesy RCA.)
ward the United Kingdom and NATO forces. Initial operat-
ing capability is said to be in late 1986. (Courtesy Raytheon Reliability: Themost reliableof radars typicallymight
CO.) have mean-time-between failures (MTBF) of about 800 to
12W h. It is more usual for radars, especially complex ones,
to have MTBFs almost an order of magnitude less. Although
considerable attention is often given toreliabilityduring
manufacturing,almostnoattention is paidtoreliability
during the conceptual design stage whenthe basicradar
architecture i s evolved. In applicationswhere it is ab-
solutely necessary to have a radar working reliably, different
approaches have been taken. NASA, for example, in build-
ing a one-of-a-kind space radar, employsthehighly suc-
cessful reliability methods devised for space programs. The
commercialairlines enhance avionicsreliability by con-
servative design (such as operating components well below
the greater the range to the horizon, and the greater must
bethepower andtheantennaaperture.However,the
higherthealtitudethemoredifficult it is to carrylarge
power and a large antenna. Microwaveradar in space offers
the potential for worldwide coverage, but at great expense.
Many of those interested in radar for the remote sensing of
theenvironmentdepend heavily on satellite-borne radar
(SBR). SBR i s also a candidate for the worldwide detection Fig. 18. The C-band phased-array radar (AN/MPQ-53) of
of ships on the ocean. HF over-the-horizon (OTH) radar can the Patriot Air Defense Missile System, The system performs
search, target detection, target track, identification, missile
extend coverage out to almost 2000 nmi on a single hop track, guidance, and ECCM. The 8-ft-diameter space-fed lens
(ionospheric refraction) and is a good method for detecting array contains approximately 5000 elements with 4-bit ferrite
and tracking aircraft over the ocean. phase shifters. (Courtesy Raytheon Co.)
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THE IEEE, VOL. 73. NO. 2. FEBRUARY 1985
192 PROCEEDINGS
their ratings). The Air Traffic Control Radars of the FAA have VHSICseem to bedescribable as doing more of what is
very little downtime by operating two radars simulta- already being done. This is usuallythe case for any new
neously so that at least one of the two is always operating technology,but it wouldnot be surprising if, a decade
while theother is beingrepaired. Thisresults in high hence, VHSIC is being used to achievesome new radar
availability, defined as the percentage of the time the radar capability not now being pursued. It is possible, however,
is operating.Reliability,availability,andthecompanion to be "carried away" by the
promiseof large-signal
maintainability need to be an integral part of initial system processing. Radar signalprocessorscan, if unchecked, be
design. large, consume large power, and be a major contributor to
Signal a n d D a t a Processing: Digitaltechnology has al- radar unreliability.
lowed significant new capabilities in signal and data Operator: The radar operator has had a major role in the
processing, and VHSIC offers the promise of even greater past in extracting and using the information available from
performance.Most of theproposed radar applicationsof the radar. With automated detection and tracking, as well
as improved signalprocessing thateliminatesunwanted
echoes, the role of the operator is changing. The operator's
role is something that needs to be watched as more radar
processing is automated.
Size and Weight:Many radar applications, such as in
aircraft or space, cannot tolerate large size and weight. Size
and weight can be reduced with new technology; but just
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. ... . - ..-_^___"I
Fig. 23. The AN/APQ-156 is a K,-band airborne multimode radar forthe A-6A attack
aircraft. (Courtesy Norden Systems, United Technologies Corp.)
Fig. 24. AN/APS-137, an improved version of the AN/APS-116 periscope detection radar,
with a long-range maritime surveillance mode. (CourtesyTexas Instruments.)
as with reliability, size andweight constraints must be There is not likely to be a mass return to these bands, but
considered during the early stages of radar concept design. there are specialized applications which can benefit from
Radar Outside the Microwave Region:Radarwas used operation at thelower frequencies. HF over-the-horizon
in the 1930s at VHF and HF, below microwave frequencies. radar i s a good example.There has been considerable
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G S O F T H Eapply.
Fig. 25. AN/APQ-164 Offensive Radar System (ORS) for the 6-16 bomber, which evolved
from the EAR (Electronically Agile Radar) andtheAN/APG-68 (F-16 aircraft radar).The
X-bandlow-observableelectronically scanned phased-array antennaallowsmultimode
operation for high-resolution SAR ground mapping and automatic terrain following and
terrain avoidance. (Courtesy Westinghouse.)
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ent from any other. The listing given below is offered as
one example from one individual. It leans heavily on the
authors knowledge ofwhat took place, which is admittedly
limited. It is thus biased to US and Western developments.
The author apologizes for any omissions and would appre-
ciate learning of radar events deemed significant by others,
thatshouldbeincluded. The list could have beenmuch
larger if all major radar events were to be included, instead
of limiting to those events thathad somespecial signifi-
cance or major impact on developments that followed.
Similarly, the historicaldevelopmentsmentioned in the
main body of this paper are limited by the sources available
to the writer and by the writers perspective as an engineer
ratherthan as ahistorianoftechnology. The historical
descriptions of radar are mostly those of the US, especially
afterWorld War 11, because of theunavailability tothe
writer of adequate historical information about radar devel-
opments in Europe and elsewhere. A worthy future project
for some historian would be a complete and authoritative
history of this important technology. The listing given be-
low is in somewhat, but not precise, chronological order. (It
is difficult to be precise regarding dates.)
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IEEE, VOL. 73, NO. 2, FEBRUARY 1985
1% O F THE
Large VHF and UHF radar in the late 1950s, an example each figure. The author wishes to express his sincereap-
o fw h i c hw a st h eV H F AN/FPS-24airsurveillanceradar p r e c i a t i o n to those who made these illustrations available.
with an antenna about 120 ft w i d e b y 2 0 ft h i g h a n d a n
average power of 25 k W .
- TheBomarcair-to-airpilotless-aircraftguidanceradar,
which first demonstrated in the late 1950s the high,pulse-
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