Escolar Documentos
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543
21 POSTWAR: ART
BETWEEN THE PACIFIC
AND THE ATLANTIC
19451965
876
543
PRESTEL
MUNICH LONDON NEW YORK
21 EDITED BY
OKWUI ENWEZOR
KATY SIEGEL
ULRICH WILMES
TABLE OF EXHIBITION SECTIONS
1. AFTERMATH:
3. NEW IMAGES OF MAN
338 Section Introduction
5. CONCRETE VISIONS
476 Section Introduction
7. NATIONS SEEKING
FORM
624 Section Introduction
CONTENTS
ZERO HOUR AND THE 340 Yule Heibel 478 Pedro Erber
ATOMIC ERA Germanys Postwar Out of Words: The 626 Galia Bar Or
132 Section Introduction Search for a New Spacetime of Concrete Channels for
134 Yasufumi Nakamori Image of Man Poetry Democratic Iteration
Imagining a City 344 Sarah Wilson 484 Andrea Giunta 632 Atreyee Gupta
PATRONS STATEMENT DIRECTORS FOREWORD Through Photography New Images of Man: After Bandung:
Simultaneous
7 Dr. Frank-Walter 13 Okwui Enwezor 140 Stephen Petersen Postwar Humanism Abstractions and Post- Transacting the Nation
Steinmeier Forms Disintegrate: and its Challenges war Latin American Art in a Postcolonial World
Federal Minister for CURATORS Painting in the Shadow in the West 638 Chika Okeke-Agulu
490 Mari Carmen Ramirez
Foreign Affairs ACKNOWLEDGMENTS of the Bomb 350 Homi K. Bhabha Fanon, National Culture,
The Necessity of Con-
17 Okwui Enwezor, 146 Ariella Azoulay Remembering Fanon: creteness: A View from and the Politics of
BAVARIAN STATE Lygia Clarks first major European exhibition
Katy Siegel, The Natural History of Self, Psyche, and the the (Global?) South Form in Postwar Africa takes place at Signals, London, 1965.
MINISTERS STATEMENT Ulrich Wilmes Colonial Condition
Rape
9 Dr. Ludwig Spaenle 6. COSMOPOLITAN
4. REALISMS APPENDIXES
Minister of State for INTRODUCTORY ESSAYS MODERNISMS
Education and Culture, 418 Section Introduction 759 Selected Documents
20 Okwui Enwezor 558 Section Introduction
Science and Art The Judgment of Art: 776 Artists Biographies
420 Alejandro Anreus 560 Zainab Bahrani
Postwar and Artistic Whatever happened to 806 Bibliography
PREFACES Baghdad Modernism
Worldliness Realism after 1945?
566 Catherine Grenier 812 About the
10 Johannes Ebert 42 Katy Siegel Figuration and Politics
Plural Modernities: Contributors
Secretary-General, Art, World, History in the Western
Goethe-Institut Hemisphere A History of a Cosmo- 816 List of Works
58 Ulrich Wilmes politan Modernity
11 Hortensia Vlckers Tanaka Atsuko wearing her Electric Dress
424 Ekaterina Degot 826 Index
Postwar: (Denkifuku)at the 2nd Gutai Art Exhibition,
Artistic Director, Tokyo, 1956. Commitment to 570 Courtney J. Martin 834 List of Lenders
Denazification and
Kulturstiftung des Humility Exiles, migrs and
Reeducation Hermann Nitschs first Aktion (Action)
836 List of
Bundes Cosmopolitans: takes place on December 19 at the flat of
68 Mark Mazower 2. FORM MATTERS 430 Anneka Lenssen Londons Postwar Art Otto Mhl, Vienna, 1963. Acknowledgments
Alexander Farenholtz Postwar: Exchangeable Realism
212 Section Introduction World 840 Image Credits
Administrative Director, The Melancholy 436 Gao Minglu 574 Tobias Wofford
Kulturstiftung des History of a Term 214 Emily Braun 844 Colophon
The Historical Logic of The Black 8. NETWORKS, MEDIA &
Bundes The Dirt Paradigm
74 Dipesh Chakrabarty Chinese Nationalist Cosmopolitans COMMUNICATION
Legacies of Bandung: 220 Salah M. Hassan Realism from the
When Identity Becomes 1940s to the 1960s 580 Damian Lentini 682 Section Introduction
Decolonization and the
Form: Calligraphic Cosmopolitan 684 Jea Denegri
Politics of Culture 442 Nikolas Drosos and
Abstraction and Suda- Contaminations: Artists, Art in the Network of
Romy Golan Objects, Media
VISUAL ESSAYS AND nese Modernism Realism as Technological Media
CHRONOLOGIES 226 Geeta Kapur International Style and Mass Communica-
Compiled by Damian Lentini Material Facture tion: New Tendencies
and Daniel Milnes 688 Walter Grasskamp
232 Richard Shiff
82 Visual Essay: Social 0 to 1 True Grid
Installation view of the Ninth Street Show,
New York, 1951. and Political Events 692 Anne Massey
238 Terry Smith
96 Chronology of Social Abstraction and Ideol- Reframing the
and Political Events ogy: Contestation in Independent Group
102 Visual Essay: Arts Cold War Art Criticism 696 Pamela M. Lee and
and Culture Fred Turner
The Cybernetic Vision
116 Chronology of
in Postwar Art
Arts and Culture
A
n examination of the global development of modern art In a world that seems to be coming apart at the seams, cultural
between the end of World War II and 1965 is an ambitious politics has a decisive role to play in this process. Both inside and outside
but highly worthwhile undertaking. Haus der Kunst has our country, we must learn to see the whole picture. The more we trust
taken on that challenge. The result, in my opinion, is impres- the social capacity of culture and education to keep differences from
sive: an exhibition that aims to offer its visitors new perspectives on the leading to misunderstandings, misunderstandings to conflicts, and
artistic development of the period worldwide. The show presents works conflicts to wars, the more possible that will be. This is precisely the aim
by 218 artists, many of them barely known in Europe, from more than of Postwar: to contribute to exploring and understanding other perspec-
sixty countries. Postwar makes possible a change of vantage points and tives. That is why I was glad to take on the shows patronage.
introduces us to things of which we were previously unaware. Both are I would like to extend my sincere thanks to all involved in the
urgent necessities, becausein politics but also elsewhereto insist that realization of this exhibition for their outstanding work, in particular
one is in possession of the absolute truth only leads to deadlocks and con- Okwui Enwezor, Ulrich Wilmes, and Katy Siegel. I wish all of the ex-
flicts. If we want peaceful global development to have a chance, we must hibitions visitors new insights and new impulses for lively discussion.
all strive to acquaint ourselves with different perceptions of the same
reality. Only if we succeed in accepting different viewpoints and then
uniting them in dialogue will we succeed in true mutual understanding.
T
hat art unifies society at its core is clear in our rich, diverse, spectrum of international events, including conferences, seminars, and
and vibrant cultural scene. We accord special status to workshops with regional foci. The research and discussion it developed
art that crosses boundaries, and Haus der Kunst, with its are now mirrored in the show, which is devoted to the dynamic relation-
prominence and reputation, makes a valuable contribu- ships among artworks and artists in international, national, and local
tion in this context. That is why it is the right venue for the exhibition contexts, as well as to the complex aesthetic forms that blossomed all
Postwar: Art Between the Pacific and the Atlantic, 19451965, which follow over the world after the turmoil of World War II.
the coastlines of two great oceans, the Pacific and the Atlantic: from I wish visitors to the exhibition a stimulating and enjoyable aesthetic
Germany to Japan to South and North America. experience and many new insights as they immerse themselves in this
The exhibition lays out the postwar era by perceiving it as a global presentation of the multifarious facets of the postwar period. I extend my
phenomenon. A study project as well as an exhibition, Postwar: Art sincere thanks to the organizers for their exemplary dedication and effort.
Between the Pacific and the Atlantic, 19451965 encompasses a wide
W A
ith its project of the three major thematic exhibitions integral members of the curatorial team for one year, making fun- sked what he thought of Western civilization, Mahatma Haus der Kunst had already committed itself to this goal some time ago
Postwar, Postcolonialism, and Postcommunism, Haus der damental contributions to the preparation of the exhibition. In this Gandhi replied, I think it would be a good idea. The same in its guiding curatorial principles, which are informed by recognition
Kunst, under the direction of Okwui Enwezor, is taking context the collaboration with Okwui Enwezor, Ulrich Wilmes, and could be said of the postwar era: in retrospect, it might seem of the fact that the development lines of contemporary art follow
a new, globally oriented look at the art of these periods the entire team at Haus der Kunst has proven eminently produc- to have been a good idea had the war been succeeded by a a global and complex course, and defy constraint by geographic, con-
from differing perspectives. The approach of interrelating these various tive. The programs first fellowsAtreyee Gupta, Yan Geng, and period of peace. Instead, hardly had the defeated countries signed their ceptual and cultural boundaries. In this spirit, the Kulturstiftung des
vantage pointsNorth and South, East and West, colonizers and colo- Damian Lentinicame from India, China, and Australia. To the same surrenders than the Cold War broke out between the victorious powers. Bundes is pleased to support a project in which researchers, curators,
nizedin all their nuances corresponds to the dialogical principle of the extent that they gained from new experiences themselves, they also In the early postwar years, the war continued to make itself felt in art historians, and studentsfrom Germany and, significantly, from
work of the Goethe-Institut. It is our great concernand our strength gave the project new impulses. The concern in this reflective setting many waysincluding the politics of culture and exhibitions. Munichs many other countries as wellpursue the endeavor of defining a glob-
to support and make perceptible viewpoints and discourses thatare part is with the interplay between art, culture, politics, the economy, and Haus der Kunst housed a military officers club, and the Allies used other al modernity that takes into account artistic approaches not only of
of our everyday business all over the world before they are known in Ger- society as understood in modern and contemporary art on the global parts of the premises for reeducation events such as an exhibition on Germany, France, England, and the United States but also of India,
many. Renowned both nationally and internationally, Haus der Kunst level. That is a strong, future-oriented counter-position to the archi- international childrens and young peoples literature, or shows designed China, Japan, Egypt, Nigeria, Cuba, Mexico, Argentina, Brazil, and
has proven an ideal partner in this effort. It has undertaken nothing less tecture and history of Haus der Kunst, which is now becoming a nexus to rehabilitate art movements proscribed under National Socialism, more. Haus der Kunst had already organized a research symposium
than to create, through an in-depth research phase of several years, a for encounter and mutual exchange between fellowship recipients and from French Impressionism to the Blaue Reiter. From the time of this on this subject in 2014. Now, two years later, it is opening an exhibition
foundation for the writing of a new, globalized history of modern and artists, curators and scholars. new beginning onward, the concern was not solely with ex-post-facto that offers a splendid abundance of works dating from the postwar
contemporary art after 1945. Part I of the trilogyPostwar: Art Between the Pacific and the Atlantic, denazification in art and culture; the postwar affiliation with the West period. What it teaches us is that multiple modernisms await discovery
The Goethe-Institut Fellowship at Haus der Kunst was launched 19451965is now open to the public. Thanks to the inclusion of artis- advanced to become the chief perspective of West German cultural in places far remote from the Western centers. It is our hope that Postwar
in 2013 in support of the preliminary research for these exhibitions. tic approaches from the most diverse corners of the world, it is now, politics. For decades, standardized collection histories, research foci, will meet with a positive response, draw a broad public, and trigger a
Through this cooperation with the Goethe-Institut, Haus der Kunst for the first time, possible to read this world not solely from a Western exhibition practices, and art-historical narratives made modern art discourse that will inspire many other exhibition venues to retell the
seeks to establish research as a new mainstay within its spectrum perspective. Instead, with the aid of works little known in the West, the and Western art look like one and the same thing. stories of modern art under the conditions of globalization.
of activities. International in scope, the program is directed toward world presents itself here as a globally interlinked and mutually influ- The Postwar project shows that it was a good idea to counter this
emerging scholars who, in addition to their own research work, are encing whole. transatlantic one-sidedness with globally expanded research projects.
I
n his posthumously published Prison Notebooks, the Italian Marxist statecraft of colonialism, while also recognizing, without equivocation,
philosopher Antonio Gramsci, writing in the 1930s, in the depths the quest of the colonized for the end of colonial empires and imperial
of his incarceration by the Fascist government of Benito Mussolini, dominions. Both the victors and the vanquished of the war had to live up
made the following observation: The challenge of modernity is to to new responsibilities, to which end they instituted new programs and
live without illusions and without becoming disillusioned. I am a pessi- policies to allow a smooth transition from a bellicose period to a more
mist because of intelligence, but an optimist because of will. Gramscis peaceful one. It is in this sense that within the remit of this project post-
reflection on modernity is all the more captivating for having anticipat- war should be seen not as purely an aftermath but as a horizon into which
ed so succinctly the wretched spirit engendered by the catastrophe of the ideals of global emancipation and decolonization could be projected as
World War II across the world. For many who survived the warespe- the new world order transitioned into a multilateral system of governance.
cially those who witnessed the concentration camps or the destruction In culture, similar ideals were pursued and questions were raised across
wrought by the atom bombs, saw the images of destroyed lives and cities the world around issues of art and heritage, scientific and educational
that these disasters produced, and lived through the social conditions exchange, cultural preservation and social interaction. These reflections
of the periodto refuse to become disillusioned required extraordinary were important contributors in the founding of UNESCO in Paris in 1945.
vigilance. Even before the war ended, the prescient incisiveness with From the defeat of Japan and Germany to the retreat of empire; from
which Gramsci had confronted the positivist idealism of modernity had the creation of the Atlantic charter, the Pacific alliance, and the Warsaw
united many modern artists, thinkers, policy-makers, legal theorists, pact to the building of a system of multilateral global institutions; from
and ordinary people around a singular fact: the necessity of emerging decolonization and the emergence of new nation states to the partition
from the unprecedented trauma and violence of World War II without of others; from revolutions to dictatorships, Postwar: Art Between the
illusions, particularly at a time when humanity faced the daunting task Pacific and the Atlantic, 19451965 probes the creative ferment in which
of refusing disillusionment while building an entirely new modern and artists attempted to come to terms with the dawn of a new contempo-
humanistic global compact. rary era. Through the vital relationship between artworks and artists,
In Europe and Japan, the postwar period inspired a profound re- produced and understood from the point of view of local and specific
flection on how to assimilate the lessons of the war and the invidious contexts, Postwar aims to project a broad global understanding of the
Okwui Enwezor 13
historical forces that attended the shaping of art after 1945. Covering the Statesthe emerging global South of twenty-nine newly independent A project of this globe-spanning dimension requires not only deli-
years 1945 to 1965, the exhibition proposes, through exhaustive research Asian and African countries convened in Bandung, Indonesia, in 1955 to cate diplomacy but also a shared common horizon among participants
and case studies organized across regions, to explore the global view of lay the foundation for the principle of nonalignment, of supporting nei- and collaborators. To this end we are pleased to acknowledge the gen-
contemporary art in the wake of the radical geopolitical transformation ther East nor West but instead facing forward, in the memorable phrase erous support provided to us by so many artists, colleagues, lenders,
and realignment after the defeats of Japan and Germany. It is thus po- of Ghanas Kwame Nkrumah. In the arts, even while the ideological fis- archivists, foundations, museums, artists estates, galleries, and re-
sitioned not only as a reflection on the defeat of the aggressive regimes sure created by the competition for cultural dominance between East search institutes over the course and the process of its planning. Our
located on the shores of two oceansthe Pacific and the Atlanticbut and West, communism and capitalism, socialism and liberal democracy, immense gratitude goes to the patron of this exhibition, the honorable
also as a tracing of the spaces of art across the sweeping lines of those created a crude binary in the way the terms abstraction and socialist Dr. Frank-Walter Steinmeier, Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Federal
two oceans on five continents. By mapping these oceanic lines and their realism were taken as moral equivalents, artists in newly independent Republic of Germany, whose support has been vital to the objectives
continental contours, Postwar straddles nations, political structures, countries were discovering the role that they could play in nation-build- of Haus der Kunst as an open, global institution. We wish to thank our
economic systems, institutional frameworks, and ideological positions. ing and the advancement of a de-Westernized national culture. Artists principal collaborating institution, the Brooklyn Museum, New York,
More important, it engages with the vividness of the artistic systems across the world grappled not only with aesthetic and formal issues of and especially Anne Pasternak, president and director; Nancy Spector,
and cultural networks of the period. Postwar can also be understood as artistic creation but also with debates on the correct ideological and cul- deputy director and chief curator; and Sharon Matt Atkins, vice direc-
the site of making and unmaking, connecting the ceaseless points of tural position: conformity or individualism, subjectivity or collectivity, tor, exhibitions and collections management, for their enthusiastic
movement of the cosmopolitans and the diasporic, the exiles and the regionalism or internationalism, alignment or nonalignment. endorsement of the exhibition and for making it possible to present it in
displaced, the immigrants and the refugees. In recent years, scholarship around the world has begun to shed New York, a city where an important body of postwar art was created
From this turning point in global history it is possible to see the light on the many alternative histories of contemporary art from this and historicized.
strong shift in artistic identities fomented by the entangled histories of period, and these inquiries have created opportunities to interrogate We are indebted to so many individuals and organizations who
the postwar period: who made art? Where and why, with what and how? former conclusions and the general history of the postwar period. They have played key roles in funding Postwar. We are particularly thankful to
The exhibition is devoted precisely to the untangling of this question. have often ended up challenging and expanding previous discourses of the shareholders and the major supporter of Haus der Kunst: The Free
Employing a dramaturgical and social lens, Postwar: Art Between the modernity that were grounded in Western practices of exclusion. We in State of Bavaria, the Gesselschafft der Freunde Haus der Kunst, and
Pacific and the Atlantic, 19451965 is centered in the interregnum be- turn have gained critical insight into the art of the postwar era by broad- the Alexander Tutsek-Stiftung for their annual funding support. As the
tween recovery from the devastation of the war and the creation of new ening the borders of art history since 1945 while reflecting back on the planning of the exhibition began, we received two major grants from the
artistic networks in the wars aftermath. It responds to the multifarious debates and discourses that were crucial and fundamental to artists Kulturstiftung des Bundes, Berlin, and the Goethe Institute, Munich,
conceptions of art among artists working with a vital awareness of a and their ideas in different regions of the world. At the same time, we that underwrote the exhibition and research. These two grants were
world created from conflict and within the experience of change. For have explored how different terrains of artistic practice and conditions strengthened by two more from the Art Mentor Foundation, Lucerne,
these artistswho lived in different parts of the world, and many of of production that flourished in previously underrecognized and under- supporting the exhibition and our educational programs. We are very
whom were scarred by war and by imperialism, colonialism, racism, and studied art-historical canons can enrich our current understanding of grateful to the boards and officers of these organizations, and especially
segregationthe idea that art and artists had roles to play in such a period postwar art history. The emergent scholarship on postwar art has made to Hortensia Vlckers, Artistic Director, and Alexander Farenholtz,
of instability, while constructing fresh insights into human culture and a deep impact on the curatorial arguments that frame this exhibition; in Administrative Director, Kulturstiftung des Bundes, Berlin; Johannes
creativity, was fundamental to the shaping of a new artistic modernity. turn, it requires exhibitions such as this one to foreground them. What is Ebert, General Secretary, and Hans-Georg Knoop, former General
Artists were also deeply involved in the search for new subject matter, crucial is that it is the art itself, and the systematic conceptual and aes- Secretary, Goethe Institut, Munich; and Evelyn Kryst, Karin Ebling,
creating contemporary forms and harnessing materials in fresh ways thetic approaches undertaken by the artists of the period, that have been and Miriam Lthold Lindn, Art Mentor Foundation, Lucerne. Further
that have since come to define modern and contemporary art. the real revelation. It is our hope that some of these issues will come to thanks go to Darren Walker, President, and Elizabeth Alexander, Direc-
It should also be noted that the two decades covered here, from 1945 sharper relief in the course of the exhibition. tor, Creativity and Expression, at the Ford Foundation, New York; Wolf-
to 1965, marked a cultural turning point: the end of European dominance Postwar has involved 218 artists from more than sixty countries gang Heubisch, President, and Michael Barnick, Heinke Hagemann,
of contemporary around the world, the rise of the international promi- and 150 lenders from 36 countries. A project of this complexity, scope, Irmin Rodenstock-Beck, and Philippe Litzka, Members of the Board, of
nence and hegemony of contemporary American art, popular culture, and ambition must be multipronged in its affiliations and networks. the Gessellschaft der Freunde Haus der Kunst; and Hans-Ewald Schnei-
and mass media, and the incipient globalization of art. For even as the After nearly five years of research, it gives me great pleasure to thank my der and Ingrid Schuchlenz at Hassenkamp, Cologne, for the additional
United States was consolidating its newly found cultural position, other two colleagues and co-curators of the exhibitionUlrich Wilmes, chief funding support they provided to us.
nations, in South America, Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and East and curator and deputy director of Haus der Kunst, and Katy Siegel, Eugene Finally, the staff of Haus der Kunst and the core organization-
Central Europe, were busy as well, exploring and rethinking the artistic V. and Claire E. Thaw Endowed Chair in Modern American Art at Stony al team of this exhibition have played an impressive role in shaping its
paradigms of their respective contexts. This changing of stakes in the Brook University, New Yorkfor the incredible privilege of develop- outcome on every level. It is with gratitude that I recognize their contri-
language, material, and form of art led artists to develop new and alter- ing and realizing such an important exhibition with them. Ulrichs and butions and thank each of them for ably shepherding the entire process
native modernities to mirror the changed terms of geopolitical dialogue Katys exemplary knowledge of the field, their commitment to research and bringing special professional care and sensitivity to the realization
across the world. In Europe, as the Cold War divided the continent into and their marshaling of every available intellectual resource at their of this mammoth project.
two separate ideological spheresthe Warsaw Pact countries of Eastern disposal, and finally their insistence on building a more global account
and Central Europe, allied with the Soviet Union, and the North Atlantic of postwar art has meant that together we could curate an exhibition
Treaty Organization countries of Western Europe, allied with the United worthy of the ambition we all invested in its making.
P
ostwar: Art Between the Pacific and the Atlantic, 19451965 has In the best possible way this project has been structured by ex-
been in the making for five years. During that time we have ac- change. The exhibition has been enriched by the participation of the
crued debts to so many individuals and institutions who have large group of scholars who participated in a four-day conference
supported our work along the way. The generous support that organized by Haus der Kunst in May 2014. Our gratitude goes to Atreyee
artists, colleagues, scholars, archivists, foundations, museums, artists Gupta, Haus der Kunsts inaugural Goethe Institut Post-Doctoral
estates, and research institutes have provided to us over the course and Fellow, who helped to convene and coordinate the conference and the
process of planning the exhibition has enabled us to map a truly global publication of its papers. For the insight they provided through their re-
view of the art of the postwar era. We are especially thankful to the lend- spective researches we thank the participants in the conference and the
ers, who not only lent key and rare works to the exhibition but granted us contributors to the forthcoming Postwar Reader: Sam Bardaouil, Nich-
permission to reproduce them in the catalogue. In 2013 and 2014, during olas Cullinan, Iftikhar Dadi, Federico Deambrosis, Alessandro Del
several curatorial meetings at Tate Modern, London, and in Munich, we Puppo, Burcu Dogramaci, Nikolas Drosos, Patrick Flores, va Forgcs,
benefited from the knowledge and research of colleagues at Tate Modern Hal Foster, Alessio Fransoni, Jacopo Galimberti, Walter Grasskamp,
who hosted us and participated in our deliberations on the meaning of Boris Groys, Serge Guilbaut, Hideki Kikkawa, Sohl Lee, Gregor H. Lersch,
postwar. We are especially thankful to Chris Dercon, former Director; Paula Barreiro Lpez, Tara McDowell, Abigail McEwen, Armin Me-
Achim Borchardt-Hume, Director of Exhibitions; and, for their contribu- dosch, Kobena Mercer, Gerardo Mosquera, Alexandra Munroe, Chika
tions during a two-day curatorial workshop, to Tate curators, fellows, and Okeke-Agulu, Mari Carmen Ramrez, Amanda Katherine Rath, Doro-
researchers including Tanya Barson, Juliet Bingham, Elena Crippa, Lena thea Schne, Nada Shabout, Devika Singh, Terry Smith, Ming Tiampo,
Fritsch, Matthew Gale, Mark Godfrey, Shoair Mavlian, Jennifer Mundy, Reiko Tomii, and Isobel Whitelegg. In organizing the conference we also
Vassilis Oikonomopoulos, Nada Raza, Kasia Redzisz, Helen Sainsbury, benefited from the support of two crucial partners in Munich, the Zentral
Chris Stephens, Sandra Sykorova, Alex Taylor, Katy Wan, Andrew Wil- Institute fr Kunstgeschichte and the art history department of Ludwig
son, and Zoe Whitley. We acknowledge the early support and interest Maximillian University, which hosted sessions of the conference in their
of Catherine Grenier, former deputy director, Muse National dArt respective institutions. We thank Iris Lauterbach, Events and Fellow-
Moderne, Centre Pompidou, Paris. ships Manager at the Zentral Institute fr Kunstgeschichte, and Burcu
When American forces occupied the ruined city, the official capit-
ulation of the German army was still over a week away. 4 And when the earlier times important guests including Hitler, Benito Mussolini, the
wars end was celebrated all across Europe on May 8, 1945, World War II Aga Khan, and Edward, Duke of Windsor, had recorded their visits to the
as such was far from over: as Europe began the process of reconstruction, museum.6 The soldiers graffiti-like inscriptions marked the final chapter
the war in the Pacific was still raging. The surrender of the Japanese of the Haus der Deutschen Kunst before it hurtled, along with the rest of
imperial military would demand another three months of intense Germany, into the postwar era.
A TIME OF RECKONING:
REMAKING A SHATTERED WORLD
The conflicts of World War II had barely ebbed before the process started
of reconfiguring, suturing, and repairing what had been broken and shat-
tered. What would the postwar peace look like? Who would be responsible
for overseeing it? What institutions would ensure that its terms were re-
Fig. 7. Participants at the Fifth Pan-African Congress
spected? Whether successful or not, as an attempt to consider the totality in Manchester, November 10, 1945
of the world as a single entity, the postwar planning process was one of the
most complex and unprecedented undertakings in history. On January 1, as pressing. As a consequence, an enormous space of thinking fell open
1942, the United States, the Soviet Union, China, and Great Britain signed to art. After all, artists and art institutions had been involved in process-
the Declaration of the United Nations, a declaration joined a day later by ing, transmitting, and translating reflections on the war for the public in
twenty allied nations fighting the Axis powers and brought to fruition on various parts of the world. In the United States, The Museum of Modern
October 24, 1945, when the United Nations was formally established as a Art had strongly supported the war effort, producing nearly forty related
global institution.24 Around the same time as the Declaration of the Unit- exhibitions.27 It is important to note that the question of the means or ap-
ed Nations, preparatory meetings were taking place for the Bretton Woods proach by which art might address the urgent moral questions that arose
Conference of July 1944, which created the World Bank and the Interna- from the harrowing experiences of the war pointed to the complex pos-
tional Monetary Fund. The conference, which was planned in Washington, sibilities available to art and artists during this pivotal moment, beyond
D.C., and held in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, was initiated at the invi- the conventional repertoire of recognizable imagery.
tation of the United States; forty-four allied nations from six continents
Fig. 8. Yosuke Yamahata. Nagasaki Journey. August 10, 1945.
Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, and South Americapar- Silver gelatin print on glossy fiber paper, 9.514.5 cm. Courtesy Daniel Blau, Munich
E
add several more images of concentration camps in panels 1620. No collectivizing images of calculated shock, in some senses Atlas re-
ven before World War II ended, artists were dealing with its re- The trials and cleansings in France presented a clear idea of what awaited images of the camps have appeared since. sponds to the very state of incommensurability into which photographs
percussions. Many were exploring the possibilities of the war as all occupied countries as the war ended. As images and accounts of Atlas is collated in numbered panels, organized mostly chronolog- of Nazi atrocities were plunged after the war. As Benjamin H. D. Buchloh
subject matter. With the stench of death everywhere, painting the war became increasingly common after the Soviet armys libera- ically (there are sometimes jumps in sequence) and according to idio- has observed, the first appearance of the concentration camps in the
too carried the acrid fumes of decay and the stains of decom- tion of Auschwitz on January 27, 1945, and the release of grisly scenes syncratic categories. Each panel contains multiple images derived from work ruptures the overall banality of found photographs that preced-
position. Picassos Charnel House (194445; fig. 10), for example, its grisaille of Bergen-Belsen by the British Army Film and Photographic Unit, 42 a variety of sourcesnewspapers, magazines, photo albums, books, ed that photograph in panel 11: The puncturing suddenly positions
tonality suggesting black-and-white documentary images of the war and it was no longer possible to deny the imperative of images to speak to snapshots. This arbitrary combination of pictorial genres sometimes the Atlas project within the dialectics of amnesia and memory.49 But it
of the death camps, represented a coda to the artists Guernica, of 1937. what had initially been rendered obscure or invisible. 43 A growing debate defies any sense of standard or systematic organization, yet the sudden also represents the challenge to artists to confront and demystify what
It depicts the rigid and contorted forms of a slain family, their bound and in the immediate postwar years centered around the representation appearance of the photograph in panel 11 seems calculated rather than was, in the early postwar period, the then evolving idea of the unrep-
stiff bodies crammed beneath a simple wooden table in their own home. of the death camps and specifically on the notion of the Holocaust as afterthought. It leads one to question whether Richters delay in intro- resentability of the Holocaust, one corresponding to Adornos remark
Francis Bacon painted his breakthrough triptych Three Studies for unrepresentable. Theodor Adornos controversial statement from ducing pictures of the camps, as well as prewar images in which Jews are about Auschwitz and poetry. In its relationship to the history of post-
Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion (1944; fig. 11) in London, a city devastated 1949 that to write poetry after Auschwitz is barbaric opened up publicly shamed and humiliated, was a result of the traumatic violence war Germany, Atlas represents an ongoing act of commentary on the
by German bombing raids. The work provided the pictorial model for debates around whether eschewing such representations made the contained within the fragile, yellowing paper of these newspaper cut- anomalous status of the archive and on the traumatic relationship to
a subsequent series of paintings on the theme of crucifixion, including Holocaust even more susceptible to opacity, almost to the point of outs and photographs. As some of his early work shows, his reticence in contemporary German history provoked by images of the camps. As
Fragment of a Crucifixion (1950; plate 2). Against an orange-ocher back- being an anomaly. 44 It was still impossible, however, to interpret the using war-related images to produce paintings was not categorical. 48 Buchloh notes,
ground, figures with elongated necks and distended bodies show snag- afterlives of the images as mere evidence of the states anaesthetized
gletoothed mouths bellowing out of their heads. The forms are pallid and bureaucratic orderas the pictorial assembly of the banality of
gray, as if dusted with ash; posed on a studio table and a sculptors mod- evil, to borrow an incisive phrase of Arendts. 45 The death camps had
eling plinth, they suggest monsters emanating from the abyss of torture been reported on only sketchily during the war; now images of them
and the agonies of death. Several years earlier in Paris, Jean Fautrier had appeared, conveying their horrendous scope and stupefying scale.
explored the anatomy of executed prisoners: paintings such as Sarah Artists had to confront their anomalous status. 46
(1943) and La Juive (The Jewess, 1943; plate 1) suggest the bodies of violated In Germany, it was difficult for such images to find their way into
women and, through their titles, expose the entanglement of identity art for at least a decade. When they did, it was in the form of allegory.
and race. 40 In the series Otages (Hostages, 194345), meanwhile, Fautrier Joseph Beuys, who during the war had been conscripted into the Luft-
used seriality to communicate a sense of the multiplicity of the Nazis waffe as a pilot, was one of the very few artists to draw directly from
victims. With their built-up surfaces of plaster troweled onto canvas and his wartime experiences in the shaping of his artistic persona. His
coated with slick smears of oil, the paintings have a relief effect that fuses sculptural installation Auschwitz Demonstration (195664), composed of
the abstract with the anthropomorphic. Made in the bleak years of the symbolic objects in a series of wood-and-glass vitrines, was the rare
German Occupation, they come close to an art of witnessing, depicting exception capable of invoking Auschwitz by name; an earlier tableau,
bodies frozen in their own congealed fat, severed, tree-stump-like limbs, Hirschdenkmler (Monuments to the Stag, 1958/85; plates 5, 6), could
and splayed, grisly heads marked with the punctures and lesions left by only suggest it. While the dissonance of the war and its anesthetized
blunt instruments. memory remained issues for the postwar generation of German art-
With such images of the tortured and killed in circulation, and news ists, explicit references to the camps, as well as the use of wartime ex-
from the concentration camps emerging in the press, the tense air was periences and imagery as subject matter, were not entirely absent. In
laden with grief-filled resonance. After the liberation of France on August the three-part environment Das schwarze Zimmer (The Black Room)
19, 1944, elation was mixed with revanchist passion, as if the veil of war Wolf Vostell brought together parts of three individual assemblages
had simultaneously dissolved and reappeared. The mood was both tri- Deutscher Ausblick (German View, 195859; plate 7), Auschwitz Scheinwerfer
umphant and anxious, laced with bitterness and vengefulness. Liberat- (Auschwitz Floodlight, 195859) and Treblinka (195859; fig. 12)into
ed France called for a thorough cleansing and demanded accounting from one overarching system to deal with the atrocities of the war. 47
those who had betrayed the country. As Sarah Wilson writes, The epuration, Representations of the war and its devastation first appeared in
however, was far more bloody. It was a period of denunciation, revenge Gerhard Richters work as part of the vast archival resource Atlas (1962),
killings, the settling of scores, and jealousies, and above all of public an open-ended databank of images placed in reserve, a pictorial cauldron
trials with hastily assembled judicial apparatus.41 liable to singe all who touch it. The camps did not appear in Atlas until
1963: panel 11 contains a single such image, nestled among generic and
unrelated nature and wildlife scenes (fig. 9). The image is unmistakably
gruesome: it shows a cluster of blackened, emaciated, and rotting corps-
es scattered across a narrow lane between two low buildings. A flock of
Fig. 9. Gerhard Richter. Newspaper & Album Photos (Atlas Sheet 11). 1963. 14 b/w clippings, 2 b/w Photographs,
vultures perch in a row on the roof of the building to the left, like sentries 51.7 cm66.7 cm. Stdtische Galerie im Lenbachhaus und Kunstbau Mnchen, Munich
M
genocide, which seems to call for an explicitly representational language
eanwhile, artists in Central and Eastern Europe found the rather than a symbolic one.52 Among the examples he envisions as able to
concentration camps and the Holocaust far from unrepre- overcome the seeming limitations of a symbolic, abstract language are
sentable: they drew openly from imagery of the destructions Frank Stella and Morris LouisStella in his breakthrough black geo
and killings perpetrated by German soldiers. Explicit refer- metric paintings Die Fahne Hoch and Arbeit Macht Frei (1958 ; plate 13),
ences to these programmatic massacres appeared in the paintings of the which explore the vision of the Nazi regime through the meaning of the
young Andrzej Wrblewski, who, at barely twenty years old, painted some paintings titles; Louis in using the gestural vocabulary of Abstract Ex-
of the most startling narratives of the destruction of the Jews of Poland. pressionism as a form of coded writing in Untitled (Jewish Star) and the
The figure of the Gestapo executioner appears repeatedly in such works as series Charred Journal: Firewritten (both 1951; plates 14, 15).
Executed Man, Execution with a Gestapo Man (1949 ; plate 10). Beyond this
sinister figure of terror, so indelibly sketched by Paul Celan in the searing
poem Todes Fugue (Death Fugue, 1945),51 Wrblewski also refers to the
Warsaw ghetto in the double-sided painting Liquidation of the Ghetto/
Blue Chauffeur (1949; plate 9). Another Polish artist, Alina Szapocznikow, OTHER ARCHIVES
explored the Holocaust in sculptures such as HandMonument to the
Heroes of the Warsaw Ghetto II (1957; plate 8). In relation to Adornos phrase Like many traumatic relics of the war, the archive, far from being an
about poetry and Auschwitz, it is interesting that Wrblewskis paintings aide-memoire, addresses the implicit question, what is an image in re-
are contemporary with Celans poem, and with Boris Taslitzskys depiction lation to the event it references or depicts? The destruction caused by
Fig. 10. Pablo Picasso. Le charnier (The Charnel House). 194445. Oil and charcoal on canvas, 199.8250.1 cm. New York, Museum of Modern Art (MoMA).
Mrs. Sam A. Lewisohn Bequest (by exchange) and Mrs. Marya Bernard Fund in memory of her husband Dr. Bernard Bernard and anonymous funds. Acc. n.: 93.1971
Fig. 11. Francis Bacon. Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion. c. 1944. Oil paint on 3 boards, 9473.7 cm (each).
TATE Collection, London. Presented by Eric Hall 1953
A
were counteracted by a growing interest in atomic power as a source of
cheap, safe, clean energy. The dialectic of a dystopian and a utopian view s the preoccupation with the human form in states of pri-
of nuclear science was an important one in postwar public thought. vation, degradation, desolation, and worry took hold in
Artists throughout the world were not merely attuned to these Europe, African, Asian, and African American artists lifted
nuclear debates, they weighed in on the various attributes of the technol- the body from its beleaguered and anguished state onto the
ogyits ethical dimension, the fate to which it exposed civilization and historical stage as a figure of social agency. It was almost as if prior rep-
humanity.55 With the military doctrine of Mutual Assured Destruction resentations of existence through a collective leitmotif of suffering had
(mad) between the United States and the Soviet Union, the Cold War been cast into doubt. Yes, suffering remained, and mattered; it seemed
exacerbated existential doubts regarding the survival of humankind. a mistake, though, to read the human predicament purely through the
Artists such as Maruki Iri and Maruki Toshi in Hiroshima Panels (195082; lens of the abjection of the white body. Certainly, when the topography
fig. 14, plates 26, 27), Isamu Noguchi in Bell Tower for Hiroshima (1950; of postwar art is scanned, an absence emerges, namely that of the col-
plate 17) and Atomic Man (1952; plate 22), Karel Appel in Hiroshima Child onized body whose trauma had constantly been erased to the point of
(1958; plate 25), and Yves Klein in Hiroshima (1961) employed different rep- expungement from the historical record. As Homi Bhabha notes, It is as
resentational strategies to engage with the effects of the bomb on Japanese if the question of desire that emerged from the traumatic tradition of the
civilians. In these works, Hiroshima, much like Auschwitz, becomes an oppressed has to be denied to make way for an existentialist humanism Fig. 12. Wolf Vostell. Treblinka from the environment Das schwarze Zimmer (The Black Room). 195859.
emblem of annihilation. For artists such as Salvador Dal, in Atomic Idyll that is as banal as it is beatific.57 D-Collage: motorcycle part, wood, film, and transistor radio, 18014131 cm. Berlinische Galerie, Berlin
and Melancholic Uranium/Melancholic Atomic (1945); Lszl Moholy-Nagy, Because of this absence of the colonized body, a philosophical com-
in Nuclear I CH (1945; fig. 15) and Nuclear II (1946); Weaver Hawkins, in bat was shaping up on the poverty of the Western discourse on humanism.
abbreviated terms, to be global and expansive, so as to tell a different kind www.kz-gedenkstaette-dachau.de/index-e.html (accessed June 2016).
3 See Winfried Nerdinger, ed., Munich and National Socialism, trans. Jefferson Chase
of story of postwar art since 1945. In many ways the exhibition is revisionist (Munich: C. H. Beck, 2015), p. 9.
in the best possible sense: it aims to create a multivalent network of rela- 4 V-E Day, the official end of the war, is commemorated on May 8 in Europe and on May 9 in
the Soviet Union. Germanys capitulation had been announced two days earlier, on May 6, in
tionships and differences, affiliations and cultural solidarities, singularities
Rheims, where General Dwight D. Eisenhower had accepted the German surrender. Cele-
and multiplicities. Most significantly, it seeks to bring into dialogue the brations were postponed until May 8, however, when the Allied and Soviet commands signed
work of artists from North and South, East and West, regional and metro- the document of surrender together in Berlin. See Ian Buruma, Year Zero: A History of 1945
(New York: The Penguin Press, 2011), pp. 1518.
politan, national and transnational, cosmopolitan and diasporic. In doing
5 See Sadao Asada, The Shock of the Atomic Bomb and Japans Decision to Surrender:
so it reshapes unsustainable art-historical boundary-making, which for A Reconsideration, in The Pacific Historical Review 67, no. 4 (November 1998): 477512.
too long has sequestered artists (including Europeans) in ethnocentric 6 Like trophy hunters, American army officers added their signatures to the Goldenes Buch
next to the names of august earlier visitors to the building. On the main and title page of the
corrals and has divided the art world into consolidated enclaves, while
book, Sgt. Richard S. Radelet signed his name between the printed name and the signature
consigning many significant artists from outside Western Europe and of Adolf Hitler; Sgt. Eugene Johnson signed on the top page, above where Benito Mussolini
North America to the margins of critical inquiry. and the Aga Khan had signed on September 25 and October 22, 1937; and 1st Lt. Robert
E. Bishoff left his name below the signature of Edward, Duke of Windsor, who had visited on
Postwar is a story that can only make sense on a broad canvas. It is
October 23, 1937. The guest book lies in the Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich.
neither a chronological narrative nor an episodic account of art move- 7 On the complexity of the new geopolitical arrangements that followed the end of the war
ments; instead, the privileged mode of narration of this complex and see Tony Judt, Postwar: A History of Europe since 1945 (London: Penguin Books, 2005).
8 Hitler, Speech Inaugurating the Great Exhibition of German Art, Munich, in Herschel B.
complicated topoi is heterotemporal80 and heterochronical. 81 In other Chipp, ed., Theories of Modern Art (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968), p. 476.
words, there is neither a singular temporality nor one sole chronicle. 9 Ibid.
One way to approach this task might be to provincialize82 (to borrow 10 Ibid., p. 475.
11 Entartete Kunst opened on July 19, 1937, one day after the inauguration of the new
Dipesh Chakrabartys illuminating term) the postwar art-history indus- Haus der Deutschen Kunst. See Entartete Kunst Ausstellungsfhrer, exh. cat. (Berlin: Verlag
tryArt since 1945in order to project what Terry Smith has called fr Kultur- und Wirtschaftswerbung, 1937).
the world-picture of modern and contemporary art. 83 This clearly calls 12 On Entartete Kunst and its impact on artists and the avant-garde see Stephanie Barron,
Degenerate Art: The Fate of the Avant-Garde in Nazi Germany, exh. cat. (Los Angeles: Los
for a recasting of art historyan examination on a global scale, bearing Angeles County Museum of Art, 1991).
in mind the work of artists across the world, in every continent, and of 13 After 1936, besides being one of Hitlers favorite painters, Adolf Ziegler also served as
president of the Reichskulturkammer (Chamber of visual arts), a position that gave him the
every shade. 84 It is our hope that Postwar not only reconceives the very
responsibility of coordinating the seizure of artworks deemed degenerate from museums
syntax of artistic modernity but enlivens the multiplicity of the accounts throughout Germany. It was Ziegler who was responsible for the hasty organization of the
that have come to shape it. Entartete Kunst exhibition, beginning in Munich and then touring the countrys cities.
14 Hitler, Speech Inaugurating the Great Exhibition of German Art, Munich, p. 479.
15 The various testimonies presented in the course of the denazification of the Haus der
Deutschen Kunst include a submission made by three Frenchmen who had been sent to work
there during the war as forced labor. The letter, signed by a Mr. Armand, a Mr. Mesler, and a Mr.
Petior Grolet, stated that during their time at the museum, Mr. H. Grf, Mr. A. Kugler, Mr. Otto, Mr.
K., and Mr. Koppauer had treated them correctly. The letter clearly implicates the museum in the
use of forced labor. See M. Armand, M. Mesler, and M. Petior Grolet, denazification certification
letter for Heinrich Grf, May 1, 1945. Spk A K539 Grf, Heinrich, Staatsarchiv Mnchen, Munich.
16 The earliest published document using the changed name is the title page of the book
Ausstellung Bayerischer Gemlde des 15. und 16 Jahrhunderts (Munich: Monuments, Fine
Arts and Archives, Office of the Military Government for Bavaria, 1946), the catalogue for an
exhibition that opened on January 17, 1946.
17 The building seems to have remained identified as the Haus der Deutschen Kunst at
least until late in 1945. A letter in the Haus der Kunst archives written on November 2, 1945,
identifies the Officers Club as located in the Haus der Deutschen Kunst through both the
printed letterhead and writing in the letter itself. It is signed by the civilian personnel chief of
the Officers Mess and carries an identification stamp noting the same location.
18 See the exhibition catalogue Ausstellung Bayerischer Gemlde des 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts.
The exhibition was the first, other than the Grosse Deutsche Kunstausstellung, to be staged in
P
Mohamed Khadda, 1964 1 exhibitions for postwar artists from Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, and
the Middle East).11 The question of how such accounts might sit within,
ostwar is more than Aftermath and Triumph, inform, or refigure a larger account of modern art, and of art history
the most obvious traces of World War II in the more broadly, remains far from resolved. Scholars studying the for-
view from Europe or the United States. The merly colonized nations have produced penetrating critiques of the
destruction, ruin, and then reconstruction of center/periphery account of modernism, with its implication of de-
Europe, alongside or in conflict with the rising layed or imitative versions in the non-West, and have developed sub-
tide of American affluence and influence, is sequent debates about alter or hybrid modernities. 12 But no previous
only one part of the story, the part that focuses on exhibition has attempted a global account of postwar art, staged from
the shifting fortunes of the West. The destroyed a perspective of interrelation.
cities to be reconstructed and modernized included Hiroshima, A worldwide perspective is often seen as properly relevant only after
Nagasaki, and Tokyo, as well as the Arab citiesCairo, Beirut, 1989, when the end of state Communism created the conditions for a
Damascusbombarded by colonial violence before and after the global art world. This change has been categorized as a shift from the
war. 2 Yet the tragedies of European cities are often cast as singular in modern to the contemporary.13 And in fact, contemporary art from
art-historical accounts, particularly those written for exhibitions that the non-West seems an easier fit for the market than the work made
tell and retell the story of Europe and/or the United States, with in- earlier by modern artists in new nations, where stylistic choices were
creasing detail or polemic.3 In these accounts, even this storys other, more obviously restricted by ideology (emphasized in many accounts
more proximate sidethe tale of Communist Russia and Eastern Eu- of Chinese art) or seemed imitative to Western critics (as in many ac-
rope, the Wests competitors in the Cold Warwas long in eclipse. 4 counts of Middle Eastern art). Global art histories therefore rush to
In recent decades, however, historians tout court have aggres- the post-1989 years, perhaps after a brief prelude, in order to leap over a
sively questioned and reconfigured received accounts of the postwar momentthe modernwhen much art is dismissed as being of
ART, WORLD, HISTORY period.5 First came the revelations from Eastern European archives
opened after 1989, with the fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of
questionable quality; as being marked by inadequate difference from
other art sharing a seemingly belated style; or, conversely, as produc-
Katy Siegel the Communist bloc, affording a much more detailed vision of Russia, ing too much friction with globalism, thanks to a nationalist political
Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and the other Iron Curtain nations. orientation that now appears old-fashioned.
A second wave of historical reconsideration looked at the so-called A few scholars have sought to rewrite the history of world art as
Third World; many political, social, and economic histories over the a whole, producing radically reconceived survey texts or theoretical
past two decades have discussed anticolonial struggles and new na- reconsiderations of historical models, epitomized respectively by the
tionhood. 6 Still more recent accounts have traced the transnational work of David Summers and Hans Belting. 14 The global survey begins
ties of the pan-Arab and -African movements and the affiliations of the at a moment well before modernism and attempts to locate univer-
nonaligned nations. Many historians tackle the broader historical co- sal features of art from different cultures and periods, allowing an
nundrum of the relation of these new accounts to the older ones that art history that doesnt jump, as in the earlier survey model, from an-
focused on the two superpowers and their Cold War, asking whether cient Egypt to ancient Greece, as though art in Egypt simply stopped
China, for example, or Asia broadly conceived, has a history incom- at a certain year. However well-intentioned, the approach can seem an
mensurate with that paradigm.7 Others have countered the East-West art-historical analogue of the neoliberal end of history, while its at-
narrative altogether, reorienting to North-South and arguing that the tempt at global comprehension through the quest for universalsoften
American and Western European perception of the threat posed by found in formal similaritiesoccludes appreciation of the material spe-
masses of poor people of color was equal to that of the threat posed cificities, politics, and conflicts in and among different artistic cultures.
by Communism. 8 Debates have arisen around the subject matter of In other words, it occludes history itselfthe relations and con-
history as well, around whether to emphasize the paper trail of foreign flicts among nations and cultures that shaped the postwar world,
policy or the more nebulous category of culture. 9 And some, particu- with actors interacting intensely and in many directions on a global
larly postcolonial theorists, have questioned the very idea of world scale, well before 1989. (In fact, accepting 1989 as the crucial date
history as a linear development in which the worlds cultures belong presumes the centrality of the Cold War, a centrality that historians
to a single master narrative. 10 have recently sought to question.) It was in the postwar period that
Art historians have not been absent from these disciplinary relations among artistic practices across the world became active
shifts. Scholars and curators have done muchthough certainly not and necessary, though not by any means equal. 15 After 1945, the world
allof the primary research required to write accounts of the artistic was united, not in the recurrent hope of a rational universalism in the
In our reality, we did not pass through an upwardly mobile time, or the
best time, of modernity. Take, for example, capitalist production. We are
already mired in late-stage ills of monopoly [without having gone through
its earlier stages]. At the same time, feudal institutions and sentiments
remain, permeating every aspect of our life. I suspect that these different
historical stages are layered. When we try to transcend this, we cannot pro-
actively change our reality, unless we shed a Westernized monolithic vie-
wpoint and accept these contradictions as autonomous subjects in order
Fig. 2. Wols (Alfred Otto Wolfgang Schulze). Apatride. 1944.
to devise a method or plan for change based on the concrete reality.18 Photography. Private Collection
Kawara was speaking specifically about Japan, but his insistence that primitive or even barbaric, might in fact be developing something of
histories coexist, as historical strata, so to speak, has broad implications. value. 19 Even within the United States, the art of Willem de Kooning,
Even though he uses the language of developmentstages, modern Lee Krasner, Jackson Pollock, Mark Tobey, and others that was later
Fig. 1. Mohammed Khadda. Alphabet libre (Free Alphabet). 1964. Oil on canvas,
ityhe undercuts its reality. As we begin to see the modern, including its labeled Abstract Expressionism was only one mode among others;
10081 cm. Muse national des beaux-arts dAlger, Algiers dominant iterations in the United States and Europe, as both local and there were also realisms of all stripes, such as the identifiably Amer-
a matter of mutual exchange, the obdurate centrality of this category to ican subjects of Edward Hopper and Andrew Wyeth and the popular
our thinking about the art of the period may begin to dissolve. leftist images of Ben Shahn (the last, famously, paired with de Kooning
The starting point for most histories and exhibitions of the postwar in the American Pavilion of the Venice Biennale of 1954), which, how-
period has historically been just that tale of Aftermath and Triumph ever, have come to be granted far less historical importance. 20
Fig. 3. Wifredo Lam. La Runion (The Reunion). 1945. Oil on paper, remount, white chalk,
152212 cm. Paris, Centre Pompidou - Muse national d'art moderne
- Centre de cration industrielle
Hartung, for example, or the politically blameless artist Wols (featured of the labor and health made possible under Communism. This insti-
in Documenta I and II and in the 1958 Venice Biennale), a German resident tutional history, of diplomatic papers and museum correspondence,
in France who was interned in a French camp during the war and died has conditioned art-historical accounts. 25 But in the day-to-day lives
six years after its end (fig. 2).21 It was in this context that the exhibition of artists, the practices were rarely as fixed as the names for them were
The New American Painting, which circulated through Basel, Milan, in the discourse. 26
Madrid, Berlin, Amsterdam, Brussels, Paris, and London in 195859, ac- Although critics could be didactic about the historical necessity
companied by a Pollock retrospective, announced the newly uppercase, and definition of abstraction, many artists were not interested in it as Fig. 4. Taro Okamoto. My Reality. 1950. Digital scan from silver gelatin print.
newly official label. Reviews were mixed, but regardless of their verdict an explicit program or supposed telos of painting. Abstraction as an Taro Okamoto Museum of Art, Kawasaki
critics often saw a battle between former national alliesa moment, as absolute dictateas it was for Ad Reinhardtwas rare, and to some
Lawrence Alloway characterized the 1960 Venice Biennale, when [Jean] seemed ridiculous enough that Elaine de Kooning parodied it in her
Fautrier slapped Franz Kline or Kline socked Fautrier.22 American politi- spoof article Pure Paints a Picture.27 Her husband, Willem de Kooning,
cal and artistic ascendance would become much more truly joined in the along with Wols, Tobey, Ernst Wilhelm Nay, Mark Rothko, and many
1960s, with Pop art, whose content seemed to anticipate this reception.23 others who were referred to as abstract painters rejected the term, lin-
By this time the territorial battles between New York and Paris king it to the rationalism that in their eyes led to fascism.28 Nor did they
had long taken their place in the context of the Cold War. From this optic prefer its opposite, which artists like Norman Lewis and Francis Bacon
M
any rejected the opposition of abstraction and realism,
condemning the terrible choices between East and West,
academic convention and soulless modernism, local and
modern, particular and universal, and often the very
categories of the distinction. Their art represented less a moderate
compromise than a refusal of the alternatives, a third way. For Ernest
Mancoba, the distinction was symptomatic of all of the problems of
modernity: Our history has brought about, little by little, this dichot-
omy between abstraction and figuration which provokes, more and
more, a terrible atomization in the very essence of life. In no domain
more than in the arts has this systematic dichotomy caused such de-
struction of the very foundation to the human identity.44
Mancobas complaint was echoed by many others through the idea
of a missing center, with humanity as something pushed aside or ex-
plicitly denied by the two modernist extremes of ideology. Among the
many events inspired by this question were the 1950 Darmstadt con-
ference featuring Baumeister, Sedlmayr, and Adorno (Das Menschenbild
in unserer Zeit, The Image of Man in our Time), the Tokyo roundtable
at which Kawara spoke in 1955, art-critical debates in London and Paris,
the publication of essays in such cultural journals as Prsence Africaine
and Al-Adab (Syria), an exhibition at New Yorks Museum of Modern
Art (New Images of Man), and the formation of an artists group in
Buenos Aires (Otra Figuracin). Some of this discourse was based on
a humanism flowing from the influence of Jean-Paul Sartres existen-
tialist writing on art, which saw the individual pitted against faceless
Fig. 6. Lee Seung-taek. Hanging Oji. 1960s.
Courtesy Gallery Hyundai, Seoul social forces. 45 But what could sometimes seem like a generic human- Fig. 7. Gazbia Sirry. Hopscotch. 1959. Oil on canvas, 100150 cm.
Courtesy Zamalek Art Gallery, Cairo
ism was often a claim to something more legitimate, because more
Some artists of course did choose sides, whether owing to social specific, as in discussions that asserted a specifically Syrian humanism
pressure or to personal conviction, and hewed strictly to either pro- embodied in a cultural tradition stretching back to ancient Sumeria. 46
grammatic abstraction or figuration. Others believed that highlighting Much of this writing critiqued the West as the agent of World War II and
the dichotomy would drive the conflict to a climax of contradiction. of colonialism, as in Fanons indictment of this Europe, which nev-
In a manifesto of 1949, Taro Okamoto explicitly sought to keep form er stopped talking of man, which never stopped proclaiming its sole
L
Buddhist murals in the caves of Dunhuang.51 In the early 1960s, Lee There is no other way for him to feel, to study, to imagine, to be af-
Seung-taek used stones and earthenware fermentation vessels to fected than by seeing/finding himself permanently merged with life ooking globally at postwar art thus helps us to go beyond ad-
make sculpture, returning it to a time before the Japanese occupa- and engaged in the task of grasping the movement/vitality [before ding names and works to canonical lists (although that is cer-
tion of Korea, not to mention the Korean War (fig. 6).52 In the Zaria him].58 Gazbia Sirry wrote of her political and fantastic paintings, I tainly important) to rethinking the category of art itself and
Art Society in Nigeria at the end of the 1950s, Uche Okeke and Demas have had my own myths since my childhood. I feel I am fused into var- reconsidering the criteria for understanding and evaluating it.
Nwoko studied traditional practices such as Nok sculptures and Igbo ious elements of nature and life such as human beings, the desert, the Modernist art theory, its vision centered on the West, made abstrac-
drawing. For these artists, of course, primitivism is not the relevant sea, plants, and even manmade constructions. I strive to express the tion the goal toward which the history of art seemed to move. Atten-
category; the sources they sought were not outside history but explic- essence of humanity (fig. 7).59 By treating human subjects as objects ding to the multiplicity of postwar art asks us to put aside the idea of a
itly inside their national history, even if the handmade aspect or spirit- among other objects, such work cast humans as belonging to the nat- will to abstraction in favor of a more complex understanding of artists
uality of the works seemed to provide alternatives to faulty aspects of ural world, rather than as knowing subjects observing and controlling practices, one that no longer separates their relation to their materials,
the modern.53 At the same time, paradoxically, the nationalist aspect from outside it. emphasized by theory under the name of form, from their relation to
of this workthe attempt to create a new Nigerian traditionaligned Sirrys statement and work speak of an empathy with the mate- physical, social, and political realities. A blanket category like repre-
it with modernity, once again overturning a dichotomy. rial world, one that both dialed down her own subjecthood and rec- sentation, for instance, fixes an image and obscures the interactive
The image of non-Western art as shaped by fixed and timeless tra- ognized the value and perspective of things we normally think of as aspects of the artists relation to the physical world, whether scientific,
ditions beyond historical change was a false one; as many artists, such objects. As the artist Sadamasa Motonaga said, There is limitless natural, or animistic.
as NDiaye, pointed out, they and their peers largely hailed from cities, emotion in nature. [It is] in every object, every person, every creature, Again and again, the artists included in Postwar insist on the in-
not from traditional agrarian settings. On the other hand, many cast even in a blade of grass, but most people have difficulty seeing it.60 separability of supposedly purely formal qualities of their work from
the Western traditionsupposedly the progressive term of the con- Everywhere, artists and writersWols in France, Theodoros Stamos the subject matters with which they are concerned. It was possi-
trast, having broken with the past and hurtled forwardas ironically in the United States, Lopold Sdar Senghor in Senegalpointed to ble to experiment with painting, and abstraction, without isolating
itself suffering from rigor mortis. Both Mancoba and Newman decried their connection to things like rocks or pebbles, mute, opaque, and the means as a value above all others. While waiting for a critique in
Fig. 8. Theodoros Stamos. Sounds in the Rock. 1946. Oil on composition the rigidity of rules put forth by the ancient Greeks: the canon of pro- ordinary (fig. 8). This active empathy could reflect an antimodernist a Washington, D.C., newspaperanticipating Western judgments
board, 122.272.1 cm. New York, Museum of Modern Art (MoMA).
Gift of Edward W. Root. Acc. n.: 27.1947 portion, which rendered African art ugly, and the overrefined ideals return to nature, but did not by any means exclusively; as Sirry said, of quality and fetishization of formEnwonwu remarked that his
of beauty and geometry.54 (Both also, like many other artists including the connection could apply to manmade things as well. When Robert painting technique may be disappointing to very good painters but
positions (itself a dichotomy grounded in a Western perspective) but Okamoto, complained about the Western philosophical tradition, with Rauschenberg told an interviewer, I dont like to take advantage of an technique in painting is not the criterion for knowing what is good,
the recognition of a new human, as both Fanon and Kawara put it. 48 its tyranny of conceptual structures over experience.) Their complaints object that cant defend itself, he was speaking of the man-made and bad or indifferent in art.64 The alternative was not to hew to either
Artists grasping to visualize this figure, including Baselitz, Mancoba, resonated with Fanons broad condemnation of Western civilization as often industrially produced objects in his Combinesa car door, a representational content or the informe but to undo the dominance and
Fateh Al-Moudarres, Karel Appel, Magda Cordell, Antonio Berni, Ben inert, even dead: All the Mediterranean valuesthe triumph of the stuffed goat, a photograph, a commercial label. 61 isolation of formalism, to revalue the political, the spiritual, the per-
Enwonwu, Alfonso Ossorio, Francis Newton Souza, and Jack Whitten, individual, of enlightenment and Beautyturn into pale, lifeless, trin- This attitude of radical respect for things, a nonhierarchical at- sonal, the traditional, the popular, and the everyday, as dynamically
aggressively pushed abstraction and representation into each other, kets.55 All tradition, in fact, had the potential to be dead weight. Fanon titude that could lend subjecthood to objects, verged on animism. manifested in material form.
interrupting human images with lumps of oil paint, metal objects, was ruthless, condemning Western traditional aesthetics and modern Most common in materialist painting and sculpture, it appeared, Anticolonial writings, particularly by African and Caribbean
charcoal, sand, detritus, and gestural marks. Though often seen as nonrepresentational modes alike as models for the colonized artist, surprisingly, in self-consciously transgressive art: David Medalla authors, theorized this relation between art and world in varying
more battered and belated than avatars of the new, these figures argu- and also decrying the postindependence turn of African nations to a went so far as to call himself a hylozoista believer in the unity of registers. For Senghor, the dynamism was both aesthetic/epistemo-
ably embodied the historical present as the result of war, anticolonial point by point representation of national reality which is flat, untrou- life and matterand the soapy forms of his Cloud Canyons visibly logical and social, demanding a way of knowing that would acknowl-
struggles, and fusions between humans and technology. bled, motionless, reminiscent of death rather than life.56 grow, bubbling over their frames and out into space. 62 Hans Haackes edge the division between subject and object and work to overcome
Fig. 8. Lygia Pape. Book of Creation Walking (detail), 1959. Gouache on cardboard, 18 parts,
30300.2 cm (each).
held the potential for the object to become a subject again, to be un- If Csaires 1945 essay on Lam bemoaned the distance that money
frozen. Taking this sense of agency and mobility still further, Fanon, an and machines had put between people, by 1965 a lack of distance was
adamant advocate of national liberation, did not equate national iden- equally disturbing. Even the defenses once afforded by the Pacific
tity with nationalism, seeing it not as an end in itselfa formal, fixed and Atlantic oceans were disappearing. As Sukarno said, opening the
thingbut as liberating the living consciousness of a people. 68 Despite Bandung Conference in 1955,
their differences, these thinkers all spoke against the split of subject
and object and its attendant immobility. If claims for intuitive and [Man] has learned to consume distance. He has learned to project
embodied knowing have been criticized as clichd, even as themselves his voice and his picture across oceans and continents. He has
the product of colonial binaries (and founded on opposition to West- learned how to release the immense forces locked in the smallest
ern rationalism), today, when the West seems moribund rather than particles of matter. And do not think that the oceans and the seas
rational, they appear prescient, desirable, radical. 69 will protect us. The food that we eat, the water that we drink, yes,
Senghors endorsement of empathy was just one strategy for the even the very air that we breathe can be contaminated by poisons
subjects engagement with its other; further possibilities included originating from thousands of miles away.71
confrontation, related to the preservation of incommensurability
and conflict so strongly advocated by Fanon (and Adorno), and also
tion of a functional infrastructure were also ideologically unacceptable The self-description as victims that both Riefenstahl and Breker would
in the context of denazification. Lack of transparency made the proce- claim for the rest of their lives included adjustments to their personal
dures seem despotic, and public criticism of them emerged early on. relationships with Hitler. Breker maintained that Hitler and I were not
Even the liberal center-left Sddeutsche Zeitung, in its issue of April 24, friends. Nor was I his favorite sculptor, as is always claimed. [Josef]
1946, amended its basic approval of the process because activists, who Thorak ranked foremost. 10 Meanwhile Riefenstahl went so far as to
had actually incurred guilt, were being neglected at the expense of the say, I regret 100 percent having made Hitlers acquaintance. That he
managed by Klaus Graf von Baudissin, appointed as the museums After the war, the controversies over the direction art might take
director by the Nat ional Socialists in 1934, after the resignation of Ernst were increasingly eclipsed by the political confrontation between the Under the influence of the United States, the development of
Gosebruch. The Museumsverein (museum society), which oversaw power blocs. The international coalition against the Nazi regime had European art of the postwar period was distinguished by a radicali-
the museums operations along with the city of Essen, had resolutely already begun to disintegrate before the end of World War II. The doc- zed conception of the artwork. American artists in turn took their cue
Fig. 4. Leni Riefenstahl looks on in horror as Wehrmacht soldiers massacre the Jewish resisted this decision, leading to Baudissins suspension in 1938 by Mayor trine proclaimed by Harry S. Truman on March 12, 1947, and the failure from a victors mentality that strove for complete dissociation from the
population of Konskie, Poland, in the presence of Sonderfilmtrupp Riefenstahl
(Special Film Troop Riefenstahl), September 12, 1939 Just Dillgardt. Heinz Khn took his place and, during the war and of the foreign ministers conference of December of that year in London, European tradition of art history. At the same time, Central Europe-
postwar years, succeeded in controlling the museums fate in such a way where the break between the two United States and the Soviet Union an art strove to pick up the thread of modernism where it had broken
over 20,000 artworks by about 1,400 artists were confiscated as part as to prevent even greater damage from being done. His career can be became clearly evident, significantly aggravated the tension. The foun- during the Nazi era.
of a drive to purge museums of works classified as degenerate. As the considered exemplary of the continuity in personnel that determined ding of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) on May 23, 1949, and of In 1958, an exhibition entitled The New American Painting had a
director of Entartete Kunst, the Degenerate Art exhibition held in cultural life in the newly founded Federal Republic. 13 the German Democratic Republic (GDR) on October 7 of the same year, four-week run at the Hochschule der Bildenden Knste (the present-day
Fig. 7. Adolf Hitler (center) with, to his right, Gerdy Troost, Adolf Ziegler, and Joseph Goebbels
at the opening of the Haus der deutschen Kunst, Munich, May 5, 1937
I found those pictures so overwhelming, so totally unexpected, so The sheer brazenness of it! That really fascinated me and impressed Fig. 8. Installation view of Adolf Ziegler's painting Die vier Elemente (The Four Elements,
1937) at the exhibition Histories in Conflict: Haus der Kunst and the Ideological Uses of
different from the experience of my own world at the time that I felt me. I might almost say that those paintings were the real reason why Art, 1937-1955, Haus der Kunst, Munich, 2012
totally desperate, because I thought Id never stand a chance of doing I left the GDR. I realized that there was something wrong with my
well compared to those painters.16 whole way of thinking.18 Max Pechstein, and Herbert Volwahsen, but also the art critic Will a number of the degenerate works from the museum; after the war, his
Grohmann, made up the jury and were moreover responsible for the endowment returned them to the collection.20
In Berlin, the shows propagandistic function was manifest in the Hardly had Germany been liberated, hardly had the hostilities exhibition concept, which provided for the presentation of 594 works
choice of an art school as the venue for its presentation. It participated ceased at the beginning of May 1945 and the country proclaimed its by 250 artists. The project stood out not only in its magnitude but A course was set in cultural politics when Josef Haubrich decided to
in the confrontation between two social systems, based on contrary unconditional surrender on the 8th of that month, than cultural life was more important stillbecause it was a genuinely pan-German exhibi- donate his collection to the city of Cologne in 1946, after his house
ideologies, that were contending with one another over which could lay revived in all of the countrys major cities. Museums and art associations tion, intended to give contemporary artists an international orienta- was confiscated by the British. Haubrichs collection became a
claim to being the legitimate countermodel for overcoming the fascist resumed their activities, orchestras performed concerts in what auditori- tion and affiliation. At the same time, it was the only opportunity to symbol of resistance, but also of the so-called Wiedergutmachung
past on German soil. The contest was fought in all areas of society: the ums were intact. The decade 194555 was a period of the recovery and cita- unite two cultural spheres that were already beginning to drift apart: [reparation]. It was to symbolize the credible will to democracy.21
economy, science, culture. Baselitz, who had been born in the Germa- tion of modernism. It began with the reconstruction of the infrastructure all subsequent Allgemeine Kunstausstellungen took place after the foun-
ny of the Nazi regime and had grown up in the socialist workers and and the reeducation of the population, a task in which cultural institutions ding of the FRG and the GDR. In Munich, the former Haus der Deutschen Kunst had been closed
peasants state (the GDR), was so put off by this ideological confronta- and programs played a key role. A very few examples will have to suffice One of the most remarkable gestures of these years was the en- for only a short phase of the denazification trials. The building resumed
tion between the German past and his own postwar present that he was here to illustrate the tremendous will that motivated these efforts. dowment made by the lawyer Josef Haubrich, who gave his outstanding its activities in January 1946, now under the name Haus der Kunst,
in postwar Germany. For Lepman, a journalist, Haus der Kunst was 6 See Paul Hoser, Entnazifizierung, Reaktionen in der Gesellschaft, available online at
www.historisches-lexikon-bayerns.de/Lexikon/Entnazifizierung#Reaktionen_in_der_
an ideal venue for her projectnot despite its past but precisely because Gesellschaft (accessed July 22, 2016).
of it. In the memoirs she wrote nearly twenty years later, she recalled 7 See, e.g., Steven Bach, Leni: The Life and Work of Leni Riefenstahl (New York: Knopf, 2007);
Jrgen Trimborn, Riefenstahl: Eine deutsche Karriere (Berlin: Aufbau, 2002); and Andr Mller,
her thoughts and feelings: I began critically inspecting the exhibition
Interview mit Arno Breker, 1979, in Mller, Entblungen (Munich: Goldmann, 1979).
rooms and strode through the halls as if they already belonged to us. 8 Leni Riefenstahl, quoted in Spiegel Online, September 9, 2003: http://www.spiegel.
In my thoughts I swept away the boxes and crates; the international chil- de/kultur/kino/zitate-von-leni-riefenstahl-ich-bedaure-zu-100-prozent-hitler-kennenge-
lernt-zu-haben-a-264954.html (accessed July 21, 2016).
drens books would move into this heathen temple and their good spirits
9 Arno Breker, in Mller, Interview mit Arno Breker, 1979. Available online at http://andre-
would chase away the evil ones.22 muller.com-puter.com (accessed July 20, 2016).
The program of Haus der Kunst in the first postwar decade 10 Ibid.
11 Riefenstahl, quoted in Spiegel Online, September 9, 2003.
was largely devoted to rehabilitating modernism in Germany. In
12 Adolf Ziegler, quoted in Klaus-Peter Schuster, Nationalsozialismus und Entartete Kunst.
September 1949, the exhibition Der Blaue Reiter. Mnchen und die Kunst Fig. 10. Visitors admire Pablo Picassos painting Guernica
Die Kunststadt Mnchen 1937, 1988 (5th rev. ed. Munich: Prestel, 1998), p. 217.
(1937) at the exhibition Picasso 19001955, Haus der
des 20. Jahrhunderts (The Blaue Reiter: Munich and the Art of the Twen- Kunst, Munich, 1955 13 Hans-Jrgen Lechtreck, Ein stetiges, der Stadt Essen wrdiges Ausstellungsleben
Das Museum Folkwang 19451955, in Julia Friedrich and Andreas Prinzing, eds., So fing
tieth Century), organized by Ludwig Grote, formed the prelude to a
man einfach an, ohne viele Worte. Ausstellungswesen und Sammlungspolitik in den ersten
series of presentations on artists who had been banned from the mu- avant-gardist thought, the exhibition was broadcast to the public from Jahren nach dem zweiten Weltkrieg (Berlin: Akademie, 2013), p. 64.
seums and condemned as degenerate under the Nazi regime. In a a vantage point removed from political retrospect. Even so, it brought 14 Alfred Dahlmann, Moderne Kunst als Hoffnung, Sddeutsche Zeitung (Munich) no. 1
(October 6, 1945): 4.
speech at the opening, the responsible undersecretary of the Bayeri- one of arts most famous and most gripping testimonies to the barba- 15 When the Tate Gallery in London showed interest in the exhibition The New American
schen Staatsministerium fr Unterricht und Kultus (Bavarian State rity of warGuernica (1937), which was shown alongside many other Painting in 1958 (it was on view in Paris at the time) but couldnt bear the transport costs,
Ministry of Education and Culture), Dieter Sattler, remarked that opera magnainto the former sanctuary of National Socialist aesthetic the American millionaire and art lover Julius Fleischmann stepped up and brought the de
Koonings and Pollocks to London. The money came from the Farfield Foundation, of which
Haus der Kunst had thus been denazified.23 That show was follo- ideology. There was also a work referring to the continuing topicality Fleischmann was president. The foundation was nothing other than a secret channel for CIA
wed by Maler am Bauhaus (Painters at the Bauhaus) and by monogra- of war, which had by no means disappeared from the face of the earth: funds. Fleischmann was also a member of the board of directors of the International Pro-
Massacre in Korea of 1951 (plate 117). gram of the Museum of Modern Art in New York. See Armin Wertz, Kunst als Propaganda
im Kalten Krieg, Journal 21, July 25, 2014, available online at https://www.journal21.ch/
In December 1937, Picasso had expressed himself unambiguously kunst-als-propaganda-im-kalten-krieg (accessed July 22, 2016).
on the stance he associated with Guernica: It is my wish at this time to 16 Georg Baselitz, quoted in Farah Nayeri, Georg Baselitz: Raw Views of a Painful Past,
1 See Sabine Brantl, Haus der Kunst, MnchenEin Ort und seine Geschichte im National- New York Times, February 26, 2014, available online at www.nytimes.com/2014/02/27/
remind you that I have always believed, and still believe, that artists who
sozialismus (Munich: Allitera Verlag, 2007), p. 86. arts/international/Georg-Baselitz-Raw-Views-of-a-Painful-Pastnt-to-the-end.html?_r=0
live and work with spiritual values cannot and should not remain indiffe- 2 Since Haus der Kunst was the only major undamaged building in central Munich, in the (accessed August 9, 2014).
rent to a conflict in which the highest values of humanity are at stake.24 early postwar years it was used to house American officers and their social events. The pre- 17 Baselitz, A Conversation with Donald Kuspit at the Guggenheim Museum, in David
sence of the Officers Club turned the building into an entertainment hotspot, but its exotic Craven and Brian Winkenweder, eds., Dialectical Conversions: Donald Kuspits Art Criticism
In his discerning positive review of Haus der Kunst exhibition for Die Zeit,
addressPrinzregentenstrasse 1was difficult for the Americans to pronounce, so they (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2011), p. 74.
Carl Georg Heise pointed to the works political perspective by empha called the club the Pee One. The birth of an institution! From then on, jazz concerts and 18 Gerhard Richter, in Interview with Benjamin H. D. Buchloh, in Richter, Gerhard Richter,
sizing the liberty with which Picasso had guided art from its rich past dances were the order of the day. As the rooms used for cultural purposes developed into a Writings, 19612007 (New York: D.A.P., 2009), p. 163.
global contemporary-art center, one section of the building was reserved for gastronomical 19 See Kunst in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 19451985, exh. cat. (Berlin: Nationalga-
into the present and beyond, and came to the conclusion that society was
and entertainment highlights. When the Greek Alecco took over the restaurant, in 1968, he lerie, Staatliche Museen Preussischer Kulturbesitz, 1985), p. 454.
obligated not only to acquaint itself with Picassos art, but to accept it impressed his guests with a motto that still characterizes the P1 Club today: To be in is a pas- 20 See Friedrich and Dorothee Grafahrend-Gomert, Josef Haubrich. Ein Sammler und seine
as a decisive contribution to the shaping of our image of the worldand, sing phenomenon; to be the best is an art. See http://p1-club.de (accessed August 5, 2016) Sammlung, in Friedrich, ed., Meisterwerke der Moderne. Die Sammlung Haubrich im Museum
3 According to the Munich city records for 1946: March 5, 1946: in a meeting chaired by Ludwig (Cologne: Walther Knig, 2011), pp. 1341.
what is more, to the recognition of the self.25 In view of the webs of global,
Minister President Dr. Wilhelm Hgner, the minister presidents of the three Lnder of the Ame- 21 Grafahrend-Gohmert, Die Sammlung Haubrich und der Wiedeaufbau des Wall-
political, and cultural relationships that have their origins in the decades rican zone signed the Law on Liberation from National Socialism and Militarism in the council raf-Richartz-Museums ab 1945, in Friedrich and Prinzing, eds., So fing man einfach an, ohne
Fig. 9. Editorial staff of the Sddeutsche Zeitung in their
war-damaged office, 1946 after World War II, Heises postulate is as relevant today as ever. chamber of the Munich city hall. On behalf of General [Joseph] McNarney, General [Lucius] viele Worte, p. 92 (see note 13).
Clay pronounces the consent of the American military government. On May 13, with the con- 22 Jella Lepman, quoted in Brantl, Haus der Kunst, Mnchen, p. 115.
sent of the American military government, the first civilian tribunals for the enforcement of the 23 Ibid.
phic exhibitions on Frank Lloyd Wright and Ernst Ludwig Kirchner in Translated from German by Judith Rosenthal cleansing law began their work. Quoted in muenchen.de https://www.muenchen.de/rathaus/ 24 Pablo Picasso, Message to Artists Congress, sent by telephone to the American Artists
1952, Adolf Hlzel and Oskar Schlemmer in 1953, and Vasily Kandinsky, Stadtverwaltung/Direktorium/Stadtarchiv/Chronik/1946.html (accessed July 18, 2016). Congress, New York, December 1937, in Dore Ashton, ed., Picasso on Art: A Selection of
4 At the Yalta Conference of February 4 to 11, 1945 the Allied Powers decided to separate Views (New York: Da Capo, 1972), p. 145.
Paul Klee, and Edvard Munch in 1954. The series culminated with a Germany into four occupation zones adminstered by the United States, the Soviet Union, 25 Carl Georg Heise, Picasso und kein Ende, in Die Zeit, December 1, 1955, available online
Pablo Picasso retrospective in 1955 (fig. 10), the founding year of the Great Britain, and France until the founding of the Federal Republic of Germany in the west at http://www.zeit.de/1955/48/picasso-und-kein-ende (accessed August 5, 2016).
POSTWAR: THE MELANCHOLY of influence. The following year came the Allied response in the form of
the Atlantic Charter and the detailed planning that eventually led to the
Fig. 3. Floris Jespers. The United States Saved Belgium from Starvation during the War and When
Peace Came They Helped to Rebuild the Country and Its Scientific Institutions. 1939.
Tapestry, 502.9563.9 cm.
Postwar, conceived and written in the aftermath of Europes reunifica- who we really are. It is all too easy even for historians to forget that the
tion, articulated a new concern, and help us understand the reasons for postwar was also the last phase of the scramble for Africa, and that
it too.5 This time round postwar was primarily not a policy matter but the imperial land grab that began in the Maghreb in the mid-nineteenth
an academic onethe concern of historians, and of historians of Europe century ended in the desperate jockeying over the fate of the Italian
in particular, and beyond that, of all those seeking to understand the colonies in north and east Africa, the same territoriesLibya, Eritrea,
1 Carl Becker, How New Will the Better World Be? (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1944).
promise of the future of a newly unified continent by returning to the last Somaliawhose plight today reminds us how little was actually settled 2 H. G. Wells, The New World Order (London: Secker & Warburg, 1940, repr. ed. Minneapolis:
moment before its division. In this context postwar mean everything in that postwar moment. Filiquarian Publishing, 2007).
that the term Cold War had denied: the autonomy of Europe in Can art encourage us to reflect on the limits and bounds of our per- 3 Gilbert Murray, Retrospect and Prospect, From the League to the U.N. (London, New
York, and Toronto: Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University Press, 1946), pp. 191, 197.
relation to the superpowers, the possibilities for continental and spective? Can the notion of postwar be expanded to include those only 4 Bertrand Russell, The Bomb and Civilization, Glasgow Forward, August 18, 1945.
national revolutionary reconstruction, movement as opposed to stasis. peripherally drawn into World War II and those whose real wars lay 5 Tony Judt, Postwar: A History of Europe since 1945 (New York: Penguin Press, 2005).
LEGACIES OF BANDUNG: DECOLONIZATION Csaire, or C. L. R. James, for example, but it is not as central to how a
Mahatma Gandhi or a Rabindranath Tagore thought about colonial
ent countries from Asia and Africa met on April 1824, 1955, to exchange
views of the world at a time when the Cold War and a new United Na-
AND THE POLITICS OF CULTURE domination. If historically, then, anticolonialism has been on the wane
since the 1960s and displaced by postcolonial discourse in the closing
tions regime were already important factors in international relations.4
Dipesh Chakrabarty decades of the twentieth century, it has been further pointed out by []
more recent critics of postcolonialism that even the postcolonial mo-
ment is now behind us, its critical clamor having been drowned in turn
by the mighty tide of globalization.2
This seemingly easy periodization of the twentieth centuryanti- DATELINE: BANDUNG, APRIL 1955
colonialism giving way to postcolonialism giving way to globalization
is unsettled if we look closely at the discussions about decolonization In 1955, when Richard Wright, the noted African American writer then
that marked the 1950s and 60s of the last century. Ideas regarding decol- resident in Paris, decided to attend the Bandung Conference, many of
onization were dominated by two concerns. One was development. The his European friends thought that this would be an occasion simply for
other I will call dialogue. Many anticolonial thinkers thought of colo- criticizing the West. Even Gunnar Myrdal, in writing the foreword to the
nialism as something of a broken promise. European rule, it was said, book that Wright wrote as a result of his experience at Bandung, ended
promised modernization but did not deliver on it. As Csaire said in his up penning an indictment of what happened in Bandung: [Wrights]
Discourse on Colonialism: interest was focused on the two powerful urges far beyond Left and
Right which he found at work there: Religion and Race. Asia and Af-
It is the indigenous peoples of Africa and Asia who are demanding rica thus carry the irrationalism of both East and West.5 Both Myrdals
schools, and colonialist Europe which refuses them; it is the African and Wrights Parisian friends appear to have misjudged what decoloni-
who is asking for ports and roads, and colonialist Europe which is zation was all about. It was not a simple project of cultivating a sense of
niggardly on this score; it is the colonized man who wants to move disengagement with the West. There was no reverse racism at work in
forward, and the colonizer who holds things back. 3 Bandung. If anything, the aspiration for political and economic freedom
that the conference stood for entailed a long and troubled conversation
This was the developmentalist side of decolonization whereby anti- with an imagined Europe or the West. I was discovering, wrote Wright,
colonial thinkers came to accept different versions of modernization that this Asian elite was, in many ways, more Western than the West,
theory that in turn made the West into a model for everyone to follow. their Westernness consisting in their having been made to break with the
balization is no one homogeneous thing. It could indeed be both. nication nor was it a diversity that did not matter. For Senghor, one way SWJN, second series, 28: 9798.
11 Nehru, Speech inaugurating the new building of the Punjab High Court, Chandigarh,
Lopold Senghor, on the other handof whose love of French Ngugi that diversity could be harnessed in the cause of development was by March 19, 1955, SWJN, second series, 28: 30; William Edgett Smith, We Must Run While
was no fanpoints us in directions that remind us that the am- deliberately creating a plural and yet thriving tradition of humanities in They Walk: A Portrait of Africas Julius Nyerere (New York: Random House, 1971).
12 Wright, The Colour Curtain, p. 132. Emphasis added. Christopher Lee tells me of a fiction-
biguities and the richness of the moment of decolonization were the teaching institutions of the world.
alized film about Gamal Abdel Nasser, Nasser 56, in which Nasser, trying to gather support
never exhausted by the antinomies set up here by what we have ex- The vision was different from those of Wright or Ngugi. Neither and expertise for nationalizing the Suez, exhorts two engineers who question his judgment,
cerpted from Wright and Ngugi. Senghors thoughtseven in what global English (or French) nor a return to ones native language was saying You are engineers, not poets. Personal communication from Lee, May 20, 2005.
13 Wright, The Colour Curtain, p. 200.
he wrote on the (somewhat unpopular) topic of assimilation to the option Senghor outlined. The way forward was a world of multi-
14 Chinua Achebe, The African Writer and the English Language, 1964, quoted in Ngugi wa
French culture in 1945have much to say to us about what it might lingual individuals who would appreciate language both as means of Thiongo, Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature (London: James
mean to inflect our global conversation by a genuine appreciation of communication and as repositories of difference. A philologists uto- Curry, 1986), p. 7.
15 bid., pp. 78.
human diversity. Clearly, Senghor was not for nativist isolation. He pia, perhaps, but how far from the vision of anticolonial modernizers
16 Ibid., pp. xii, xiv.
wrote, for instance, mathematics and the exact sciences by defini- who, in their single-minded pursuit of science and technology in order 17 Lopold Sdar Senghor, Prose and Poetry, selected and trans. by John Reed and Clive
tion have no frontiers and appeal to a faculty of reason which is found to catch up with the West, ended up leaving to the West itself the task Wake (London: Oxford University Press, 1965), pp. 5355: 1945 essay on "assimilation"
excerpted from Vues sur LAfrique noire, ou Assimiler, non tre assimils.
in all peoples. This, he thought, was true for even history and geogra- of preserving the worlds humanities. The humanities have general-
18 Ibid., p. 59.
phy, which had attained a universal value. But what about languages ly suffered in the newly emergent nationsmy generation of Indians 19 In saying this I exclude the field of postcolonial studies, for that field, as I have already
like Greek, Latin and French? He wrote: I know the advantages of could testify to the cult of engineering and management that went said, had its origins in the West. Postcolonial writers from outside the West are absorbed in
that global field, which still tilts toward the West. Nor do I mean to denigrate or deny the value
these languages because I was brought up on them but the teach- hand-in-hand with discussions of developmentwhile it at least sur- of the work in modern, non-Western humanities that emanates from countries like India, for
ing of the classical languages is not an end in itself. It is a tool for dis- vived in some of the elite universities of the West in the form of area instance, for a wider audience. But voices from the world of non-Western scholarship in the
covering human truths in oneself and for expressing them under their studies. This is not an argument against area studies in the West. For humanities command much less global presence than voices from the social sciences in India
and elsewhere. The humanities one comes across in global forums today are much more
various aspects. And then followed Senghors argument for diversity it may very well be a sad fact today that it is only in the West that mod- parochially Western than the social sciences: that is my point. And that, I think, was the gap
in the humanities: ern, non-Western humanities are pursued with some seriousness.19 Senghor also was pointing to.
2 Tank and troops of the Allied 5th Army pass cheering civilians by the 8 Civilians and service personnel in Picadilly Circus celebrate the
Colosseum in Rome, June 3, 1944. news of Allied victory over Japan, London, 1945.
10 The crew of the Enola Gay before the dropping of the atomic bomb on
4 Japanese representatives including Foreign Minister Mamoru Shigem-
Hiroshima, Tinian, August 1945.
itsu and General Yoshijiro Umezu on board the USS Missouri during the
surrender ceremonies, Tokyo Bay, September 2, 1945.
3 Field Marshall Wilhelm Keitel signs the ratified 9 Starved prisoners after the liberation of the concentration
surrender terms for the German Army at Russian camp at Ebensee, May 7, 1945.
Headquarters in Berlin, May 7, 1945.
12 Polar cap of the Fat Man weapon is prepared for the bombing of
Nagasaki, Tinian, August 1945.
6 Atomic cloud over Hiroshima, taken from the Enola Gay while flying over
Matsuyama, Shikoku, August 6, 1945.
83
19 Prime Minister Clement Attlee celebrates a Labour Party election
victory over Winston Churchill, London, July 26, 1945.
13 Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin convene at the 14 American servicemen and women gather in front of Rainbow
Yalta Conference, Yalta, February 1945. 20 Sukarno declares the independence of Indonesia, Jakarta, August 17, 1945.
Corner Red Cross club to celebrate the unconditional surrender of
Japan, Paris, August 15, 1945.
85
26 Hundreds of thousands of Koreans flee south after the North
Korean army strikes across the border, 1950.
32 Ten people are crushed to death in the rush to receive the 40 grams of
gold allotted to each citizen after the value of paper money drastically sinks
in China, Shanghai, December 1948.
31 Posters for the London Peace Congress on display on the wall of the
Military School, Paris, 1950.
28 Founder of the state of Israel, David Ben-Gurion, reads the proclamation that
establishes the country as an independent nation, Tel Aviv, May 14, 1948.
34 The Free German Youth organizes a parade to mark the election of State President Wilhelm
Pieck and the founding of the German Democratic Republic, Berlin, October 1949.
87
42 Prime Minister Gamal Abdel Nasser is welcomed by
cheering crowds after the signing of the British withdrawal
order and one day after a failed attempt to assassinate him,
Alexandria, October 27, 1954.
38 Revelers party on the street during the carnival 39 Thousands of Vietnamese refugees move from
in Rio de Janeiro, February 1953. a French landing ship to the USS Montague as part
of the Operation Passage to Freedom that helped
citizens flee to the south of the country,
Haiphong, August 1954.
40 Delegates arrive for the Asian-African Conference in Indonesia, 46 Citizens storm the Soviet Cultural shop
Bandung, April 1955. and set fire to Communist propaganda
during the Hungarian Revolution, Budapest,
41 The RussellEinstein Manifesto issued by Bertrand October 1956. 47 Crowds gather at Drill Hall during the Treason Trial, Johannesburg,
Russell at Caxton Hall, London, July 9, 1955. December 1956.
89
54 Grace Kelly and Prince Rainier of Monaco descend the steps of Saint Nicholas
49 A replica of an atomic mushroom cloud is carried through Cathedral on their wedding day, Monaco, April 19, 1956.
48 Leaders convene at the Palazzo dei Conservatori to sign the Treaty of Rome,
Rome, March 1957. the streets in protest against the upcoming British nuclear
tests at Christmas Islands, Tokyo, May 1, 1957.
91
61 An aerial photograph shows the site of the first
French nuclear test, entitled Gerboise Bleue, in the
Tanezrouft area of the Sahara Desert, south-west of
Reggane, February 1960.
66 Residents of West Berlin look over toward the eastern part of the
city at Bernauer Street as construction work begins on the Berlin
Wall, West-Berlin, August 13, 1961.
93
77 President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the 1964 Civil Rights Act as
Martin Luther King, Jr. and others look on,
Washington, DC, July 2, 1964.
76 Demonstrators at Tiananmen Square protest Americas military
intervention in Vietnam, Beijing, February 1965.
72 Martin Luther King, Jr. waves to supporters during the March on Washington,
the occasion on which he delivered his famous I Have a Dream speech,
Washington, DC, August 28, 1963.
71 Protesters from the group Women Strike for Peace hold placards
urging for caution in the midst of the Cuban Missile Crisis,
New York, October 1962.
73 Citizens react to the assassination of John F. Kennedy, New York, 79 A group of Beatlemaniacs wave and scream across from the Plaza Hotel
November 22, 1963. where the Beatles are staying, New York, August 28, 1964.
75 On the day after French National Police attack a demonstration of 81 U.S. helicopters pour machine gun fire into the tree line to cover the
around 30,000 pro-FLN Algerians in Paris, a graffiti inscription on the advance of South Vietnamese troops in an attack on a Viet Cong camp
left bank of the Seine reads 'We drown Algerians here', near the Cambodian border, Ty Ninh, March 1965.
74 Students at the Al Aqida High School, Baghdad, 1961. Paris, October 18, 1961.
95
CHRONOLOGY
1945
the United Kingdom, France, and the Soviet March 31 March 23April 2 sulting in the amalgamation of the Malayan December 16
Union The Greek Civil War breaks out between The Asian Relations Conference in New Union, Penang, and Malacca The Universal Declaration of Human Rights
OF SOCIAL June 21
the Greek government army and the Com-
munist Democratic Army of Greece
Delhi lays the groundwork for cooperation
among Third World nations and the forma- February 4
is ratified by the United Nations General
Assembly
AND POLITICAL January 27
The Auschwitz/Birkenau concentration
200,000 public servants participate in the
Nigerian General Strike, the largest anti- March 31
tion of the Non-Aligned Movement Ceylon is granted its independence from
Great Britain
EVENTS camps are liberated by the Soviet Red Army colonial workers strike in Africa The Chinese Civil War breaks out between June 5
1949
the Kuomintang-led government of the Re- The European Recovery Program (also known February 21
February 4February 11 June 26 public of China and the Communist Party of as the Marshall Plan) is launched by the Unit- The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia
Following the Tehran Conference in 1943, The United Nations Charter is signed in San China, headed by Mao Zedong ed States, contributing $13 billion to the eco- stages a coup dtat, assuming control of
1944
US president Roosevelt, British prime min- Francisco by fifty member states nomic reconstruction of Western Europe the government and marking the start of
ister Churchill, and Soviet premier Stalin April 17 four decades of Communist rule January 8
meet again at the Yalta Conference to dis- July 16 The last French troops stationed in Syria June 17August 15 The Council for Mutual Economic Assis-
cuss Europes postwar reorganization The United States successfully detonates 2 Defendants, including Hermann Goering, during the Vichy regime leave, handing The end of the British Raj leads to the parti- April 1 tance (Comecon) is founded in Moscow as
Rudolf Hess, Joachim von Ribbentrop,
June 4 the first nuclear bomb near Alamogordo, control of the country to the republican gov- tion of the British Indian Empire into the new The publication of the AlpherBetheGa- a response to the Organisation for Europe-
and Wilhelm Keitel, sit in the dock at the
Rome is liberated from Fascist rule by Allied March 22 New Mexico
Nuremberg Trials, Nuremberg, c. 1945-46.
ernment of Shukri al-Quwatli nations of Pakistan and India. The resulting mow paper (or paper) in the journal an Economic Co-operation (OEEC)
forces. Mussolini flees The Arab League is founded in Cairo mass migration of Hindus and Muslims results Physical Review leads to the development
July 17August 2 June 2 in up to 400,000 deaths of the Big Bang theory January 26
June 6 April 4April 29 The Potsdam Conference on the eventual October 20 After a second constitutional referendum, The Nationality and Citizenship Act 1948,
D-Day landings by Allied forces on the The Ohrdruf, Buchenwald, Bergen-Belsen, denazification of Germany takes place A Mongolian independence referendum takes Italy votes to abolish the House of Savoy July 11 May 14 which grants citizenship to all Australians
beaches of Normandy Sachsenhausen, and Dachau concentration place, with officials reporting 100 percent of and become a republic The ship Exodus 1947 leaves the port of The State of Israel is officially declared on (including Aboriginal people), comes into
camps are liberated by Allied forces July 26 the electorate voting for independence Ste in France carrying 4,515 Jewish pas- the day that the British Mandate of Palestine effect.
June 15 In British elections Labour leader Clement June 30 expires. 700,000 Palestinian Arabs flee or
US Army Air Forces begin bombing the April 12 Attlee defeats Winston Churchill, resulting October 24 US Presidential Executive Order 9102, are expelled from the Israeli territories February 24
Imperial Iron and Steel Works at Yawata, in US president Roosevelt dies. He is suc- in the implementation of socialist reforms Syria gains independence after the joint which ordered the forced relocation and The Israel-Egypt Armistice Agreement is
northern Japan, the first direct attack on the ceeded by Vice president Harry S. Truman throughout the United Kingdom UN/French Mandate ends internment of Japanese Americans during May 26 signed on the island of Rhodes, signaling
Japanese home islands World War II, officially expires D. F. Malan is elected prime minister as the the beginning of the end of the 1948 Arab
April 28 August 6 November 1November 16 Afrikaner National Party wins South Afri- Israeli War
July 1July 22 Benito Mussolini and his mistress Claretta The nuclear bomb Little Boy is dropped UNESCO is founded July 1 cas general elections, ushering in Apart-
The Bretton Woods Conference takes Petacci are executed by Italian partisans on Hiroshima by the US B-29 bomber Enola The United States begins the controversial heid as official state policy April 4
place in New Hampshire, paving the way and hung upside down in the Piazzale Lo- Gay. Three days later, the plutonium bomb November 20 testing of atomic bombs on Bikini Atoll The signing of the North Atlantic Treaty in
for the creation of the World Bank and the reto in Milan Fat Man is dropped on Nagasaki by the The Nuremberg trials against former lead- June 22 Washington, D.C., paves the way for the for-
International Monetary Fund Boeing B-29 Superfortress Bockscar ers of the Nazi regime begin July 4 The ship MV Empire Windrush arrives in mation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organi-
April 30 The Philippines attain independence from England with 492 Jamaican immigrants on zation (NATO) on August 24, 1949
July 3 Adolf Hitler and Eva Braun commit suicide August 15 November 29 the United States board, signaling the beginning of the migra-
Japanese forces are defeated at the battles in the Fhrerbunker in Berlin Japanese Emperor Hirohito announces the The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 3 Citizens queue to vote on Mongolian tion of almost 172,000 workers from the April 20April 23
of Imphal and Kohima. unconditional surrender of the Japanese is founded, with Marshall Tito as president July 4 independence, Mongolia, Caribbean and Asia to the United Kingdom The first International Peace Conference
April 30 military in a radio broadcast to the Japa- An outbreak of violence against a gather- October 20, 1945. is held in Paris, with Picasso designing its
August 1 Munich, once called the Capital of the [Nazi] nese people December 27 ing of Jewish refugees in the Polish city of June 24 dove emblem
The Warsaw Uprising, orchestrated by the Movement, is liberated by the US Army Following the Bretton Woods conference, Kielce results in a pogrom that leaves for- The Berlin Blockade commences after
Polish Home Army, is crushed by Nazi forces August 17 twenty-eight nations meet in New York ty-two Jews dead sengers on their way to Palestine. After the Soviet Union blocks rail, road, and ca-
May 7 Indonesian nationalists Sukarno and Mo- and agree to establish the World Bank and being intercepted in Haifa, the passengers nal access to the Allied sectors of the city,
August 21October 7 The first German Instrument of Surrender hammad Hatta declare the independence International Monetary Fund July 29 are returned to Europe, being forcefully re- marking the first concrete confrontation of
The Washington Conversations on Inter- is signed in Reims in the presence of rep- of Indonesia, igniting a revolution against The Paris Peace Conference results in nu- moved by British forces in Hamburg the Cold War. Western Allies respond by de-
national Peace and Security Organization resentatives of the Free French Forces and the Dutch Empire merous peace treaties between the former livering goods via an airlift, which lasts for
(also known as the Dumbarton Oaks Con- the US Army Allied and Axis powers September 2 almost a year
1946
ference) takes place in Washington, D.C., September 2 The Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal
paving the way for the establishment of the May 8 The Japanese foreign minister Mamoru August 16 Assistance (also known as the Rio Pact) is June 28
United Nations VE Day. The German Supreme Command of Shigemitsu signs the Japanese Instrument The Direct Action Day (also known as the signed in Rio de Janeiro. The treatys prin- Yugoslavia is expelled from the Communist
the Armed Forces, the Allied Expeditionary of Surrender on board the USS Missouri in Great Calcutta Killings) takes place amid ciple claim is that an attack against one sig- Information Bureau, leading the country to
August 25 Force, and the Supreme High Command Tokyo Bay January 4 widespread rioting and killing between Hin- natory is to be considered an attack against develop its own method of socialism
Paris is liberated from Nazi rule by the Free The Anglo-American Committee of In- dus and Muslims in Calcutta, resulting in all signatories
French Forces. Charles de Gaulle is declared September 6September 8 quiry meets in Washington, D.C., to dis- between 200 and 300 deaths July 29August 14
chairman of the Provisional Government of The Soviet Red Army occupies the north- cuss Jewish immigration and settlement October 22 The first Olympics since World War II take
the French Republic the following day ern part of Korea along the 38th parallel in Mandatory Palestine. Subsequent October 7 The Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 breaks out place in London. Germany and Japan are
to dismantle Japanese forces after their meetings eventually result in the UN Par- The new Constitution of Japan is ratified over India and Pakistans joint claim to the not allowed to participate 4 Visit of Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia
August 26 capitulation, while the southern part of the tition Plan. by the Japanese House of Representa- princely states of Kashmir and Jammu on board the USS Quincy at the Great
The National Council of Nigeria and the peninsula is occupied by the US Army tives, marking the countrys transition from August 15 Bitter Lake, Egypt, February 13, 1945.
Cameroons, an anticolonial political party, January 10 a monarchy to a democracy, based on the November 30 Korea is officially partitioned after the estab-
is formed by Nigerian nationalists Nnamdi September 9 Project Diana bounces radar waves off the British model of parliamentary government The Civil War in Mandatory Palestine lishment of the First Republic of South Korea
Azikiwe and Herbert Macaulay in Lagos Japanese forces surrender to the chairman moon and proves that communication is breaks out between Jewish and Arab com- followed by the declaration of the Democrat-
of the Nationalist Government of China, possible between Earth and outer space, December 19 munities, resulting in the Palestinian exodus ic Peoples Republic of Korea in the north on May 11
September 4 Chiang Kai-shek, in Nanking, officially end- thereby initiating the Space Age First Indochina War breaks out between the from Mandatory Palestine and the concur- September 9, 1948 Siam officially changes its French name to
Brussels is liberated by the Second Canadian ing World War II in the Pacific French Army and the Vit Minh, extending rent Jewish exodus from Muslim states Thalande (Thailand), in accordance with
Division and the Welsh Guards February 15 into the neighboring protectorates of Laos September 9 the change of its Thai name to Prated Thai
September 20October 20 The creation of Electronic Numerical Inte- and Cambodia The Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea (the Thai nation) in 1939
1 French civilians celebrate the Liberation
September 19 Tallinn, Riga, and Belgrade annexed by the grator And Computer, the first electronic is formally established in the northern half
of Paris, August 1944.
1948
The Moscow Armistice marks the end of the Soviet Red Army general-purpose computer, is officially an- of the Korean Peninsula, with Kim Il-sung May 23
Continuation War between Finland and the nounced as prime minister The Federal Republic of Germany is de-
1947
Soviet Union of the Soviet Red Army sign the second October 6 clared, with Bonn as its capital
Instrument of Surrender in Berlin, marking The first issue of the Sddeutsche Zeitung February 24 October 29
October 7 the end of World War II in Europe is published in Munich; it is the first news- Juan Pern wins the Argentinian presiden- January 4 A military coup in Peru sees General July 1
Concentration camp inmates forced to aid paper in southern Germany to receive a tial elections, initiating the age of Peronism The Union of Burma is founded after the Manuel Apolinario Odri declared president The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act No.
with the disposal of gas chamber victims May 8 license from the US military administration March 12 country breaks away from British rule 55 is passed in South Africa
revolt at Auschwitz 103 Algerian demonstrators are killed by March 22 President Truman urges the US Congress October 30
French police forces in the Stif and Guel- October 15October 21 The Treaty of London is signed by the gov- and the public to support the endangered January 30 The Nationalist Army of Chiang Kai-Shek is August 12
ma massacre The Fifth Pan-African Congress takes ernment of the United Kingdom and the peoples of communist Europe, thereby an- Mahatma Gandhi is assassinated by a Hindu defeated at Mukden in Manchuria The Fourth Geneva Convention, which de-
place in Manchester, resulting in a unani- Emir of Transjordan. Three days later, Trans- nouncing the United States claim of being fanatic in New Delhi fines humanitarian protections for civilians
June 5 mous demand for an independent Africa jordan becomes the Hashemite Kingdom of the leader of the Western world November 26 in a war zone, is agreed upon
Germany is divided into four occupation Transjordan February 1 Edwin Herbert Land invents instant pho-
zones, administered by the United States, The Federation of Malaya is proclaimed, re- tography
97
1953
October 1 September 8 December 22 December 19 Caribbean by various former colonies of the August 15
The Peoples Republic of China is declared The Southeast Asian Treaty Organization Cytogeneticist Joe Hin Tjio discovers the The five-year Treason Trial commences United Kingdom Cyprus attains independence after Cypriot
by Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square, Beijing (SEATO) is founded in Manila, comprising correct number of human chromosomes, in Johannesburg, South Africa, in which community leaders reach an agreement
Thailand, the Philippines, Great Britain, forty-six Nelson Mandela and 156 other defend- February 1 with representatives of Turkey, Greece, and
October 7 January 13 Australia, New Zealand, France, the United ants are accused of treason. The trial Egypt and Syria merge to form the United the United Kingdom
The German Democratic Republic (East Pravda, the state newspaper of the USSR, States, and Pakistan concludes in 1961 with the acquittal of all Arab Republic, which is intended as a first
Germany) is established, resulting in the publishes an article falsely accusing a num- the accused step to a larger united Arab state. Gamal Ab- September 26
1956
official partitioning of Germany ber of prestigious Jewish physicians of plot- November 14 del Nasser is nominated as the first president Ceylons prime minister S. W. R. D. Bandara-
ting to poison the country's senior political Egyptian president Muhammad Naguib is naike is assassinated in Colombo. He is
December 7 leaders, the so-called Doctors Plot deposed by Gamal Abdel Nasser April 4 succeeded the following year by his wife,
1957
The government of the Republic of China Several thousand people march for four Sirimavo Bandaranaike, who becomes the
under Chiang Kai-Shek finishes its evacu- 5 Juan Pern wins the Argentinian February 28 January 1 days from Trafalgar Square in London to the worlds first elected female head of state
ation to Taiwan, declaring Taipei its tempo- presidential elections, Buenos Aires, James Watson and Francis Crick publish The Republic of Sudan is declared after a Atomic Weapons Establishment in Alder-
1955
rary capital February 27, 1946. their theory of the double-helix model of DNA referendum calls for a split from Egyptian maston to demonstrate their opposition to October 30
and British control January 5 nuclear weapons Anti-colonial riots in Stanleyville (today
December 27 October 14 March 5 US president Eisenhower delivers his Spe- Kisangani) in the Belgian Congo, result in
The Republic of the United States of Indo- The Organization of Central American Joseph Stalin dies of a stroke at his Kuntsevo January 15 cial Message to the Congress on the Situa- May 25 the death of thirty protesters
nesia is declared, with Sukarno as president States is formed, a precursor to the creation residence near Moscow. He is succeeded February 24 Oil is first discovered at the Oloibiri Oilfield tion in the Middle East (also known as the The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament is
of the Central American Common Market by Nikita Khrushchev The Bagdad Pact, a pro-Western defense in Nigeria Eisenhower Doctrine), which states that a launched in London by Bertrand Russell. On October 31
alliance that aims to restrict the spread of Middle Eastern country can request Amer- this occasion Gerald Holtom designs the The Western Nigerian Government Broad-
December 20, 1951 May 29 Communism in the Middle East, is signed February 25 ican economic or military assistance if it is peace symbol casting Corporation transmits the first tele-
1950
The Breeder Reactor, which begins opera- Edmund Hilary and Tenzing Norgay are the between Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, and Khrushchev delivers his report On the Cult being threatened by armed aggression from vision broadcast in Africa
tion in Arco, Idaho, is the first to success first to reach the summit of Mount Everest the United Kingdom another state July 14
fully produce energy from nuclear fusion The Arab Federation of Iraq and Jordan,
July 27 April 18April 24 March 6 which was formed on February 14, 1958, is
1960
May 9 December 24 An armistice between North and South Ko- The Asian-African or Afro-Asian Confer- Gold Coast and British Togoland merge to abruptly disbanded by the July 14 Revolu-
French foreign minister Schuman presents The United Kingdom of Libya officially rea brings an end to the Korean War ence (also known as the Bandung Confer- form the State of Ghana after attaining in- tion in Iraq. The Republic of Iraq is formed
his proposal for the creation of a pan-Euro- comes into being, with King Idris I as chief ence) takes place in Indonesia. Organized dependence from the United Kingdom
pean organization, signaling the beginnings of state July 28 by representatives from Indonesia, Burma, August 30September 5
of the creation of the European Economic The Republic of Egypt is declared, with Gen- Pakistan, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and India, the March 25 West Indian residents of the London suburb January 1
Community eral Muhammad Naguib the first president conference is a forerunner to the creation of The Treaty of Rome results in the creation of Notting Hill are the victims of racially mo- Cameroon is the first of seventeen African
the Non-Aligned Movement of the European Common Market and the tivated violence during race riots nations to gain independence in 1960, the
1952
June 24July 16 August 12 founding of the European Economic Com- others being Nigeria, Senegal, Mali, Belgian
The 1950 FIFA World Cup takes place in In response to the United States successful May 14 munity September 28 Congo, French Congo, Ivory Coast, Upper
Brazil, the first to be contested after World detonation a year earlier, the Soviet Union The Warsaw Pact is formed between East- The constitution of the Fifth French Re- Volta (Burkina Faso), Somalia, Dahomey
War II announces the first successful detonation ern European states keen to restore the July 25 public, initiated by Charles de Gaulle, is ac (Benin), Mauritania, Madagascar, Niger,
7 Mourners at Birla House sit beside
April 9 of a hydrogen bomb balance of power between East and West the body of Mahatma Gandhi who was Tunisia becomes a republic, with Habib cepted in a referendum Chad, Togo, Gabon, and the Central Afri-
June 25 The Bolivian National Revolution results in assassinated the day before, Bourguiba its first president can Republic. The United Nations declares
The Korean War begins when the North the overthrowing of Hugo Ballivins gov- August 19 June 26 January 31, 1948. December 5December 13 1960 as the Year of Africa
Korean Army crosses the 38th parallel and ernment and the beginning of a period of A group of Iranian military leaders success- The Congress of the People in Kliptown, July 29 The First All-African Peoples Conference
attacks South Korea agrarian reform, universal suffrage, and the fully overthrows Prime Minister Mossadegh Soweto, adopts the Freedom Charter, the The International Atomic Energy Agency in Accra is attended by more than 300
nationalization of tin mines and replace him with General Fazlollah Za- of Personality and its Consequences to (IAEA) is established in Vienna delegates from twenty-eight African
July 15July 17 hedi, who is loyal to the Shah the 20th Party Congress of the Commu- states
The first Darmstadt Talks, dedicated to the June 27 nist Party of the Soviet Union, in which he August 31
theme of The Image of Man in Our Time, The Native Laws Amendment Act No. 54 is September 7 formally denounces the glorification of one Malaysia gains independence from the December 18
take place in West Germany passed in South Africa, ordering all black Ilya Ehrenburg publishes The Thaw. The person (Stalin) United Kingdom The United States launches SCORE, the
people over the age of sixteen to carry pass novels title would later be used to describe worlds first communications satellite, which
October 6 books, as well as prohibiting them from re- the period of relaxation of official cultural April 28 October 4 broadcasts a Christmas message from US
At the Battle of Chamdo, the Peoples Lib- maining in urban areas longer than seven- politics in the Soviet Union under the rule of Mao Zedong, Chairman of the Communist The Soviet Union launches Sputnik 1 into president Eisenhower via an onboard tape
eration Army troops enter Tibet, which ends ty-two hours without permission Nikita Khrushchev Party of China, launches his guiding prin- orbit, further integrating the Space Race recorder
with the signing of the 17 Point Agreement ciple: Let a hundred flowers bloom, let a into the Cold War
in Lhasa in May the following year July 23 November 9 hundred schools of thought contend, en- December 31
The Egyptian Revolution breaks out when The Laotian Civil War breaks out between couraging citizens to openly express their October 22 Rebel troops under the command of Ernesto 8 News of the overwhelming majority
November 28 an attempt to overthrow King Farouk esca- communists and royalists opinions of the Communist regime Franois Papa Doc Duvalier seizes con- Che Guevara force the resignation of the vote in favor of independence spreads
The Colombo Plan for Co-operative Eco- lates, resulting in the establishment of an trol of Haiti, declaring himself president Cuban dictator Batista. Fidel Castro is in- throughout Algeria, Algiers, July 5, 1962.
nomic Development in South and South- Egyptian republic 6 Shukri al-Quwatli, the first President of May 22 for life stalled as the new Cuban prime minister on
East Asia is launched with the aim of Syria after the country gained independence French minister of state Pierre Mends February 16, 1959
from France in 1946.
1954
strengthening the economic and social de- August 12 resigns due to his governments policy on
velopment of member states The Night of the Murdered Poets, the exe- Algeria February 3
1958
cution of thirteen imprisoned Soviet Jewish British prime minister Macmillan delivers
1959
poets, takes place in a Moscow jail manifesto of the African National Congress July 26 his Wind of Change speech to the South
March 13May 7 and the South African liberation struggle The Suez Crisis erupts after President African parliament, in which he announces
1951
October 20 The Battle of in Bin Phu signals the end against Apartheid Nasser of Egypt nationalizes the Suez that the British Government intends to grant
The Land and Freedom Army (also known of French colonial rule in Indochina Canal, which leads to an unsuccessful in- January 19581961 independence to its African colonies
as Mau Mau) begins an insurgency against September 16 vasion of the country by the armies of the The Great Leap Forward, an attempt to in- March 10
British rule in Kenya. Jomo Kenyatta is taken May 14 Argentinian generals overthrow President United Kingdom, France, and Israel stigate the rapid development of Chinas ag- An uprising in Tibet results in the Peoples Lib- March 21
April into custody The Hague Convention for the Protection Juan Pern, bringing an end to the age of ricultural and industrial sectors, entails the eration Army taking control of the entire coun- South African police kill sixty-seven demon-
Iranian prime minister Mossadegh national- of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Peronism September 25 mobilization of the countrys enormous la- try and the Dalai Lama permanently fleeing strators of the Pan-African Congress during
izes the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company November 1 Conflict is adopted The first transatlantic telephone cable be- bor forces and the abolition of private plots. the Sharpeville Massacre
The United States successfully detonates a November 1 gins operating. In the first twenty-four hours The results are dramatic: the endeavors July 24
April 11 hydrogen bomb, the worlds first thermonu- May 17 The Vietnam War officially begins when the of public service, there are 588 calls from lead to economic regression and contribute The Kitchen Debate between US vice- April 21
President Truman relieves General Douglas clear weapon, on Eniwetok Atoll in the Pacific In the Brown v. Board of Education case, the US Military Assistance Advisory Group rec- London to the United States and 119 from to the Great Famine, which claims between president Nixon and Soviet premier Braslia is inaugurated as the new federal
MacArthur of duties in Korea US Supreme Court rules that the segrega- ognizes the conflict in Vietnam as a civil war London to Canada 15 and 45 million lives Khrushchev takes place at the opening of capital of Brazil
November 4 tion of schools along racial lines is inher- the American National Exhibition in Moscow
April 18 In the US presidential elections the for- ently unequal and therefore illegal December 1 October 23 January 1 May 11
Foreign ministers of the Benelux States, mer Supreme Commander of the Allied The Montgomery bus boycott begins after The Hungarian Revolution breaks out when The Treaty of Rome comes into effect, with August 14 Fugitive Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann
France, Italy, and West Germany sign the Expeditionary Force in Europe, Dwight D. June 27 Rosa Parks is arrested for refusing to give a student protest in Budapest develops into the aim of bringing about economic integra- The US Explorer 6 satellite transmits the is abducted by Mossad agents in Buenos
treaty that founds the European Coal and Eisenhower, defeats Adlai Stevenson in a The worlds first nuclear power station up her seat to a white passenger a nationwide revolt against the government tion among its members first pictures of Earth from orbit. Almost two Aires and taken to Israel to stand trial. On
Steel Community (ECSC), a precursor to the landslide opens at Obninsk, near Moscow and its Soviet-imposed politics months later, on October 7, 1959, the Soviet December 15, 1961, he is sentenced to
European Union January 3 probe Luna 3 takes the first photographs of death by the Jerusalem District Court
The West Indies Federation is formed in the the dark side of the moon
99
August 19 May 1 October 20 June 26 celebrate of the end of slavery in these for- August 5
The satellite Sputnik 5 is launched, with the The Freedom Riders begin their interstate The Sino-Indian War breaks out over the US president Kennedy delivers his Ich bin mer and continuing British colonies The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 breaks out
dogs Belka and Strelka (Russian for Squirrel bus rides in the American South to protest Himalayan border dispute ein Berliner speech to an estimated audi- after escalating tensions between the two
and Little Arrow, respectively), forty mice, against the non-enforcement of US Su- ence of 450,000 in West Berlin September 25 countries over the disputed provinces of
two rats, and a variety of plants on board preme Court decisions ruling that segregat- The Mozambican War of Independence Jammu and Kashmir
ed public buses are unconstitutional August 27 commences between the guerrilla forces of
September 14 Thousands of Americans converge upon the Frente de Libertao de Moambique August 6
The Organization of the Petroleum Export- May 16 Washington, D.C., for the March on Wash- (Mozambique Liberation Front) and Portugal US president Johnson signs the Voting
ing Countries (OPEC) is formed in Baghdad A military coup in South Korea renders the ington for Jobs and Freedom. On August Rights Act into law, which prohibits racial
democratically elected government of Pres- 28, 1963, Martin Luther King Jr. delivers October 14 discrimination in voting
October 12 ident Yun powerless and brings about the his I Have A Dream speech in front of Soviet premier Khrushchev is forced into
Inejiro Asanuma, chairman of the Japan end of the countrys Second Republic the Lincoln Memorial, calling for an end to August 9
Socialist Party, is assassinated during a racism Singapore is expelled from the Federation
taped political debate in Tokyo by Otoya June 16, 1961 of Malaysia and becomes an independent
Yamaguchi wielding a wakizashi (samurai Soviet ballet dancer Rudolf Nureyev de- August 27 city-state
sword) fects to France while on tour in Paris with W. E. B. Du Bois dies in Accra, Ghana
the Kirov Ballet 10 National Guard soldiers escort Freedom October 18
October 30 Riders on their journey from Montgomery, November 22 The Communist Party of Indonesia, the larg-
The first successful kidney transplant is August 13 Alabama to Jackson, Mississippi, US president Kennedy is assassinated by est non-ruling communist party in the world,
performed by Dr. Michael Woodruff at the The German Democratic Republic begins Montgomery, May 1961. Lee Harvey Oswald in Dallas is officially banned on March 12, 1966
Edinburgh Royal Infirmary the construction of the Berlin Wall
December 12 November 6
December 9 September 1 The formation of the Republic of Kenya Cuba and the United States formally agree
A state visit by French president Charles de The Conference of Heads of State in Bel- October 11 marks the end of over seventy years of co- to start Freedom Flights, an airlift for Cu-
Gaulle to the city of An Tmouchent in Al- grade results in the formation of the Non- The Second Vatican Council is opened by lonial rule bans who want to go to the United States
geria results in rioting, resulting in the death Aligned Movement, which advocates a Pope John XXIII. The council results in in- 11 South Vietnamese government troops
of 127 people more prominent role for small and newly creased efforts by the Vatican toward dia- sleep in a U.S. Navy troop carrier on their way
back to the Ca Mau,
independent nations in the United Nations logue with other religions
August 1962.
November 1
The Hungry Generation movement is
launched in Calcutta. Comprising a range
October 16October 28
The Cuban Missile Crisis breaks out after
the Soviet Union stations nuclear missiles in
1964 voluntary retirement by the Central Com-
of avant-garde writers, many of the move- Cuba. The conflict is eventually resolved with January mittee of the Communist Party of the Soviet
ments leaders would lose their jobs or be both countries agreeing to remove missiles Mao Zedong publishes Mo Zhux Yul Union. He is succeeded by Leonid Brezhnev
imprisoned by the incumbent government from bases close to the others territory (Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung,
to also known as The Little Red Book) October 16
December 11 December 9 China successfully detonates its first nucle-
US involvement in the Vietnam War officially Tanganyika (part of modern-day Tanzania) February 25 ar bomb, becoming the worlds fifth nuclear
begins when 400 US Army Special Forces becomes a republic Cassius Clay (later Muhammad Ali) beats power
personnel arrive in Saigon to train South Sonny Liston in Miami Beach, Florida, and
Vietnamese soldiers is crowned the heavyweight champion of October 24
9 Members of the Delegation of the world Northern Rhodesia attains independence
Cameroon in the United Nations Assembly
1963
December 19 and becomes the Republic of Zambia
Hall, New York. An armed action by the Indian Armed Forces March 20
ends 451 years of Portuguese occupation Cosmic background radiation caused by
in Goa the Big Bang is discovered by astronomers
1961 1965
January 26 Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson
Iranian Shah Pahlavi introduces a series
of reforms known as the White Revolution, April 26
1962
which include major land reform, grant- Tanganyika and Zanzibar merge to form
January 17 ing suffrage to women, the creation of a Tanzania after the Arab dynasty in Zanzibar January 4
During his final State of the Union address, national literacy program, and the privat- is overthrown During his State of the Union address, US
US president Eisenhower warns of a mili- ization of nationalized manufacturing in- president Johnson proclaims his Great So-
tary-industrial complex in which the vested January 1 dustries May 27 ciety, a set of domestic programs that seek
interests of the defense industry could Western Samoa gains independence from Indian prime minister Nehru dies. He is suc- to eliminate poverty and racial injustice in
come to influence US public policy New Zealand April 7 ceeded by Lal Bahadur Shastri the United States
Yugoslavia is proclaimed a socialist repub-
January 17 January 24 lic, with Tito named President for Life May 28 January 24
The former prime minister of the Republic The Organisation de larme secrte (Or- The Palestinian National Council adopts Former British prime minister Winston
of Congo, Patrice Lumumba, is secretly ganisation of the Secret Army)a far-right April 20 the Palestinian National Covenant, which Churchill dies
executed. The announcement of his death nationalist group opposed to Algerian in- Members of the terrorist group Front de results in the founding of the Palestine Lib-
sparks off protests across Europe and Af- dependencebombs the French Foreign libration du Qubec bomb the citys Cana- eration Organization (PLO) February 12
rica Ministry in Paris dian Army Recruitment Centre A group of students from the University of
June 12 Sydney commence a Freedom Ride from
April 12 February 7 June 11 Nelson Mandela and seven other members Sydney to various segregated New South
The Vostok spacecraft, piloted by Yuro The US embargo against Cuba begins, Vietnamese monk Thch Qung c burns of the African National Congress are sen- Wales towns. Inspired by the US Freedom
Gargarian, completes a full orbit of Earth, prohibiting all US-related Cuban imports himself to death on the streets of Saigon tenced to life imprisonment for incitement Riders, the group protested, picketed, and
making the Soviet cosmonaut the first hu- and exports to protest the persecution of Buddhists by to rebellion at the Rivonia Trial advocated for civil rights for aboriginal Aus-
man to journey into outer space South Vietnams Ng nh Di.m adminis- tralians
March 18 tration. July 2
April 17April 19 France and Algeria sign the vian Accords The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is signed February 21
Counter-revolutionary forces, with support in vian-les-Bains, ending the Algerian War June 20 into law by US president Johnson. It out- Malcolm X is assassinated by two Nation of
from the US Central Intelligence Agency, and paving the way for Algerias independ- The Washington-Moscow Direct Communi- laws discrimination based on race, color, Islam members in New York
unsuccessfully invade the Bay of Pigs in ence on July 3, 1962 cations Link (also known in popular culture religion, sex, or national origin in facilities
Cuba July 1 as the red telephone), a Moscow-Wash- that serve the general public and at the March 18
Rwanda gains independence from Belgium ington hotline that was to facilitate quick workplaces Soviet cosmonaut Alexey Leonov becomes
April 27 diplomatic contact, is established as a di- the first person to walk in space
Sierra Leone gains independence from the July 23 rect result of the Cuban Missile Crisis August 1
United Kingdom The worlds first transatlantic television sig- Barbados, Bermuda, Guyana, Saint Vincent July 14
nal is transmitted between New York and and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, US spacecraft Mariner 4 takes the first
Brussels Turks and Caicos Islands, and Jamaica all close-up photographs of Mars
101
VISUAL ESSAY:
ARTS AND CULTURE
1 Josef Albers and students of his photography class in the cabbage patch near the
Studies Building of Black Mountain College, 1944.
3 Two school children view Sidney Noland's painting Ned Kelly at Stringy Bark
Creek at the South Melbourne Arts Festival, Melbourne, 1946. 8 Israeli sculptor Zeev Ben Zvi working on the Holocaust memorial at
Mishmar HaEmek, 1945.
5 Group photograph of the participants of the Hst exhibition of Dutch artists, Copenhagen,
1948. Back row f.l.t.r: Sixten Wiklund, Ernest Mancoba, Carl-Henning Pedersen, Erik Ortvad,
Ejler Bille, Knud Nielsen, Tage Mellerup, Aage Vogel-Jrgensen and Erik Thommesen. Mid- 10 Lucio Fontana visits the ruins of his studio which was
dle row: Karel Appel, Tony Appel, Christian Dotremont, Sonja Ferlov with her son Wonga, destroyed by bombs during the Second World War, Milan, 1946.
and Else Alfelt. Front row: Asger Jorn, Corneille, Constant and Henry Heerup. 11 Participants from Israel and Palestine at the 24th edition of the Venice
Biennale, Venice, 1948.
103
13 All six founding members of the Progressive Artists Group
12 The Third General Exhibition of Plastic Arts takes place at the Sociedade Nacional photographed during their exhibition, Bombay, 1949. f.l.t.r. (back row): 18 An exhibition of works by Rafael Soriano opens at the Caseta del Parque Central,
de Belas Artes, Lisbon, 1948. M. F. Husain, S. K. Bakre, S. H. Raza. (Front row): F. N. Souza, K. H. Havana, October 1950 [Group photograph with Lol Soldevilla (fourth from left),
Ara, H. A. Gade. Rafael Soriano (sixth from left), Wifredo Lam (fourth from right), and others.]
19 Jackson Pollock and Lee Krasner in the studio, 1950 [Long Island,
New York, 1950]. Photograph by Hans Namuth.
17 The members of the Brazilian Grupo Ruptura, 1952. [f.l.t.r: Lothar Charoux,
Anatol Wladislaw, Kasmir Fejer and Waldemar Cordeiro.]
105
24 Artist Dong Xiwen and Mao Zedong view works together with academy
administrators during a visit to the Central Academy of Fine Arts, Beijing, 30 Pablo Picassos Massacre in Korea is displayed on the streets
1953. of Warsaw, 1956.
23 Reg Butler in his studio, sculpting Working Model
for the Monument to the Unknown Political Prisoner,
Berkhamsted, c.1955.
26 The Surrealist Group including Man Ray, Andr Breton, Alberto Giacometti
25 Mahmoud Hammad, Adham Ismail, Fathi Muhammad and other and Wifredo Lam reconvene at the Caf de la Place Blanche three decades 31 The Fifth Exhibition of the New Horizons Group opens at the
students from the Middle East pose for a photograph with the after their first activities together, Paris, 1953 Tel Aviv Museum, 1953.
Director at the Scuola dell'arte della medaglia, Rome, 1954.
28 Anwar Jalal Shemza and Safdar Ali (right) attend the opening 33 The Jikken Kobo group perform the ballet Eve Future in collaboration with the Matsuo
of an exhibition of the Lahore Arts Group, Murree, 1954 Akemi Ballet Company at the Haiyu za Theater, Tokyo, 1955.
107
35 Pinot Gallizio, Asger Jorn, Piero Simondo, and friends at work at
the Experimental Laboratory, Alba, September 1956.
34 Vladimr Boudnk during one of his actions on the streets of Prague, 1959.
45 Victor Musgrave, Anwar Jalal Shemza and the art critic George Butcher at
Gallery One, London, 1960.
51 Installation view of the Second Neoconcrete Exhibition at MEC, Rio de Janeiro, 1960.
49 A group of young artists stage The Wall Exhibition of informel painting as a protest
against the more conservative art on display at the Kukjeon (National Art Exhibition) 55 Jeram Patel at work in his studio in the Department of Painting at the Faculty of Fine
inside the Duksoogung Palace, Seoul, 1960. Arts of the Maharaja Sayajirao University, Baroda, c. 1961.
111
62 George Maciunas, Dick Higgins, Wolf Vostell, Benjamin Patterson and
Emmet Williams perform Philip Corners Piano Activities during the FLUXUS:
Internationale Festspiele Neuester Musik at the Stdtisches Museum,
Wiesbaden, 1962.
57 Allan Kaprow creates his environment Stockroom for the exhibi-
tion Art in Motion at the Moderna Museet, Stockholm, 1961.
56 The American delegation including Nina Simone (third from left) and Hale Woodruff
(second from right) arrive for the cultural festival in Lagos, 1961.
59 K.G. Subramanyan working on his large-scale mural, the King of the Dark Chamber,
58 Marta Minujin destroys all of the works she has later installed at the cultural centre Rabindralaya in Lucknow, 1963.
created during her time in Paris in La Destruccion
(The Destruction) at Impasse Ronsin, Paris, 1961.
113
73 Shigeko Kubota performs Vagina Painting as part of the Perpetual Fluxfest event
held at the Cinematheque in New York, July 1965.
67 The Third Annual Festival of the Mbari Mbayo club takes place,
Osogbo, 1965.
68 David Siqueiros delivers a lecture to fine art students in front of his mural
Del Porfirismo a la Revolucin three days after being released from Lecumberri
prison, Mexico City, July, 1964.
115
CHRONOLOGY Jean Dubuffet holds his first solo exhibition
at Galerie Ren Drouin in Paris
Kirchner, Paul Klee, and other Brcke art-
ists
Charlie Parker records his landmark bebop al-
bum Ko-Ko at WOR studios in New York City
July
The Salon des Ralits Nouvelles is founded
Gallery in New York and includes works
by himself, Pietro Lazzari, Boris Margo, Ad
December
Kwame Nkrumah publishes Towards Colo-
Willem de Kooning has his first solo exhi-
bition at the Charles Egan Gallery in New
OF ARTS December Georges Henein publishes the pamphlet December
in Paris by art lover Fredo Sids. Reinhardt, Mark Rothko, Theodoros Stamos,
and Clyfford Still
nial Freedom, a manifesto that called for the
introduction of a Marxist-Leninist ideology
York, where he exhibits his black-and-white
abstract paintings
AND CULTURE Wassily Kandinsky dies in Neuilly-sur-Seine Prestige de la terreur (The Prestige of
Terror) a couple of days after the dropping
Francis Newton Souzas exhibition opens at
the Bombay Art Society
August
Toms Maldonado and other artists publish February
in African politics
Vladimr Boudnk conducts his first Events
of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima the Manifesto invencionista (Inventionist Lee Kwae-dae writes a detailed report on The New Realists exhibition takes place at in the Street in Prague at the end of April as
Manifesto) in the magazine Asociacin Arte the North Korean art scene in the journal the Hwa-shin Gallery in Seoul part of the Art-Explosionalism manifesto
1944 1945
Albert Camus publishes his reaction to the Concreto-Invencin. New Paradise that he had just published
1946
atomic bomb on Hiroshima in the French
Resistance newspaper, Combat The first Mad exhibition takes place at Alberto Burri is repatriated to Italy from the May
1948
Galera van Riel in the French Institute for United States after spending almost four Alberto Burri holds his first solo exhibition
February January George Orwell publishes his dystopian novel years in a prisoner-of-war camp in Here- at the Galleria La Margherita in Rome
Piet Mondrian dies in New York, leaving his Richard Wright publishes his memoir Black Animal Farm January ford, Texas
painting Victory Boogie Woogie (194243) Boy The exhibition Bayerischer Gemlde des The 24th Venice Biennale opens, the first to
unfinished September 15. und 16. Jahrhunderts (Bavarian Paintings The Group of Seven exhibit for the first time January be staged after World War II
Chester Himes publishes If He Hollers Let Jorge Luis Borges publishes his short story of the 15th and 16th Centuries) opens at the Tel Aviv Museum of Art Lopold Sdar Senghor publishes Antholo-
March Him Go, detailing the life of an African El Aleph in the Argentinian literary mag- at Munichs former Haus der deutschen gie de la nouvelle posie ngre et malgache Norman Mailers first novel The Naked and
Max Bill organizes the exhibition Konkrete American shipyard worker in Los Angeles azine Sur Kunst, which has been now officially re- Primo Levi publishes Se questo un uomo de langue franaise (Anthology of New the Dead is published, based on his expe-
Kunst (Concrete Art), the first international during World War II named Haus der Kunst (If This Is A Man, also known as Survival in Negro and Malagasy Poetry in the French riences during the Philippines Campaign in
exhibition of concrete art, at the Kunsthalle Roberto Rossellini releases his film Roma Auschwitz), describing his incarceration in Language), which contains the introduction World War II
Basel. The show subsequently travels around The exhibition The Negro Artist Comes of citt aperta (Rome, Open City) The All-Union Exhibition takes place at the Auschwitz concentration camp Orphe Noir (Black Orpheus) by Jean-
Europe, inspiring the founding of art groups Age: A National Survey of Contemporary the Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow, showing Paul Sartre June
American Artists takes place at the Albany Karl Jaspers delivers a series of lectures 1,459 works by 555 artists March The First International Congress of Art Crit-
May Institute of History and Art in New York, fea- exploring the collective guilt of the German Samuel Kootz organizes the first exhibition Working under the pseudonym Andr ics is held at UNESCO headquarters in Paris
Eugene W. Smith exhibits photographs of turing the work of artists such as Romare people at Heidelberg University, which are February of US abstract expressionist art in Europe Tamm, K. O. Gtz publishes the first edition
the Pacific war zones at the Museum of Bearden, Jacob Lawrence, Norman Lewis, subsequently published as Die Schuldfrage John Cage begins composing his Sixteen 3 The First Exhibition of the Asociacin at the Galerie Maeght in Paris of the journal Metamorphose, dedicated to July
Modern Art in New York and Charles White (The Question of German Guilt) Sonatas and Four Preludes for Prepared Piano Arte concreto-invencin (AACI) opens at the experimental contemporary art and poetry Ezra Pound publishes The Pisan Cantos
Saln Peuser, Buenos Aires, March 1946 June
Halim el-Dabh premiers his experimental April October Picasso unveils The Charnel House (1944 Otto Frank publishes his daughter Annes Jackson Pollock holds his first solo exhibition August
manipulated recording Taabir al Zaar (The Francis Bacon exhibits his Three Studies for The Commemorative Exhibition of the Liber- 45) at the Art et Rsistance (Art and Resist- diary as Het Achterhuis (The Diary of a at the Betty Parsons Gallery in New York, Paul Celan publishes Todesfuge (Death
Expression of Zaar) at the Expositions de Figures at the Base of a Crucifixion at the ation takes places at the National Museum ance) exhibition in Paris. Superior Studies in Buenos Aires, officially Young Girl) where he exhibits his famous drip paintings Fugue), which addresses the horrors of the
lart indpendant (Exhibition of the Art and Lefevre Gallery in London to much contro- of Contemporary Art at Deoksugung Pal- launching the movement. Gyula Kosice con- concentration camps
versy ace in Seoul May currently publishes the Mad Manifesto May Fei Mu releases the film Spring in a Small
The first edition of the magazine Plastic Arts Willi Baumeister publishes his book Das Town September
May The first issue of the Sddeutsche Zeitung is published in Seoul The first Ferienkurse fr internationale Neue Unbekannte in der Kunst (The Unknown in Constant publishes CoBrA Manifesto in
Howard Putzel organizes the exhibition A is published in Munich, the first newspaper Musik (International Summer School for Art), championing an art that is universally Alberto Giacometti exhibits new works at the journal Reflex #1
Problem for Critics at 67 Gallery in New to receive a license from the US military ad- The first Salon des ralits nouvelles (Salon New Music) is held in Darmstadt relevant and an artistic freedom that em- the Pierre Matisse Gallery in New York;
York as a challenge for someone to come ministration of Bavaria of New Realities) takes place at the Palais bodies a responsibility toward humanity Jean-Paul Sartre writes the preface for the Harold Rosenberg publishes his famous es-
up with a name to define recent tendencies des Beaux-Arts in Paris The Erste Allgemeine Deutsche Kun- catalogue say The Herd of Independent Minds: Has
in US painting The inaugural exhibition of Arte Concreto- stausstellung (First General German Art Albert Camus publishes La Peste (The the Avant-Garde Its Own Mass Culture? in
Invencin opens at the house of Dr. Enrique June Exhibition) opens in Dresden, exhibiting Plague) February the journal Commentary
The Expositions de lart indpendant (Ex- Pichon Rivire in Buenos Aires. Featuring Boris Taslitzky exhibits his Buchenwald many works by artists previously declared The definitive version of Yasunari Kawaba-
hibition of Independent Art), the first post- the works of Ramn Melgar, Juan Carlos degenerate June tas Yukiguni (Snow Country) is published. Luchino Visconti releases the film La Terra
war exhibition of Egypts surrealist Art and Paz, Rhod Rothfuss, Estban Eitler, Gyula The first exhibition of the group Fronte An integration of nine separately published Trema (The Earth Trembles)
1 Works by Pablo Picasso installed at the Liberty Group, takes place at the Lyce Kosice, Valdo Wellington, and Carmelo Ar- November Nuovo delle Arti takes place at the Galleria works, the book is a classic of modern Jap-
Salon dAutomne, 1944, the artists first Franais in Cairo, including the work of den Quin, the exhibition is considered the Romare Bearden publishes his essay The della Spiga in Milan, featuring work by Re- anese literature The survey show Overseas Exhibition of South
exhibition in Paris after the end of German Ramss Younan first example of concrete art shown in South Negro Artists Dilemma in the journal Cri- nato Guttuso, Renato Birolli, Emilio Vedova, African Art opens at the Tate Gallery in Lon-
occupation America tique: A Review of Contemporary Art andothers March don. It includes the work of fifty-three white
June New Yorks Museum of Non-Objective South Africans, as well as that of Gerard Se-
The first postwar exhibition of modern art Jean Fautrier exhibits for the first time the Lucio Fontana and his students at the Al- The Muse National dArt Moderne opens Painting organizes the exhibition Gegen- koto, which garners widespread praise
Liberty Group) held at the Lyce Franais in in Germany takes place at a private house series Otages (Hostages) he created tamira academy publish Manifesto Blan- in Paris standslose Malerei in Amerika (Abstract Art
Cairo, constituting one of the earliest exam- belonging to the artist Hans Uhlmann. during the Paris occupation at the Galerie co (White Manifesto) pamphlet in Buenos October
ples of electronic music Exhibited are classical expressionist works Ren Drouin Aires, announcing his aim for a Spatialist August The first performance of Pierre Schaeffers
by Jeanne Mammen, Oskar Nerlinger, art Arnold Schoenberg completes his composi- Cinq tudes de bruits (Five Studies of Nois-
June Hans Uhlmann, Rene Sintenis, and Georg Jean-Paul Sartre delivers his lecture LEx- tion A Survivor from Warsaw Op. 46, paying es) takes place on French National Radio,
The first and only issue of the journal Arturo: Tappert istentialisme est-il un humanisme? (Exis- Lszl Moholy-Nagy dies of leukemia at the tribute to Holocaust victims. one of the first public broadcasts of con-
Revista de artes abstractas is published in tentialism is a Humanism) at Club Mainte- age of fifty-one in Chicago crete music
Buenos Aires, and includes Gyula Ksices Crimes hitlriens (Hitler's Crimes) opens at nant in Paris, which would be published the September
essay La aclimatacin artstica gratuita a the Grand Palais in Paris, an exhibition ex- following year. December Henri Matisse publishes his artist book Jazz November
las llamadas escuelas (The Free Acclimati- ploring the crimes perpetrated by the Nazis Dylan Thomas publishes his collection of The Korean Ministry of Education launches
zation to the So-Called Schools) and Rhod during the war Alfred Hitchcock releases the film Spell- poems Deaths and Entrances, many of October the first Kukjeon (National Art Exhibition) as
Rothfusss El Marco: Un Problema de la bound, which contains a dream sequence which deal with the effects of World War II Cai Chusheng and Zheng Junli release a platform for Korean culture
plstica actual (The Frame: A Problem in Germanys first postwar art school, the designed by Salvador Dal the film The Spring River Flows East. Now
Contemporary Art) Hochschule fr bildende Knste, re-opens considered a classic of Hong Kong cinema, The first exhibition of the Ofakim Hadashim
in Berlin November the film details the trials and tribulations of (New Horizons) group takes place at the Tel
4 Mad Exhibition at the 3me Salon des
1947
September Toms Maldonado and others found the a family during the Second Sino-Japanese Aviv Museum of Art
The exhibition La prima mostra darte Italia July Asociacin Arte Concreto-Invencin (Con- War Ralits Nouvelles, Paris, 1948.
libera (The First Art Exhibition of a Free Ita- The first exhibition of the Kammer der crete-Invention Art Association) in Buenos Alexander Dymschitz, head of the Cultural
ly) takes place in Rome Kunstschaffenden takes place in Berlin, Aires Ben Enwonwu holds his first solo exhibition in America), which opens at the Staatliche Division of the Soviet Military Government
2 Visitors admire Albrecht Drer's self-por-
featuring works by Erich Heckel, Karl Hofer, January at Londons Berkeley Galleries Kunsthalle in Karlsruhe, before later trave- in Berlin, publishes his two-part essay
trait at the exhibition Bavarian Paintings of
October Ernst Wilhelm Nay, Max Pechstein, Karl The first postwar German art group, Der Robert Antelme publishes LEspce hu- ling to Dsseldorf, Mannheim, Munich, and ber die formalistische Richtung in der
the 15th and 16th Centuries at Haus der
The Salon dautomne (Salon of Independ- Schmitt-Rottluff, Gerhard Marcks, and other Ruf, is exhibited for the first time at the Gr- Kunst, Munich, 1946. maine (The Human Race) concerning his November Stuttgart deutschen Malerei (On Formalist Tenden-
ents), also known as the Salon de la Libra- formerly degenerate artists nen Haus in Dresden experiences in the concentration camps The first issue of the quarterly journal cies Within German Painting) in the news-
tion (Salon of Liberty) takes place in the Prsence Africaine is published by Alioune Ismael Rodrguez releases the film Nosotros paper Tgliche Rundschau, providing the
Grand Palais in Paris, with a focus exhibi- August Lopold Sdar Senghor publishes his col- series of paintings at the Galerie La Gentil- The group Pelukis Rakyat (Peoples Paint- Diop in Paris los pobres (We the Poor) first high-profile Soviet assessment of Ger-
tion of Pablo Picassos work The first postwar commercial art gallery, lection of poems Chants dOmbre (Shadow hommire in Paris ers) is founded in Jogjakarta by the artists man art and condemning the domination of
the Galerie Gerd Rosen, opens in a former Songs) in Paris. Predominantly written pri- Affandi and Hendra Gunawan Lucio Fontana publishes his Primo Mani- Sidney Nolan first exhibits his famous Kelly formalist tendencies within painting
Jacob Lawrence exhibits his Migration of textile and military supplies shop in Berlin, or to the outbreak of the War, many of the Ad Reinhardt publishes his visual essay festo dello Spazialismo (First Manifesto of series of paintings at the Velasquez Gallery
the Negro series at the Museum of Modern exhibiting works by Ernst Barlach, Marc poems reflect upon the conflict between How to Look at Modern Art in America in Barnett Newman organizes the exhibition Spatialism) in Buenos Aires in Melbourne Vittorio De Sica releases the film Ladri di
Art, New York Chagall, Lyonel Feininger, Ernst Ludwig French and African culture. PM magazine The Ideographic Picture at Betty Parsons biciclette (The Bicycle Thief)
117
1952
December May Adolph Gottlieb, Morris Graves, Hans Hof- May Torino, Napoli, La Spezia, Livorno, Firenze, June September
The first exhibition of Movimento per larte Heinrich Bll publishes his first novella Der mann, Robert Motherwell, Jackson Pollock, Eugne Ionescos first play La Cantatrice Venezia (Abstract and Concrete Art in Ita- Saloua Raouda Choucair publishes her es- Yosuke Yamahata publishes Kiroku-shashin:
concreta (Concrete Art Movement) is held Zug war pnktlich (The Train Was on Time), Ad Reinhardt, Mark Rothko, Mark Tobey, chauve (The Bald Soprano) premieres at the ly, 1951: Works by Artists of Rome, Milan, say Kayfa Fahima al-Arabi Fanna at-Tas- Genbaku no Nagasaki (Atomized Nagasaki:
focusing on the experience of German sol- and Bradley Walker Tomlin Thtre des Noctambules in Paris Turin, Naples, La Spezia, Livorno, Florence, weer (How the Arab Understood Visual The Bombing of Nagasaki: A Photographic
diers fighting on the Eastern Front Venice) is held at the Galleria Nazionale Art) in the journal al-Abhaath January Record)
October June dArte Moderna in Rome, featuring the work The Lahore Art Circle is founded by Ahmed
The Ausstellung sowjetischer Malerei (Exhi- Curzio Malaparte publishes his book La Aim Csaires essay Discours sur le colo- of Alberto Burri, Piero Dorazio, Mimmo September Parvez, S. Safdar, Anwar Jelal Shemza, Sand Dari, Luis Martnez Pedro, and
bition of Soviet Painting), a major exhibition Pelle (The Skin), detailing the myriad social nialisme (Discourse on Colonialism) is pub- Rotella, Emilio Vedova, and others Helen Frankenthalers first solo exhibition Moyene Najmi, and Ali Imam in Pakistan Mario Carreo launch the magazine Noti-
of socialist realist painting, takes place at the lished in Paris takes place at the Tibor de Nagy Gallery in cias de Arte (Art News) in Havana
Haus der Kultur der Sowjetunion in East Berlin A conference on abstract art takes place at New York Frantz Fanon publishes his book Peau noire,
Alejandro Otero, Jess Rafael Soto, Rafael New Yorks Museum of Modern Art and in- masques blancs (Black Skin, White Masks) December
June Zapata, Bernardo Chataing, Rgulo Prez, cludes contributions from Alexander Calder, October The Grupo Ruptura exhibition at the Museu
Simone de Beauvoir publishes Le Deuxime Genaro Moreno, Omar Carreo, and others Fritz Glarner, Robert Motherwell, Stuart Ben Enwonwu holds his first US exhibition The Independent Group is founded in Lon- de Arte Moderna de So Paulo, along with
sexe (The Second Sex) found the group Los Disidentes (The Dis- at Howard University in Washington, D.C. don as a collection of young artists circu- the Manifesto Ruptura, which was also
senters) in Paris, concurrently publishing lating around the ICA. At the groups first signed in 1952, represented a debut for the
George Orwell publishes 1984 their Manifesto No The Studio fr elektronische Musik begins meeting, Eduardo Paolozzi passes around group, which comprised Waldemar Cordei-
broadcasting on Colognes Nordwest- his Bunk! collages ro, Geraldo de Barros, Lothar Charoux, Leo-
5 Participants of the 1st Exhibition of
July July deutscher Rundfunk. Over the years, it pold Haar, Kazimir Fejer, Anatol Wladyslaw,
Modern Art, Krakow, 1948
Yukio Mishima publishes his autobiographi- The exhibition Das Menschenbild in unserer would attract to the city the likes of Karl- Isidore Isous experimental film Trait de and Luis Sacilotto
cal novel Kamen no Kokuhaku (Confessions Zeit (The Image of Man in our Time) takes heinz Stockhausen, Nam June Paik, Cor- bave et dternit (Treatise on Venom And
at the Libreria Salto in Milan. The group is of a Mask) place at the Mathildenhhe in Darmstadt nelius Cardew, David Tudor, Mauricio Kagel, Eternity) is released Harold Rosenberg publishes his essay
comprised of Bruno Munari, Gillo Dorfles, concurrent with the Darmstadt Talks at the and John Cage American Action Painters in ARTnews
Gianni Monnet, and Atanasio Soldati The All-China Art Workers Association or- Kunsthalle February
ganize the First National Art Exhibition at the The first So Paulo Biennial takes place at Gil J Wolmans lettrist film LAnticoncept Michel Tapi organizes the exhibition Un
Alan Paton publishes Cry, The Beloved Beijing School of Arts; it is the first major 7 Artists Sessions take place at Studio 35, UNESCO publishes The Race Question the Museu de Arte Moderna de So Paulo (The Anticoncept) opens in Paris art autre (An Other Art) at Studio Paul Fac-
Country exhibition to take place after the end of the April 1950, New York [Left to right: chetti in Paris, suggesting a new terminolo-
war with Japan and the only one held prior James Brooks, Ad Reinhardt, Richard August November March gy that encompasses both the abstract and
Pousette-Dart, Louise Bourgeois, Herbert 8 Installation view of the
Roberto Rossellini releases the film Germa- to the establishment of the Peoples Repub- Billy Wilder releases the film Sunset Boule- exhibition by Max Bill at the Michel Tapi organizes the exhibition Sig- Ralph Ellison publishes Invisible Man, about figurative works of the likes of Jean Dubuf-
Ferber, Bradley Walker Tomlin, Janice
nia anno zero (Germany, Year Zero) lic of China vard Museu de Arte Moderna de nifiants de linformel (Signifiers of Infor- an African-American man whose color ren- fet, Jean Fautrier, Alfred Otto Wolfgang
Biala, Robert Goodnough, Hedda Sterne,
David Hare, Barnett Newman, Seymour So Paulo, 1951 mel) at the Studio Paul Facchetti in Paris. ders him invisible Schulze, Alfonso Ossorio, Jackson Pollock,
Barnett Newman publishes his essay The The first Exhibition of the Progressive Art- Lipton, Norman Lewis, Jimmy Ernst.] The social and literary group Lembaga Showing the work of Jean Dubuffet, Jean
Sublime is Now in the journal Tigers Eye ists Group at the Bombay Art Society Photograph by Max Yavno. Kebudajaan Rakjat (LEKRA) is founded in Fautrier, Georges Mathieu, Henri Michaux, The Soviet Fine Arts Exhibition opens in
represents the first major showing of the Jakarta, issuing its first declaration on cul- Davis, George L. K. Morris, and Willem Jean-Paul Riopelle, and Jaroslav Serpan, New Delhi before touring to Calcutta and
Tadeusz Kantor organizes the First Exhi- groups work ture (Mukadimah) and establishing close de Kooning, who reads his famous essay he coins the term informel to group all of Bombay
bition of Modern Art at the Paac Sztuki transformations that took place in Italy im- links to Indonesias Communist Party What Abstract Art Means to Me these works together
w Krakowie, featuring works by a young August mediately following the Armitace April
Andrzej Wrblewski, as well as Henryk Claude Lvi-Strauss publishes Structures Akira Kurosawa releases the film Rashomon Le Corbusier commences work on his mas- Jikken Kobo (Experimental Workshop) The Prima esposizione del Movimento Nu-
Stazewski and Alfred Lenica lmentaires de la parent (The Elementary Ral Lozza organizes the Primera Exposicin ter plan for the Indian city of Chandigarh present their first collective work, a ballet cleare (First Exhibition of Nuclear Art) at
Structures of Kinship) de Pintura Perceptista (First Exhibition of October entitled The Joy of Life, created to mark the the spaces of the Amici della Francia in Mi-
The nascent Institute of Contemporary Arts Perceptivist Painting) at the Van Riel Galera Nemai Ghosh releases Chinnamul, the first March first Pablo Picasso retrospective in Tokyo. lan signals the formation of the group, who
(ICA) holds its second major exhibition, The influential Uruguayan artist and teacher de Arte in Buenos Aires; he also publishes Indian film to confront the partition of India. Theodor W. Adorno publishes Kulturkritik The work functions as a performative man- publish their first manifesto as part of the
40,000 Years of Modern Art, at the Academy Joaqun Torres Garca dies the manifesto Ante la decadencia y espritu und Gesellschaft (Cultural Criticism and ifesto of the groups ideas and provides an exhibition
Cinema in London negativo ... (Faced with the decline and neg- Sand Dari holds his exhibition Estructuras Society), in which he famously notes that
September ative spirit ...) in the catalogue Pictricas (Pictorial Structures) at the Ha- Nach Auschwitz ein Gedicht zu schrei- May
The exhibition Der Blaue Reiter Mnchen vana Lyceum in Cuba ben, ist barbarisch (To write poetry after Lucio Fontana and a group of sixteen other
und die Kunst des 20. Jahrhunderts (The November Auschwitz is barbaric) artists publish the Manifesto del Movimen-
1949
Blue Rider Munich and the Art of the 20th CoBrA artists first show together as a group A group of writers and artists publish the to Spaziale per la televisione (Television
at the Exposition Internationale dArt Expri- Surat Kepertjajaan Gelanggang (The Max Bills first exhibition in Brazil, at the Mu- Manifesto of the Spatial Movement), which
mental (International Exhibition of Exper- Gelanggang testimonial of beliefs) in post- seu de Arte Moderna de So Paulo, inspires was simultaneously distributed during a tel- 10 Walter Nicks experimental dance
imental Art), which is held at the Stedelijk independence Jakarta, beginning with the numerous Brazilian concrete artists evision broadcast by Fontana group perform in front of Mathias Goeritzs
January Museum in Amsterdam words We are the legitimate heirs to world The Serpent in the courtyard of the
Max Bill publishes his influential essay Die culture, and we are furthering this culture in The Exhibition of the National New Nianhua June Museo Experimental El Eco,
mathematische Denkweise in der Kunst our own way. takes place at the Reading Room of the Rus- Amos Tutuola publishes The Palm-Wine Mexico City, 1953.
unserer Zeit (The Mathematical Approach sian Foreign Affairs Association in Beijing. Drinkard
9 The first Sao Paulo Biennial takes
1950
in Contemporary Art) in the Swiss journal December Organized by the Chinese Artists Association,
Werk, in which he argues for an art free Luis Buuel releases his social realist film the exhibition demonstrates the governments place at the Museu de Arte Moderna The Peace Bridge, designed by Isamu No- Mark Tobey, Sam Francis, Pierre Soulag-
de Sao Paulo, October 1951
from any reference to the existing world Los Olvidados (the forgotten ones) support for artists working in print media guchi, opens in Hiroshima es, Georges Mathieu, Graham Sutherland,
Karel Appel, Germaine Richier, Eduardo
March January Georges Mathieu and Michel Tapi organ- early indication of postwar Japanese inter- The exhibition Mensch und Form unser- Paolozzi, and others
1951
Isamu Noguchi holds his first postwar solo Maruki Iri and Maruki Toshi tour five of the ize the exhibition Vhmences confrontes est in multimedia and performance art er Zeit (Man and Form of Our Time) takes
exhibition at the Charles Egan Gallery in Hiroshima Panels to fifty Japanese cities (Opposing Forces) at the Galerie Nina place at the Stdtische Kunsthalle in Reck- The Ruptura exhibition opens at the Mu-
New York Dausset in Paris, where they juxtapose the December linghausen seu de Arte Moderna de So Paulo, widely
6 CoBrA members bring their works
March work of US and European abstract artists The German artist Wols (Alfred Otto Wolf- considered to mark the official beginning of
to First International Exhibition of
Vladimr Boudnk publishes his program Experimental Artists at the Stedelijk Alina Szapocznikow exhibits her sculptures January gang Schulze) dies of food poisoning in July concrete art in Brazil
of explosionalism at the State School of Museum, Amsterdam, for the first time at the VI Exposition des Kofi Abrefa Busia publishes Self-Govern- April Paris Karlheinz Stockhausen premieres his first
Graphic Art summer school at Nov Falk- November 1949. Artistes Juifs (Fourth Exhibition of Jewish ment for the Gold Coast Gholam Hossein Gharib, Hassan Shirvani, composition, Kreuzspiel, at the Interna-
enburk. He expands upon this program a Artists) in Paris and Hooshang Irani publish The Nightin- The group EXAT 51 (an abbreviation of tional Summer School for New Music in
1953
couple of weeks later, producing the Ex- February gales Butcher Manifesto on the back cover Eksperimentalni atelje/Experimental Darmstadt
plosionalism Manifesto No. 2 Century) at Munichs Haus der Kunst rep- April The work of Jackson Pollock is first exhibited of the magazine Fighting Cock. atelier) officially form at a plenary meet-
resents the first time that artists labeled as The so-called Artist's Sessions take place in Japan as part of the First International ing of the Association of Applied Artists August
April degenerate before the war are exhibited at Studio 35 in New York, attended by two Art Exhibition that takes place at the Tokyo The newly formed Baghdad Group for Mod- of Croatia and publish their manifesto in As part of his exhibition Antonio Berni ex-
The first volume of Louis Aragons Les in the city dozen artists who later came to be known Metropolitan Art Museum. The exhibition ern Art exhibit for the first time at the Museum protest against the dominance of officially pone 22 obras (Antonio Berni Exhibits 22 January
Communistes (The Communists) is pub- as the Abstract Expressionists will prove to be highly influential to artists of Ancient Costumes in Baghdad sanctioned socialist realist art and the con- Works) at the Galera Viau in Buenos Aires, The controversial International Sculpture
lished The Mexican mural painter Jos Clemente such as Takamatsu Jiro demnation of all forms of abstraction and the artist publishes an essay about Nuevo Competition: The Unknown Political Prisoner
Orozco dies in Mexico City Pablo Neruda publishes his collection of May unacceptable motifs Realismo is held at the ICA in London, later traveling
Hkielmar Lers releases the film Adamah, 340 poems Canto General (General Song) Hannah Arendt publishes Elemente und Leo Castelli organizes the iconic 9th Street to the Museum of Modern Art, New York
which was shot in Palestine just prior to the Harold Rosenberg and Samuel Kootz or- in Mexico City Ursprnge totaler Herrschaft (The Origins of Show exhibition in an empty store at 60 David Tudor first performs John Cages
establishment of the State of Israel ganize the influential exhibition The Intra Totalitarianism) East 9th Street, introducing the work of 433 at the Maverick Concert Hall in Samuel Becketts play Waiting for Godot
subjectives at the Kootz Gallery in New The group Zen 49 hold their premiere exhi- sixty-one, mainly young New York artists Woodstock, New York premieres in Paris
York, where they show work by William bition at Munichs Galerie des Central Col- The exhibition Arte astratta e concreta in Ita- and propagating the idea of a New York
Baziotes, Willem de Kooning, Arshile Gorky, lecting Point lia, 1951: Opere di artisti di Roma, Milano, School of painting
119
February Ray Bradbury publishes Fahrenheit 451 Yale University, laying the foundations to his March The I. mednarodna graficna razstava (1st works of Fernand Lger, a year after his death The first Exposio Nacional de Arte Con-
The first Exposio Nacional de Arte Ab- theory of formalism within modern art Clement Greenberg publishes his polem- International Exhibition of Graphic Arts) is creta (National Exhibition of Concrete Art)
strata (National Exhibition of Abstract Art) Ray Ashleys (also known as Raymond ical essay American-Type Painting in the held at Ljubljanas Moderna Galerija. The July opens at the Museu de Arte Moderna de
takes place at the Museu de Arte Moderna Abrashkin) Little Fugitive premieres in New June spring edition of Partisan Review exhibition would subsequently become Ousmane Sembne publishes his first novel So Paulo, the first national meeting of con-
do Rio de Janeiro, featuring work by Lygia York. The films naturalistic style and use The first Grupo Frente exhibition takes the Bienale Grafike (Biennial of Graphic Le Docker noir (Black Docker) crete visual art and poetry
Pape, Lygia Clark, and Ivan Serpa of nonprofessional actors would prove to place at the Galeria Ibeu in Rio de Janei- Famed jazz pioneer Charlie Parker dies in Arts)
be profoundly influential to the subsequent ro, exhibiting the work of Lygia Clark along New York Joo Guimares Rosa publishes his mon- The exhibition Jackson Pollock opens at the
March New Wave cinema with that of Hlio Oiticica, Alusio Carvo, Bertrand Russell and Albert Einstein launch ologue book Grande Serto: Veredas (The Museum of Modern Art, New York, the first
In New York, Willem de Kooning first exhib- and Lygia Pape Wifredo Lam exhibits a series of his paint- The Russell-Einstein Manifesto at a press Devil to Pay in the Backlands) to great con- major exhibition of the artists work after his
its his Woman series at the Sidney Janis November ings at the Universidad de La Habana, conference at Caxton Hall, London troversy death
Gallery, while Robert Rauschenberg shows William Burroughs publishes Junkie: Con- July Pabellon de Ciencias Sociales, in support
the White Paintings that he created in fessions of an Unredeemed Drug Addict and Frida Kahlo dies at her home in Mexico City. for students protests against the dictator- The first Documenta exhibition opens in Kassel 14 Saburo Murakami performs Destruction August
1951 at the Stable Gallery Queer under the pseudonym William Lee ship of Fulgencio Batista of paper (Tsuka) at the 2nd Gutai Art Mongo Beti publishes his novel Le pauvre
August The exhibition Outdoor Exhibition of Modern Exhibition, Tokyo, 1956. Christ de Bomba (The Poor Christ of Bom-
April Yasujiro Ozus film Tokyo Monogatari (Tokyo The Lalit Kala Akademi (the National Acad- Art to Challenge the Midsummer Sun rep- ba) in Paris
Alain Resnais, Chris Marker, and Ghislain Story) is released emy of Art) inaugurated in New Delhi resents the unofficial launch of the Gutai Pablo Picassos monumental Guernica is
group (in that twenty-three of the forty par- exhibited as part of the exhibition Picasso The landmark exhibition This is Tomorrow
December Luigi Nono's cantata La victoire de Guernica ticipants were members) 19001955 at Munichs Haus der Kunst opens at the Whitechapel Gallery in London
The Aula Magna building opens at La Ciu- (The Victory of Guernica) premieres at the
dad Universitaria de Caracas, with acoustic International Summer School for New Mu- The Premire biennale de la Mditerrane November Sand Dari first exhibits his Estructura
clouds designed by Alexander Calder sic in Darmstadt (First Biennial for the Arts of Mediterrane- The Wystawa obrazw (Exhibition of Pic- transformables (Transformable Structures)
an Countries) takes place at the Alexandria tures) is held at the House of Artists at the Pabelln de Ciencias Sociales of the
The influential Chinese painter Xu Beihong September Museum of Fine Arts in Krakow, presenting works by Tadeusz Universidad de La Habana, Cuba
dies of a stroke. As a mark of respect, the Federico Fellinis film La Strada (The Street) Kantor, Jerzy Nowosielski, and others who
Chinese Communist Party orders the crea- premieres at the Venice International Film August combined Surrealism and Abstract Expres- Jackson Pollock dies in a car accident
tion of the Xu Beihong Museum at his home Festival Vladimir Nabokov publishes Lolita. Follow- sionism. The exhibition resulted in the crea-
in Beijing ing its publication in Paris, the British Home tion of numerous artists groups, clubs, and September 15 For Yves Kleins Sculpture arostatique
William Golding publishes Lord of the Flies 12 The first Documenta exhibition opens at Office orders all copies entering the United galleries The First World Congress of Free Artists 1001 blue balloons are released into
the Fridericianum, Kassel, 1955. Kingdom to be seized. The French and US takes place in Alba, Italy. Organized by the sky over Paris on the occasion of the
October governments also subsequently ban the Giuseppe Pinot-Gallizio and Asger Jorn, the exhibition Yves Klein : Propositions
1954
The influential Exhibition of Economic and book for several years. conference concludes with an accord and monochromes at Galerie Iris Clert,
1956
Cultural Achievements of the Soviet Union April signed resolution declaring the inevitable Paris, May, 1957
takes place at the Soviet Exhibition Hall in Victor Vasarely and Pontus Hultn publish The newly formed Grupa 55 hold their first outmodedness of any renovation of an art
Beijing. Featuring works such as Fyodor their Yellow Manifesto as part of the ex- exhibition at the Desa salon in Warsaw. within its traditional limits
1957
11 Following its inauguration in December January Shurpins The Morning of Our Motherland hibition Le Mouvement (Movement) at the Billed as an anti-Arsenal exhibition, the
1953, Alexander Calder's Acoustic Ceiling The China Artists Association publishes the (1948), the exhibition would provide the Galerie Denise Ren in Paris, thereby intro- group rebelled against the domination of January The First Congress of Black Writers and
decorates the Aula Magna of the Universi- essay New Chinese Painting Movement template for Chinese socialist realism for ducing the idea of kinetic art Socialist Realism Frank Auerbach is given his first solo exhi- Artists is held at the Sorbonne in Paris.
dad Central de Venezuela, Caracas, 1954. in the first edition of the relaunched journal decades bition at the Beaux Arts Gallery in London Leading black intellectuals address issues
Meishu, outlining the precepts for the sort The exhibition Indonesian Art is held as part of colonialism, slavery, and Ngritude January
of socialist realist art that was to be promot- November of the Asian-African Conference in Ban February Renato Guttuso publishes his essay Del
Cloquets film Les statues meurent aussi ed in the country Jean Rouch screens his first ethnofic- dung, exhibiting the works of key Indonesian Lennie Tristano releases his album Lennie October realismo del presente e altro (On Realism,
(Statues Also Die) premieres at the Cannes tion short film Les matres fous (The Mad modern artists Tristano, in which he overdubs piano and The 2nd Gutai Art Exhibition takes place at the Present, and Other Things) in the jour-
Film Festival. The anti-colonial message of February Masters) to a small, select audience at the manipulates tape speed for effect on some the Ohara Kaikan in Tokyo. It features Tana- nal Paragone, arguing for a form of socially
the film was so confrontational, that it was Cyprian Ekwensi publishes People of the Muse de lHomme in Paris Sand Dari and Luis Martnez Pedro stage tracks kas Electric Dress, a painting performance engaged realism outside of the socialist
promptly censored by the French state and City the Primera Exposicin Concreta (First Ex- by Shimamoto Sho zo , Kazuo Shiragas realism proscribed by the Soviet Union
was not screened again until 1968 Ishiro Honda releases the film Gojira hibition of Concrete Art) at the Pabelln de Toru Takemitsu premieres his work Relief Challenging Mud, and Saburo Murakamis
March (Godzilla) Ciencias Sociales of the Universidad de La Statique in Tokyo, one of the first compo- At One Moment Opening Six Holes Roland Barthes publishes his collection
Roland Barthes publishes Le Degr zro de Renato Guttuso is given a solo exhibition at Habana, Cuba sitions to employ electronic tape-recording of essays from Les Lettres nouvelles as
lcriture (Writing Degree Zero) the Central Office of Art Exhibitions Zache- December techniques Satyajit Ray releases the Indian Bengali Mythologies
ta in Warsaw. The exhibition would then tour Ulli Beier publishes his essay Wand- May drama Aparajito (The Unvanquished), the
Luis Garca Berlangas comedy film Bien- other Central and Eastern European coun- malereien der Yoruba (Yoruba Wall Paint- The exhibition Man, Machine and Motion: An March follow-up to Pather Panchali February
venido, Mister Marshall! (Welcome Mr. Mar- tries and would be profoundly influential on ing) in the journal Das Kunstwerk Iconography of Speed and Space is held at Fred M. Wilcoxs pioneering science fiction Miles Davis releases the influential album
shall!) is released in cinemas in Spain realist artists the Hatton Gallery in Newcastle-Upon-Tyne film Forbidden Planet premieres in the United November Birth of the Cool
13 Participants at the First World Con-
gress of Black Writers and Artists at the States Bayn al-Qasrayn (Between the Two Palac-
June The National Gallery of Modern Art opens The exhibition The New Decade: 22 Euro- Sorbonne, Paris, 1956. es), the first book of Naguib Mahfouzs Cairo The Baghdad Exhibition of Painting and
1955
Camara Laye publishes his autobiograph- in New Delhi pean Painters and Sculptors opens at the Lol Soldevilla organizes the influential ex- Trilogy is published in Cairo Sculpture is held at the Al-Mansur Club and
ical novel LEnfant noir (The African Child) Museum of Modern Art, New York. Alberto hibition Pintura de hoy. Vanguardia de la Es- shows the work of forty-five modern artists
April Burri uses the occasion to print his famous Fernand Lger dies at his home in Gif-sur- cuela de Pars (Painting Today: Avant-Garde Allen Ginsberg publishes Howl and Other
August Jorge Romero Brest publishes his essay Words Are No Help statement Yvette of the School of Paris) at the Palacio de Poems, one of the principal works of the Ingmar Bergman iconic film Det sjunde in-
Mulk Raj Anand publishes The Private Life Dilogo sobre el arte abstracto y el arte con- January Bellas Artes in Havana Beat Generation seglet (The Seventh Seal) is released
of an Indian Prince, detailing the social and creto (Dialogue on Abstract and Concrete Edward Steichens acclaimed Family of June Satyajit Ray releases the Bengali-language
political reform that was brought about by Art) in the Argentinian journal Saber vivir Man exhibition is held at the Museum of Pierre Teilhard de Chardins book Le drama film Pather Panchali (Song of the Elvis Presley releases his debut solo album Roger Vadim releases the film Et Dieu March
the abolition of the princely states system Modern Art, New York, later traveling un- Phnomne humain (The Phenomenon of Little Road), the first film of The Apu Trilogy Elvis Presley cra la femme (And God Created Woman), Paulin Soumanou Vieyra and Mamadou
in India The Salon 54: Exhibition of Contemporary der the auspices of the US Information Man) is posthumously published in Paris launching Brigitte Bardot into the public Sarrs short documentary film Afrique sur
Yugoslav Painting and Sculpture is held in Agency throughout the United States and The Hiroshima Peace Center and Memorial April spotlight Seine (Africa on the Seine) premieres in
The Hochschule fr Gestaltung Ulm (Ulm Rijeka. Dubbed a key exhibition for the re- Europe Herbert Bayer creates his Earth Mound at Park, designed by Kenzo Tange, opens Alain Resnaiss documentary Nuit et brouil- Paris
School of Design) begins operations, under construction of modernism in Yugoslavia, the Aspen Institutes Aspen Meadows cam- lard (Night and Fog) is shown out of compe- December
the supervision of Max Bill the show featured the work of EXAT 51 Pokolenie (A Generation), the opening film pus in Colorado, possibly the first earth- October tition at the Cannes Film Festival Yoshihara Jiro publishes the Gutai bijutsu Alina Szapocznikow publishes Plastycy o
members such as Ivan Picelj, Vlado Kristl, of Andrzej Wajdas Three War Films trilogy, work done within the context of contem- Iannis Xenakis orchestral work Metastaseis sengen (Gutai Art Manifesto) in the journal plastyce (Visual Artists on Visual Art) in
September Boidar Raica, and Aleksandar Srnec is released porary art premieres at the Donaueschinger Musik- May Geijutsu Shincho the journal Przeglad Kulturalny
Dong Xiwens monumental painting The tage (Donaueschingen Festival) Elie Wiesels 245-page manuscript of his
Founding of the Nation is first exhibited to Akira Kurosawa releases his epic histor- Arnold Rdlinger organizes the exhibition July experiences at the Auschwitz and Buchen- Uche Okekes first solo exhibition, Life in Miles Davis releases his hard bop album
great acclaim in Beijing ical drama Shichinin no Samurai (Seven Tendances Actuelles III (Current Tenden- The Oglnopolska wystawa modej plastyki The First Gutai Art Exhibition opens at the wald concentration camps, Un di Velt Hot Northern Nigeria: An Exhibition of Paint- Round About Midnight
Samurai) cies III) at the Kunsthalle in Bern, where he (National Exhibition of Young Art)subti- Ohara Kaikan in Tokyo, with Saburo Murakami Geshvign (And the World Remained Silent), ings and Drawings (19541956), takes
The exhibition Parallel of Life and Art takes groups all of the exhibited abstract work tled Against War, Against Fascismtakes performing Work (Six Holes) and Kazuo is published in Argentina. A shortened ver- place at the Community Centre in Kaduna, The Modern Fine Art exhibition opens at the
place at the ICA in London May under the term tachisme place in the recently restored Armory build- Shiraga staging his work Challenging Mud sion of this book is published two years later Nigeria Dong-hwa Gallery in Seoul
Bill Haley & His Comets release the album ing in Warsaw. More popularly known as the in Paris as La Nuit (Night)
October Rock Around the Clock February Arsenal exhibition, the show is considered Nicholas Rays film Rebel Without a Cause Direction 1 opens at the Macquarie Galler- Andrzej Wrblewski dies in a mountaineer-
James Baldwin publishes his semi-autobi- Francis Newton Souza publishes his autobi- to be the beginning of the cultural thaw in is released, portraying the moral decay of June ies in Sydney, a landmark exhibition of ab- ing accident in Tatry, Czechoslovakia, at the
ographical novel Go Tell It On the Mountain Clement Greenberg delivers the lecture ographical essay The Nirvana of a Maggot Poland, leading to a significant revision in American youth The Muse des Arts Dcoratifs in Paris stract art in Australia age of twenty-nine
Abstract Representational, and so forth at in the journal Encounter Socialist Realism stages a large-scale retrospective of the
121
April Diego Rivera dies at his San ngel studio Sensibility, The Void) takes place at Galerie Chinua Achebes postcolonial novel Things Amlcar de Castro, Ferreira Gullar, Franz September Raja Rao publishes his best-known work,
The First one-night exhibition of the ZERO in Mexico Iris Clert in Paris Fall Apart is published Weissmann, Lygia Clark, Lygia Pape, William S. Burroughs publishes Naked The Serpent and the Rope
Groupan evening vernissage without a Reynaldo Jardim, and Theon Spanudis Lunch
subsequent exhibitiontakes place at the December The first Tehran Biennial takes place at the July publish Manifesto Neoconcreto (Neo-Con- Federico Fellini releases La Dolce Vita
Ruinenatelier in Dsseldorf Yayoi Kusama holds her first exhibition in Abyaz Palace building within the Golestan Wojciech Fangor and the architect crete Manifesto) in the Brazilian journal Charles Mingus releases the song Fables
the United States at the Dusanne Gallery Palace complex. Organized by Marcos Grig- Stanisaw Zamecznik organize the exhibi- Jornal do Brasil / Suplemento Dominical. In of Faubus as a protest against Arkansas The exhibition Ray Gun takes place at the
The First Southeast Asia Art Conference in Seattle orian and featuring the work of almost fifty tion The Study in Space at the New Cul- the same issue, Lygia Pape publishes her governor Orval E. Faubuss actions to pre- Judson Memorial Church in New York, fea-
and Competition takes place in Manila, artists, the Biennial acts as a feeder exhi- ture Salon in Warsaw; it is the first spatial essay Ballet: A Visual Experience vent integration at Little Rock Central High turing Claes Oldenburgs The Street and Jim
which includes an small exhibition sent over painting (i.e., installation art) exhibition in School in 1957 Dines The House
by New Yorks Museum of Modern Art Central Europe The Second Conference of Negro Writers
1958
and Artists, organized by the Socit afri- Peter Selz organizes the exhibition New Im- February
May The exhibition Seven Indian Painters in caine de culture takes place in Rome, with ages of Man at the Museum of Modern Art, The exhibition uvres dArt transformable
The first Annual Fifth Moon Group Exhibition Europe at Gallery One in London attracts Gerard Sekoto delivering his I Am an Afri- New York, examining new approaches to (Transformable Art) opens at Gallery One
is held at Zhongshan Hall in Taipei, officially significant media attention to the work of can speech figuration in Europe and the United States in London
launching the group. These annual exhibi- January Avinash Chandra and Francis Newton Souza
tions would continue until 1970 Giuseppe Tomasi di Lampedusas novel Il May October The First National Art Exhibition Soviet
Gattopardo (The Leopard) is posthumously Youssef Chahine releases the film Bab Satyajit Ray releases Apur Sansar (The Ornette Coleman releases the album The Russia takes place in Moscow, featuring
Yves Klein releases his Sculpture arosta- published al-H.add (Cairo Station) World of Apu), the final part of The Apu Tri- Shape of Jazz to Come over 2,400 works of socialist realist art
tique (Aerostatic Sculpture) into the sky as olgy of films
part of his exhibition Propositions mono- Bimal Roy releases the Hindu drama Mad- August The first Paris Biennale opens at the Muse The Modern Literature and Art Association
chromes at Galerie Iris Clert in Paris humati Yashpal publishes Vatan Aur Desh (Home- 19 Antonio Porta, Angela Verga, Farfa, Franois Truffaut releases his debut film d'art moderne de la ville de Paris, exhibiting organize the Hong Kong International Salon
land and Country), the first of his two- Nanni Balestrini and Enrico Baj pose with Les Quatre Cents Coups (The 400 Blows) mostly the work of younger artists of Paintings at St. Johns Cathedral Hall, the
June Jasper Johns exhibits his Flags for the volume novel Jhutha Sach (This Is Not Baj and Verga's Interplanetary Sculpture, first major exhibition of modern art from
Elaine de Kooning publishes the article first time at the Leo Castelli Gallery in New That Dawn) which is based on the events Milan, 1959. The exhibition Gego: Sculptures and The exhibition Zehn Jahre bildende Kunst in both Hong Kong and Taiwan
Pure Paints a Picture in the summer edi- York 17 Yves Kleins performance Anthropomtrie surrounding Partition. The second volume Gouaches takes place at the Liberia Cruz der DDR (Ten Years of Fine Art in the GDR)
tion of ARTnews; it is widely considered to de l'poque bleue takes place at the Galerie Desh Ka Bhavishya (The Future of the del Sur in Caracas; it is her first solo show takes place as part of the 10. Jahrestag Yu Hyun-mok releases the film Obaltan (A
be one of the best articles on pure paint- February internationale d'art contemporain, 253, rue Country) is published two years later. December DDR-Grndung (The Tenth Anniversary Ex- Stray Bullet), commonly regarded as one of
ing Lawrence Alloway publishes his essay The Saint Honor, Paris, 9 March 1960. The exhibition Art of Socialist Countries June hibition of the Founding of the GDR) at the the best Korean films ever made
Arts and the Mass Media in the journal Ar- September opens at the Manege Exhibition Hall in Alain Resnaiss film Hiroshima mon amour Pavillon der Kunst in East Berlin
July chitectural Design, coining the term Pop art Mikhail Kalatozov releases the film Letyat Moscow. Framed as a socialist response to premieres in Paris The International Sky Festival takes place
Nevil Shutes post-apocalyptic novel On the bition for the countrys participation in the the commercial biennials held in Western Allan Kaprow stages his ground-breaking on the roof of the Takashimaya Department
Beach is published March Venice Biennale Europe, the exhibition was best remem- Marcel Camus film Orfeu Negro (Black Or- 18 Happenings in 6 Parts at the Reuben Store in Osaka, in which the work of thirty
Robert Rauschenberg first exhibits his bered for the inclusion of several contrasting pheus) premieres in Paris. Featuring music Gallery in New York
The founding conference of the Situationist combines at the Leo Castelli Gallery in New An event simply called Untitled (Happening) approaches to socialist realism as well as, by Antnio Carlos Jobim and Luiz Bonf,
International takes place at Cosio dArroscia York takes place at Douglass College in New in the case of the Polish contribution, ele- the film is also noteworthy for popularizing The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum
in Italy. Participants include Michle Bern- Brunswick, New Jersey, most likely the first ments of abstraction bossa nova music outside of Brazil opens in New York, ten years after the
stein, Guy Debord, Giuseppe Pinot-Gallizio, Chuck Berry releases his classic rock-and- happening in the United States death of its founder and six months after its
Asger Jorn, Walter Olmo, Piero Simondo, roll single Johnny B. Goode July architect, Frank Lloyd Wright, died.
Elena Verrone, and Ralph Rumney Brussels Worlds Fair (also known as Expo The American National Exhibition opens in
1959
April 58) opens at the Heysel Plateau, and in- a pavilion in Sokolniki Park, Moscow, and is November
August The exhibition Das rote Bild (The Red Picture) cludes the Atomium and Le Corbusiers best remembered for the impromptu Kitch- Gustav Metzger publishes his first mani
The landmark installation/exhibition An takes place in the studio of Otto Piene in Philips Pavilion en Debate during the opening between festo of Auto Destructive Art, which
Exhibit opens at the Hatton Gallery in New- Dsseldorf, exhibiting monochrome works then US vice president Richard Nixon and exhibits at the Cardboards exhibition, held
castle-Upon-Tyne, before traveling to the by forty artists. The catalogue accompa- Pablo Picasso unveils his mural The Fall of January Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev at Brian Robins' Coffee House in London
ICA in London nying the show is also the first issue of the Icarus on the wall of the UNESCO Head- Gnter Grass publishes Die Blechtrommel
groups magazine, ZERO, which ceases quarters in Paris (The Tin Drum) Documenta 2 opens in Kassel. Subtitled Nam June Paik performs Hommage John
September publication after three issues Art After 1945, the exhibition focuses Cage: Music for Tape Recorder and Piano at
The first issue of Black Orpheus, a journal May February solely on postwar art, particularly a con- Dsseldorfs Galerie 22, his first action in
of African and Afro-American literature, is Michel Tapi and Yoshihara Jiro jointly or- John Kenneth Galbraith publishes The Af- Musicians Buddy Holly, Ritchie Valens, tingent of ninety-seven predominantly which he performs outside the boundaries
20 Raymond Hains, Pierre Restany,
published in Ibadan, Nigeria ganize the exhibition International Art of a fluent Society, which introduces the contro- andJ. P. The Big Bopper Richardson are abstract expressionist works sent by New of conventional music
Jacques Villegl, Franois Dufrene and
New Era: Informel and Gutai at the Takashi- versial term conventional wisdom killed in a plane crash near Clear Lake, Yorks Museum of Modern Art
Arman meet at the studio of Yves Klein
Jack Kerouac publishes On the Road, a de- Iowa, along with their pilot, Roger Peter- The exhibition 10 Pintores concretos expo- to sign the Constitutive Declaration of
fining work of the postwar Beat and Coun- Elizeth Moreira Cardoso releases the album son.The event is later dubbed The Day the August nen pinturas y dibujos at the Galera de Arte New Realism, Paris, 1960.
terculture generations Cano do Amor Demais, widely considered Music Died Giuseppe Pinot-Gallizio publishes his Man- ColorLuz in Havana represents the first
to be the worlds first bossa nova record ifesto della Pittura Industriale (Manifesto major showing of the recently-formed group
The Chinese painter Qi Baishi dies at his The Extraordinary Congress of Art Critics of Industrial Painting: For a Unitary Applied Diez Pintores Concretos (Ten Concrete Japanese, US, and European artists are
home in Beijing at the age of ninety-three Karl Jaspers publishes Die Atombombe 18 Pablo Picasso attends the inauguration takes place in Braslia, Rio de Janeiro, and Art) in the journal Internationale Situation- Painters); comprising Pedro lvarez, Wifre- attached to helium balloons and launched
und die Zukunft des Menschen (The Atomic of his mural at the UNESCO building, So Paulo with the aim of discussing the niste do Arcay, Salvador Corratg, Sand Dari, into the sky
November Bomb and the Future of Man) Paris, 1958. construction of Braslia as part of the Inte- Luis Martnez Pedro, Alberto Menocal, Jos
The collective Equipo 57 publish their man- gration of the Arts project Qurratulain Hyder publishes his novel Aag Mijares, Pedro de Ora, Lol Soldevilla, and May
ifesto The Interactivity of Plastic Space to Ritwik Ghatak releases the Indian Bengali ka Darya (River of Fire), considered to be the Rafael Soriano Guy Debord publishes the Situationist In-
accompany their inaugural exhibition at the film Ajantrik (The Pathetic Fallacy) zhuravli (The Cranes Are Flying), depicting March most important novel of twentieth-century ternational Manifesto in Paris
Sala Negra in Madrid the damage suffered to the Soviet psyche Jean Tinguely publishes his manifesto Fr Urdu fictio Fateh Moudarres is given his first solo exhi-
June as a result of World War II Statik (For Static), which he then scatters bition at the Galleria Cichi in Rome June
Boris Pasternaks book Doctor Zhivago The exhibition Transferences at the Zwem- from an airplane over Dsseldorf. The Antipodeans exhibition takes place at Nagisa Oshima releases the film Seishun
is first published in Italy after the author mer Gallery constitutes the first London Dorothy Miller organizes the exhibition The the Victorian Artists Society in Melbourne. December Zankoku Monogatari (Cruel Story of Youth)
smuggles it out of the Soviet Union group show of Commonwealth artists, New American Painting at the Hochschule Jean Fautrier publishes his essay Par- Accompanied by the publication of The An- Frank Stella exhibits the first of his Black
16 Frank Stella in front of one of his Black including Sidney Nolan, Francis Newton fr bildende Knste in Berlin, which subse- allles sur linformel (as Parallelen zur tipodean Manifesto, the exhibition argues Paintings at the exhibition Sixteen Amer- Gustav Metzger stages the First Public
Ben Enwonwu completes his sculpture of Paintings, New York, between 1958 and Souza, Denis Bowen, and a number of New quently travels to Basel, Milan, Madrid, Am- neuen Malerei [Parallels to the New for the importance of figurative art and pro- icans at the Museum of Modern Art, New Demonstration of Auto-Destructive Art at
Queen Elizabeth II 1962, Photograph: Hollis Frampton Vision Centre artists sterdam, Brussels, Paris, and London Painting]) in the Viennese journal Bltter + tests against the pervasiveness of US-style York the Temple Gallery in London
Bilder, in which he famously states paint- Abstract Expressionism
The exhibition Korean Contemporary Artists The Primera Bienal Interamericana de Pintu- October ing is something that can only destroy itself, Michelangelo Antonioni releases the film
1960
opens at the National Museum of Contem- maya Department Store in Osaka, bringing ra y Grabado (First Inter-American Biennial The Zaria Art Society is formed by a group which must destroy itself in order to be re- Miles Davis releases the influential album LAvventura
porary Art at Deoksugung Palace in Seoul together informel artists from Japan, Eu- of Painting and Engraving) takes place at of art students at the Nigerian College of invented Kind of Blue
rope, and the United States the Museo Nacional de Artes Plsticas in Arts, Science, and Technology. Comprising July
Commemorating the fortieth anniversary of Mexico City Demas Nwoko, Bruce Onobrakpeya, S. Irein The first Exposio Nacional de Arte Neo- Eugne Ionescos absurdist play Rhinocros Jean-Luc Godard releases his first full-
the October Revolution, the All-Union Art Yves Kleins exhibition La spcialisation Wangboje, Yusuf Grillo, William Olaosebi- concreta (National Exhibition of Neo- is presented for the first time on BBC Radio April length film, bout de souffl (Breathless)
Exhibition is held at the Manege Exhibition de la sensibilit ltat matire premire Luciano Berios pioneering electroacoustic kan, Simon Okeke, and Uche Okeke, the Concrete Art) opens at the Museu de Arte Parviz Tanavoli opens the Atelier Kaboud in
Hall in Moscow; it is one of the largest ex- en sensibilit picturale stabilise, Le Vide composition Thema (Omaggio a Joyce) is group aimed to decolonize the visual arts Moderna do Rio de Janeiro, the first large- Tehran, an important meeting spot for the
hibitions in Soviet history, with over eight (The Specialization of Sensibility in the broadcast for the first time in Naples as taught by expatriate Europeans scale exhibition of neo-concrete works Contemporary Artists Group
thousand works displayed Raw Material State into Stabilized Pictorial
123
September Wole Soyinka, Christopher Okigbo, JP Darmstadt, and Salzburg Joseph Hellers satirical novel Catch-22 is February Christo installs his Wall of Oil Barrels: The November contains a copy of their manifesto
Lionel Rogosins semi-documentary film Clark, and Ezekiel Mphahlele published Chris Markers post-apocalyptic science fic- Iron Curtain in Rue Visconti in Paris The 1st Exhibition of the New Image Asso-
Come Back Africa premieres at the Venice Rattana Pestonjis film Prae Dum (Black tion film La Jete (The Pier) is released in Paris ciation takes place at Gyeongbokgung Pal- April
International Film Festival The first proto-Fluxus events are held in Silk) premieres at the Berlin International Gyrgy Ligetis micropolyphonic orches- July ace Museum, Seoul Pierre Boulle publishes his science fiction nov-
New York to coincide with the opening of Film festival, becoming the first Thai film to tral work Atmosphres premieres at the March The inaugural concert of the Judson Dance el La Plante des singes (Planet of the Apes)
Ben Enwonwu publishes his letter African George Maciunas and Almus Salciuss AG be chosen for a major festival Donaueschingen Festival Otto Piene organizes the first Zero-Fest Theater takes place at the Judson Memorial An important solo exhibition of Jacob Law-
Art In Danger in the Times newspaper, in Gallery. Music and events are staged by at the Rheinwiesen in Dsseldorf, during Hall in New York rences work opens at the Mbari Club in May
which he speaks of his fear about the un- Maciunas and Salcius himself, along with The survey Recent Australian Painting opens November which he releases balloons into the air, illu- Ibadan, Nigeria. It then travels to Lagos and Josiah Kariuki publishes Mau Mau De
healthy situation affecting Nigerian modern Toshi Ichiyanagi, Jackson Mac Low, and at the Whitechapel Gallery in London, repre- Ibrahim El-Salahi is given a solo exhibition minating them with spotlights Andy Warhol first exhibits his Campbells Oshogbo tainee, recounting his experiences of the
art due to the influx of Western, particularly Dick Higgins senting the first major exhibition of modern at the Mbari Gallery in Ibadan, Nigeria Soup Cans (1962) at the Ferus Gallery in detention camps in Kenya during the Mau
British, ideas and the ascension of the com- Australian art outside of the country Marcos Grigorian exhibits part of his monu- Los Angeles Yasujiro Ozu releases the film Sanma no aji Mau Uprising
mercial market The exhibition Bewogen Beweging (Moved Georg Baselitz and Eugen Schnebeck mental Gate of Auschwitz for the first time (An Autumn Afternoon)
Movement) takes place at the Stedelijk Mu- Raymond Hains and Jacques (Mah de la) publish the first edition of their Pandmo- at the Misaquieh Film Studio in Tehran The Premier salon de lindpendance (The June
Gillo Pontecorvo releases the film Kap seum in Amsterdam; it is an exhibition of ki- Villegl first exhibit their affiches lacres nisches Manifest (Pandemonic Manifes- First Salon of Independence) takes place December Ben Enwonwu publishes Into the Abstract
netic art introducing the work of an emerging referencing the Algerian War as part of the to) as a poster during their joint exhibition The exhibition Nul is staged at Amsterdams at the Salle Ibn Khaldoun in Algiers, the Anthony Burgess publishes his dystopian
October generation of artists such as Daniel Spoerri, exhibition La France dchire (Torn France), at Fasanenplatz in Berlin. A second version Stedelijk Museum. Featuring the work of nations first major post-independence art novel A Clockwork Orange
Armans exhibition Le Plein (Full-Up) opens Jean Tinguely, Robert Mller, Jess Rafael which is held at Galerie J in Paris of the manifesto would later be published Arman, Pol Bury, Enrico Castellani, Dada- exhibition
at Galerie Iris Clert in Paris Soto, and Dieter Roth as a limited edition in February 1962 maino, Piero Dorazio, Lucio Fontana, Franc-
July esco Lo Savio, Heinz Mack, Piero Manzoni, August
1963
Wole Soyinkas A Dance of the Forests is April The exhibition Sydney Nine opens at the Frantz Fanons book Les Damns de la terre Otto Piene, and Gnther Uecker, the exhibi- Frank McEwen founds the Workshop
first performed as part of Nigerias inde- The Gorgona group publish the first of their David Jones Art Gallery in Sydney, before (The Wretched of the Earth) is published in tion constitutes the first major survey of the School in the basement of the Rhodes Na-
pendence celebrations in Lagos anti-magazines, Gorgona 1, with each is- showing at Gallery A in Melbourne in Sep- Paris ZERO group tional Gallery in Salisbury, Rhodesia
sue prepared as an original artwork by a tember. A direct response to the recent
The Independence Exhibition takes place single artist, beginning with Josip Vanita Antipodeans exhibition, the participating art- The exhibition Arte Destructivo (Destruc- The Mbari Mbayo Club is founded in The first Actuel exhibition opens at the Na- January
on Victoria Island in Lagos, and includes an ists make a dramatic entrance, arriving at the tuve Art) takes place at the Galera Lirolay Osogbo. For its inauguration Duro Lad- tional Central Information Center in Seoul The exhibition Two Painters from Africa:
Exhibition of Contemporary Nigerian Art Malangatana Ngwenya has his first solo opening of the Melbourne show in helicopter in Buenos Aires. The exhibition comprises ipo premieres his first opera, Oba Moro Malangatana and Salahi opens at the ICA
exhibition, Malangatana Goenha Valente, at and brandishing abstract paintings. A young (Ghost-Catcher King) The First International Congress of African in London
Lygia Clark first exhibits her Bichos at the the Associao dos Organismos Econmi- Robert Hughes writes the catalogue Culture is held at the National Gallery in
Galeria Bonino in Rio de Janeiro cos in Loureno Marques April Salisbury, Rhodesia Ousmane Sembne's debut short film Bo-
The Museum of the Chinese Revolution A display of paintings by Charles Hossein rom Sarret (The Wagoner) premieres at the
25 The members of the Otra Figuracin
The Nouveau Ralisme Manifesto is May opens in Tiananmen Square in Beijing The kinetic art exhibition Dylaby: Dyna- Festival de Tours in Paris group, Rmulo Macci, Ernesto Deira,
signed at Yves Kleins apartment in Paris The I. Trijenale likovnih umetnosti (First Yu- misch Labyrint (Dylaby: Dynamic Labyrinth) Luis Felipe No, and Jorge de la Vega, in
goslav Triennial of Fine Arts) takes place at Heinz Mack, Otto Piene, und Gnther Ueck- takes place at the Stedelijk Museum in Am- Sylvia Plath publishes The Bell Jar Buenos Aires, 1963.
the Muzej savremene umetnosti (Museum er organize the event ZERO. Edition, Expo- sterdam
of Contemporary Art) in Belgrade sition, Demonstration at Galerie Schmela in February
Dsseldorf, which coincides with the publi- September Tetsumi Kudo performs Happening: Philos- Jungle: A Criticism of the New Trend in
The exhibition Environments, Situations, cation of the third and final issue of ZERO Joseph Beuys helps organize FLUXUS: ophy of Impotence at the Cinma-Studio de Nigerian Art in the South African journal
Spaces opens at the Martha Jackson Gal- magazine Internationale Festspiele Neuester Musik Boulogne in Paris Drum
lery in New York. Allan Kaprow installs his (FLUXUS: International Festival of Newest
seminal work, The Yard, in the sculpture August Music) at the Stdtisches Museum in Wies- George Maciunas publishes the first Flux- Marta Minujn, along with a group of other
garden, while Claes Oldenburg publishes The first Nove tendencije (New Tendencies) baden, Europes first major Fluxus festival us Manifesto comprising selected diction- artists, stages La Destruccin (The De-
his text I Am for An Art exhibition opens at the Galerija suvremene ary definitions of the word flux struction) at Impasse Ronsin in Paris, in
umjetnosti (Gallery for Contemporary Art) Rachel Carson publishes her book Silent which she destroys all of the works that she
June in Zagreb Spring, documenting the grave environmen- Joseph Beuys performs Sibirische Sym- had created during her scholarship in the
21 Frank McEwen with founding members 23 Participants of the Arte Destructivo
Karl Otto Gtz publishes his essay Elekt- tal effects caused by the indiscriminate use phonie, 1. Satz (Siberian Symphony, First city by burning them and then smearing the
of the Workshop School in Salisbury. (Destructive Art) exhibition pose for a
ronische Malerei und ihre Programmierung The exhibition Otra Figuracin (Other Fig- of pesticides Movement) as part of the festival FESTUM remains with paint
group photo at the Galeria Lirolay, Buenos
(Electronic Painting and its Programming) uration) takes place at the Galera Peuser FLUXORUM. FLUXUS. Musik und Anti-
Aires, 1961 [Seated: Kenneth Kemble,
November in the journal Das Kunstwerk in Buenos Aires, featuring the work of Luis October musik. Das Instrumentale Theater held at July
standing f.l.t.r.: Jorge Lopez Anaya, Silvia
A group of artists stages an alternative ex- Felipe No, Jorge de la Vega, Rmulo Mac- Torras, Jorge Roiger and Luis Wells.] The exhibition Entartete KunstBildersturm the Staatlichen Kunstakademie in Dssel- Alexander Skunder Boghossian is given
hibition of works on the exterior walls of V. S. Naipaul publishes his much-acclaimed ci, and Ernesto Deira vor 25 Jahren (Degenerate ArtIconoclasm dorf a solo exhibition of his works at the Mbari
24 Emmet Williams demonstrates his
the Duksoogung Palace in Seoul, which novel A House for Mr Biswas 25 Years Ago) takes place in Munichs Haus Gallery in Ibadan
participative Universal Poem at The
is hosting the annual Kukjeon (National September found objects subsequently distorted or de- der Kunst; it is the first critical survey of the Piero Manzoni dies of a heart attack in his
Festival of Misfits at the ICA,
Art Exhibition). Comprising informel-style Kwame Nkrumah publishes his book I Speak Arnold Belkin publishes his essay Interio- stroyed to the sound of a lecture by Jorge London, 1961. Entartete Kunst (Degenerate Art) exhibition studio in Milan LeRoi Jones publishes his landmark study
works, the exhibition contrasts with the of Freedom: A Statement of African Ideology rism, Neo-Humanism, New Expressionism Romero Brest, a reading of Aristotles Po- that the National Socialists staged in the of Afro-American music and culture Blues
predominantly conservative works on ex- in the journal Nueva Presencia etics, and the script to a play by Picasso, city in 1937 Federico Fellini's film 8 premieres in Italy People: Negro Music in White America
hibit inside the building along with the artists own musical compo- Zenderoudi at the Third Tehran Biennial at to universal acclaim
Ornette Coleman releases the landmark sitions Abayz Palace marks the official beginning Dr. No, the first James Bond film, is released August
Hermann Nitsch stages his First Painting album Free Jazz: A Collective Improvisation of the Saqqa-kana School movement Jean-Marie Straub releases his short film The Nove tendencije 2 exhibition takes
Action at the Technical Museum in Vienna Yoko Ono performs A Grapefruit in the The Festival of Misfits takes place at Lon- Machorka-Muff in New York place at the Galerija suvremene umjetnos-
Members of the Gorgona group hold the World of Park, A Piece for Strawberries and Andrei Tarkovskys Soviet war drama Ivano- dons ICA and Gallery One, featuring Fluxus ti (Gallery of Contemporary Art) in Zagreb.
first Studio G exhibition at the ira picture Violin, and AOSto David Tudor at Carnegie vo detstvo (Ivans Childhood) is released in concerts and events organized by Robert March Matko Metrovic uses the occasion to pub-
framing shop in Zagreb. Participants include Hall in New York Moscow Filliou, Dick Higgins, Gustav Metzger, Robin Dennis Brutuss collection of poems Sirens, lish his untitled manifesto, which would be
1961
Eugen Feller, Ivan Koaric , Maeda, Franois Page, Nam June Paik, Daniel Spoerri, and Knuckles, Boots: Poems is published by the subsequently distributed as ldeologija
Morellet, Ivan Rabuzin, Matija Skurjeni, December May others Mbari Artists and Writers Club in Ibadan Novih tendencija (The Ideology of New
Marko utaric , and Victor Vasarely Claes Oldenburg installs The Store in a Vladimir Nabokov publishes his 999-line while he is in prison in South Africa Tendencies)
disused property at 107 East 2nd Street in poem Pale Fire The First International Exhibition of Fine Arts
January Athol Fugards play The Blood Knot pre- New York of Saigon takes place at the Round-Pavilion Daniel Spoerri stages Restaurant de la The Manifes Kebudayaan (Cultural Man-
Jewad Selim dies in Baghdad, just prior to mieres at the Rehearsal Room of Dorkay Umberto Eco publishes Opera aperta (The in the Tao-Dn Garden. Intended as a bien- Galerie J in Paris, which consists of a work- ifesto) is published in the News Republic
the completion of his monumental Nasb House in Johannesburg Open Work) nial, nomadic exhibition, the outbreak of the ing restaurant, the remnants of which are newspaper. Signed by a number of Jakar-
al-Hurriyah (Monument of Freedom) in Al- Vietnam War ensures that this is the only then exhibited ta-based artists, the manifesto called for a
1962
Tahrir Square 22 Demas Nwoko and Uche October Benjamin Britten premieres his work War iteration of this event rejection of Sukarnos authoritarian cultural
Okeke at the opening of the Jean Rouch and Edgar Morin release their policies in favor of a universal humanism
Requiem, Op. 66 to mark the consecration Nam June Paik stages Exposition of Music
inaugural art exhibition
February experimental documentary film Chronique of the new Coventry Cathedral The International Exhibition of the New Real- Electronic Television at the Galerie Par-
at the Mbari Artists
Niki de Saint Phalle stages the first of her dun t (Chronicle of a Summer) ists at the Sidney Janis Gallery in New York nass in Wuppertal Charlotte Moorman stages the first
and Writers Club, Ibadan, 1961.
Shooting actions in a vacant lot behind the January June introduces the work of artists who would Avant-Garde Festival of New York at the
artists studio at 11 Impasse Ronsin in Paris, William Seitz organizes The Art of the As- Glauber Rocha releases the Barravento Doris Lessings novel The Golden Notebook later be grouped under the banner of Pop The Beatles release their debut studio Judson Memorial Church in New York; it
the first of a dozen such events The United States Information Agency or- semblage at the Museum of Modern Art, (The Turning Wind), one of the key films is published art: Jim Dine, Robert Indiana, Roy Lichten- album Please Please Me combines Fluxus and happenings with per-
ganizes the traveling exhibition Vanguard New York, a monumental survey exhibition within the Brazilian Cinema Novo movement stein, Claes Oldenburg, James Rosenquist, formance, kinetic, and video art
March American Painting, which opens in Vienna of 130 artists works, ranging from cubism Yves Klein dies of a heart attack in Paris George Segal, Andy Warhol, Tom Wes- The Zero Group stage their exhibition
The Mbari Artists and Writers Club is found- before traveling to Belgrade, Skopje, Za- to the present day; the exhibition subse- selmann, Tano Festa, Mimmo Rotella, and ZERO Der neue Idealismus at the Galerie
ed in Ibadan by Ulli Beier and the writers greb, Maribor, Ljubljana, Rijeka, London, quently travels to Dallas and San Francisco Mario Schifano Diogenes in Berlin, the leaflet of which
125
September Demonstration for Capitalist Realism) at the of the Western art world November Shigeko Kubota performs Vagina Painting However, the director of the institute, Jorge
The Groupe de Recherche dArt Visuel Mbelhaus Berges in Dsseldorf Herbie Hancock releases the album Empy- as part of the Perpetual Fluxfest event held Romero Brest, orders its removal just prior
(Visual Arts Research Group) stage their Carolee Schneemann first performs her work rean Isles at the Cinematheque in New York to the opening
first collective work, Labyrinthe, as part of Group 1890 have their inaugural (and only) Meat Joy at the American Center in Paris as
the third Paris Biennale at the Muse d'art exhibition at the LKA Gallery in New Delhi part of the First Festival of Free Expression Wolf Vostell organizes In Ulm, um Ulm und Gnter Brus stages his Wiener Spaziergang October
moderne de la ville de Paris um Ulm herum, featuring 200 participants (Vienna Walk) through the streets of Vien- The Muzej savremene umetnosti (Museum
November June across twenty-four locations nas old city of Contemporary Art) in Belgrade officially
Forough Farrokhzads acclaimed documen- Tadeusz Kantors exhibition Wystawa popu- Mohammed Khadda publishes his essay opens
tary short film Khaneh syah ast (The House larna (Popular Exhibition, also known as the lments pour un art nouveau (Compo- The first Biennial of Spatial Forms takes
Is Black) is released Anti-Exhibition) at the Galeria Krzysztofory nents for a New Art) in the Algerian journal place in Elblag, Poland. Organized and The exhibition Between Poetry and Painting
1965
in Krakow, filling the spaces dark brick Rvolution africaine sponsored by the Zamech Mechanical takes place at the London ICA
Wolf Vostells large-scale happening Nein basement with almost a thousand objects Works and the artist Jrgen Blum (Gerard
9 Decollagen (organized by Galerie Parnass) that include drawings, sketches, theatrical Roland Barthes publishes lments de Kwiatkowski), the biennial served as a na- November
takes place at various locations throughout costumes, boxes, and photographs smiologie (Elements of Semiology) in the tional survey of large-scale sculpture On the evening before the opening at the
Wuppertal. The audience is ferried by bus French journal Communications January Galerie Schmela in Dsseldorf, Joseph
from location to location, including a cinema December John Coltrane releases the album A Love August Beuys stages the action Wie man dem toten
that screened Sun in Your Head as people Shigeko Kubotas first solo exhibition, 1st Documenta 3 opens in Kassel. Now nick- Supreme Hlio Oiticica presents the first public per- Hasen die Bilder erklrt (How to Explain
lay on the floor Love, 2nd Love ..., takes place at the Naiqua named the Museum of 100 Days, Docu- formance of his Parangols during the ex- Pictures to a Dead Hare). With the doors
Gallery in Tokyo A censored version of Marlen Khutsievs hibition Opinio 65 at the Museu de Arte locked, Beuys sits in the window of the gal-
Colette Oluwabamise Omogbai holds her film Mne dvadtsat let (I Am Twenty) is re- Moderna do Rio de Janeiro; concurrent lery explaining the surrounding paintings to
first solo exhibition at the Exhibition Centre The first Original Form Association exhibi- leased in Moscow. The original three-hour a dead hare he cradles in his arms, his face
in Marina, Lagos tion takes place at the National Central In- film would not be screened until 1989 covered in gold leaf and honey
formation Center in Seoul
The First Commonwealth Biennial of Ab- March December
stract Art takes place at Londons Common- Duan Makavejevs art film Covek nije tica Tadeusz Kantors stages his first happen-
wealth Institute, before traveling around the (Man Is Not A Bird) is released in Yugoslavia ing, Cricotage, at Towarzystwo Przyjaci
1964
United Kingdom Sztuk Pieknych (Krakw Society of Friends
Twins Seven Seven has his first exhibition of Fine Arts) on Chmielna Street in Warsaw
The XII Convegno Internazionale Artisti, as part of the Third Anniversary Celebration
Critici e Studiosi dArte (12th International of Mbari Mbayo at the Mbari Mbayo Club in
Convention of Artists, Critics, and Art Stu- January Oshogbo
The Society of Nigerian Artists hold their
inaugural exhibition at the Exhibition Centre May
27 Paul Keeler, Sergio de Camargo, Guy
in Lagos The Spiral Group (Romare Bearden, Charles
Brett, Christopher Walker, David Medalla
and Gustav Metzger mailing Signals Alston, Norman Lewis, and Hale Woodruff)
Stanley Kubricks satirical black comedy Dr. Newsbulletin from Cornwall Gardens, hold their firstand onlyexhibition, First
Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Wor- London, 1964. Group Showing (Works in Black and White),
rying and Love the Bomb is released in the in a storefront space at 147 Christopher
United States Street in New York. Bearden exhibits his
mentas focus on painting, sculpture, and work Conjur Woman (1964) for the first time 28 Gnter Brus during his Vienna Walk,
March graphic artas well as its emphasis on 1965.
Marshall McLuhan publishes Understand- abstractionresulted in it appearing to Stano Filko and Alex Mlynrcik stage the
ing Media: The Extensions of Man, coining be somewhat behind the times, especially legendary HAPPSOC I events throughout with his publication of Paragol: uma nova
the term global village when considering the ascendancy of Pop, the streets of Bratislava fundao objetiva arte (Paragol: A New
Nouveau Ralisme, Fluxus, and Capitalist Objective Foundation for Art) in the Brazil-
26 Gerhard Richter and Konrad Lueg Duro Ladipos Three Yoruba Plays (Oba Realism in Europe and the United States David Smith dies in a car crash in South ian journal Opinio
stage the exhibition Leben mit Pop: Eine
Koso/The King Did Not Hang; Oba Moro/ Shaftsbury, Vermont
Demonstration fr den kapitalistischen Re-
The King of Ghosts; and Oba Waja/The July Archie Shepp releases the album Fire Mu-
alismus (Living with Pop: A Demonstration
for Capitalist Realism) at the Mbelhaus King Is Dead) are published together for the Millie Small releases a cover version of the Marta Minujn and Rubn Santantonn sic, which included a requiem for Malcolm X
Berges, Dsseldorf, 1963. first time song My Boy Lollipop, the first successful organize the installation exhibition La Me-
hit that was recorded in the bluebeat style nesunda (Mayhem) at the Instituto di Tella Swiss architect Le Corbusier dies after
April and a forerunner to reggae in Buenos Aires, featuring sixteen rooms of drowning in the Mediterranean Sea at
dents) takes place in Rimini and San Mari- Milan Knk organizes the Prvn manifes- participatory environments Roquebrune-Cap-Martin in France
no, concurrent with the IV Biennale di San tace Aktulnho umen (First Manifestation Yoko Ono first performs Cut Piece at the
Marino of Aktual Art) in the streets around Prague, Yamaichi Concert Hall in Kyoto, with further The exhibition Lygia Clark: First London Ex- September
simultaneously publishing his magazine performances taking place in Tokyo, Lon- hibition of Abstract Reliefs and Articulated Ye Yushan and a team of sculptors from
October Aktuln umeni (Aktual Art), both of which don, and New York Sculpture takes place at the Signals Gallery the Sichuan Academy of Fine Arts exhibit
The first exhibition of the newly formed Am- constitute Central Europes first happenings in London, her first major solo exhibition The Rent Collection Courtyard at the former
adlozi Group opens at the Egon Guenther August outside of America Manor House of Liu Wencai (the original
Gallery in Johannesburg, featuring work The Rolling Stones release their first, self-ti- The first edition of the Signals Newsbulletin rent collector). The 114 sculptures prove
by Cecil Skotnes, Sydney Kumalo, Ezrom tles album is published in London June to be so popular that replicas are quickly
Legae and Edoardo Villa David Medalla publishes his MMMMMMM made and exhibited at the Museum of the
Clement Greenberg organizes the exhibi- Mikhail Kalatozovs film Soy Cuba (I Am Manifesto in the Signals Newsbulletin Chinese Revolution in Beijing
Georg Baselitz holds a solo exhibition at the tion Post-Painterly Abstraction at the Los Cuba) is released in Moscow
Galerie Werner & Katz in Berlin; in which Angeles County Museum of Art, represent- Nina Simone releases her influential album The Commonwealth Art Festival takes
he exhibits Die groe Nacht im Eimer (The ing a comprehensive survey of color field September I Put a Spell on You place in various locations throughout Lon-
Big Night Down the Drain, 196263) for painters and subsequently leading to their Uzo Egonu holds his first solo exhibition at don. Although predominantly focused on
the first time. The work proves so contro- work being grouped under this heading the Woodstock Gallery in London Fateh Al-Moudarres, Abdel Aziz Alloun, and historical art, the exhibition of New Rho-
versial that it, along with the work Nackter Mahmoud Daadouch publish their letter desian Sculpture at the Royal Albert Hall
Mann (Naked Man, 1962), are confiscated May October Inta Harr fi Raika (You Are Free to Your features works by a group of African artists
by the police The 32nd Venice Biennale signals the Eu- The inauguration of the Signals Gallery takes Opinion) in the journal Sawt al-Arab; the who emerged from the school run by Frank
ropean arrival of Pop art, with the work place in London. Founded by David Medal- letter would be later known as the Syrian McEwen at the National Gallery in Harare
The exhibition By or of Marcel Duchamp or of Jasper Johns, Jim Dine, and Claes la and Paul Keeler, the gallery opens with a Artists Manifesto (then Salisbury)
Rrose Slavy opens at the Pasadena Mu- Oldenburg exhibited in the American pa- solo exhibition of Takiss kinetic sculptures
seum of Art. Curated by Walter Hopps, the vilion, while a collateral exhibition of pop July Len Ferrari first attempts to exhibit his
show is Duchamps first ever retrospective artists is staged by Leo Castelli and Ileana Hi Red Center perform their famous Och- The first Biennale der Ostseelnder (Bienni- sculpture La civilizacin occidental y cristi-
Sonnabend in the ex-American Consulate anomizu Drop and Lets Participate in the al of the Baltic Sea Countries) takes place ana (Western Christian Civilisation, 1965)
Gerhard Richter and Konrad Fischer stage in San Gregorio. Most controversial of all is HRC Campaign to Promote the Cleanup at the Museum der Stadt Rostock as part of as part of the Premio Nacional e Internac-
the exhibition/demonstration Leben mit the awarding of the prize for foreign artists and Orderliness of the Metropolitan Area! the citys larger Ostseewoche Festival ional Instituto Torcuato Di Tella (National
Pop Eine Demonstration fr den kapital- to Robert Rauschenberg, further signifying in various venues around Tokyo during the Award and the International Institute Tor-
istischen Realismus (Living with Pop A the United States ascension as the center citys hosting of the Olympic Games cuato Di Tella) exhibition in Buenos Aires.
127
Section Introduction
Yasufumi Nakamori
Stephen Petersen
Ariella Azoulay
Plates
1 AFTERMATH:
ZERO HOUR AND
THE ATOMIC ERA
T
he opening image of the postwar era is that of the atomic bomba
new technology that ushered in an era of intertwined beginnings
and endings. The bomb was first a Japanese story, told through
photography (much of it suppressed, only to be released later)
and by artists describing the suffering they saw. Photographs and films of
ruined cities and of concentration camp survivors also appeared in the im-
mediate postwar period, and the full realization of the horror of the camps
sparked ambitious work in Germany. As these accounts put an end to
European moral authority, the wars conclusion also signaled the end of
Europes political power and the opening of an era of American military
and commercial dominance. American artists were excited by the won-
drous natural and scientific revelations of the nuclear age and were awed by
AFTERMATH: the bombs biblically scaled power, even as they were skeptical of the U.S.
ZERO HOUR AND THE ATOMIC ERA governments justification for its use. In the wake of Futurisms worship of
technology, Italian artists were also keenly focused on the bomb. A new
kind of war began: the Cold War and the arms race, driven by the United
States and Russia but encompassing all nations. The iconography of the
mushroom cloud helped to create a new awareness of the globe as a single,
interconnected entity, a sense of scale emphasized by the programs of
space exploration that would emerge from military technology, affording
views of the Earth that led to an awareness of global interconnectedness.
Introduction 133
B
y ruminating on the images of Japanese cities on August 10, 1945, reveal a raw, direct dimension of the carnage, unfil-
bombarded in 1945, I believe I might be able to tered by artistic subjectivity.3 When the second atom bomb was dropped
construct a point of view with which to confront on Nagasaki on August 9, Yamahata was immediately dispatched from
world history. It was only from the springboard his post in Fukuoka to go there with four other soldiers, including a writ-
stance of a return to that point where all human er and a painter. Despite the relatively short distance between the two
constructs were nullified that future construction citiesabout 105 kilometers, or 65 milesin the chaos of the moment
would again be possible, I thought. Ruins to me the reporters trip took them twelve hours by train. They arrived on the
were a source of imagination, and in the 1960s, outskirts of Nagasaki around 3 a.m. on August 10. In the cold night air
it turned out that the image of the future city was itself ruins. Professing faith and under a beautiful starry sky, Yamahatas first sight there was of
in ruins was equal to planning the future, so much were the times deranged numerous small fires, like elf fires, smoldering at a distance.4 He soon
and out of sync. sensed that the city was in complete ruins. One of his companions
Arata Isozaki, 20061 described it as a desert of death, as if hit by the largest storm in an era,
unfolding under a crescent moon.5
The epigraph above, by the architect Arata Isozaki, represents a senti- Yamahata was in Nagasaki for the next twelve hours. As day broke
ment shared in the 1960s by many of the so-called yakeato-ha, the pop- and the light grew, he began to photograph, walking about six kilometers
ulation that had grown up in the fire-devastated areas of postWorld War from south to north and passing near ground zero. His images show
II Japan. Born in the 1930s, as adolescents they saw their cities in ashes. charred bodies, bomb victims near death (fig. 1), architectural debris,
Working from their memo- a burning landscape, and a
ries in the immediate post- few seemingly healthy survi-
war years, they envisioned an vors, all seen under the direct
archetypal city, a future city. rays of a cloudless August sky
1 Arata Isozaki, Japan-ness in Architecture, trans. Sabu Kohso (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT
Press, 2006), pp. 99100. Emphasis added by author.
2 See Yasufumi Nakamori, Imagining Cities: Visions of Avant-Garde Artists and Architects
from 1953 to 1970 Japan, PhD dissertation, Cornell University, 2011.
3 See Rupert Jenkins, Introduction, in Jenkins, ed., Nagasaki Journey: The Photographs of
Yosuke Yamahata, August 10, 1945 (San Francisco: Pomegranate Artbooks, 1995), pp. 1322.
-
4 Yosuke Yamahata, Genbaku satsuei memo, in Munehito Kitajima, ed., Genbaku no Naga-
saki: kiroku shashin (Tokyo: Daiichi shuppan-sha, 1952), p. 23. Authors translation.
5 Jun Higashi, Reportage: genbaku Nagasaki no sanj o,- in ibid., p. 16.
6 The additional photographs in the Tokyo exhibition were removed when Emperor Hirohito
visited it, leaving only a cropped and enlarged photograph of the boy with the rice ball. The
exhibition was designed by the architect Kenz -o- Tange, who at the time was completing the
Hiroshima Peace Center (194956). Tange had played an important role in the life of Isamu
Fig. 4. Arata Isozaki. Re-ruined Hiroshima, project, Hiroshima, Japan (Perspective). 1968. Ink and gouache with cut-and-pasted gelatin silver print on gelatin
silver print, 35.293.7 cm. New York, Museum of Modern Art (MoMA). Gift of The Howard Gilman Foundation. Acc. n.: 1205.2000 Noguchi during the artists early years in Japan. Inspired by Tanges Hiroshima project, Noguchi
created Model for Bell Tower for Hiroshima (1950; plate 17) and proposed Memorial to the Dead
of Hiroshima (1952).
Also in 1968, the architect Isozaki created Re-ruined Hiroshima, a As these examples indicate, photographs of A-bombed cities and 7 Masafumi Suzuki, The Atomized City and the Photograph, in Jenkins, ed., Nagasaki
Journey, p. 35.
complex collage of found photographs and his own drawings (fig. 4). their residents were shown and interpreted between 1945 and 1968
8 Nakamori, Experiments with the Camera: Art and Photography in 1970s Japan, in Naka-
Remembering the bombing and burning of his hometown of ita by U.S. according to different strategies, in different formats and contexts, and mori, Allison Pappas, and Yuko Fujii, For a New World to Come: Experiments in Japanese Art
air raids in July 1945, and seeing streets and campuses in Tokyo vandal- for different purposes. As memories of the war began to slip away, and Photography, 19681979, exh. cat. (Houston: Museum of Fine Arts, 2015), p. 16.
- Meet Yosuke
9 Yamahata, quoted in Hidezoh Kondo, - YamahataNagasaki Photographer the
ized over Anpo againIsozaki himself had been one of the protesters though, photographers and artists gave the images a different life as an
Day after the Atomic Bombing, Yomiuri Weekly, August 20, 1962, quoted here from Jenkins,
who clashed with police over the first renewal of the treaty, in 1960he act of protest, reviving them, for example as a collage, in a context that ed., Nagasaki Journey, p. 103.
made the work as part of a larger sonic, visual, architectural, and cyber- unfolded as Japans growing role in the Cold War increased the recover- 10 Erin Barnett and Philomena Mariani, Introduction, in Hiroshima Ground Zero 1945, exh.
cat. (New York: International Center of Photography, in association with Steidl, 2011), p. 5.
netic installation, Electric Labyrinth, which he produced for the Milan ing nations importanceproblematically in relation to U.S. involvement - -
11 Shomei Tomatsu argued for this approach in his debate with the documentary photographer
design triennial that same year. Electric Labyrinth visualized an inter- in Asia. In this process, photographs of the ruins, whether they showed -
Yonosuke -
Natori in 1960. In the issue of Asahi Camera for November of that year, Tomatsu
mingling of past, present, and future, interwoven and saturated with buildings or human bodies, transformed from mere documents to published the letter A Young Photographers Statement: I Refute Mr. Natori, a response to Na-
toris essay The Birth of New Photography, which had appeared in the magazine the previous
tensions and contradictions. catalytic agents that complicated the linear sense of time and challenged month. Active since the prewar years, Natori complained that new, socially oriented photography
Re-ruined Hiroshima itself is based on a found photograph of the the modernity Japan had achieved and the seeming progress it had made often took on the style of Dada-influenced European commercial or fashion photography of the
-
apocalyptic landscape of Hiroshima soon after the A-bomb was through its miraculous accomplishments in the economic, technolog- 1930s. Tomatsu in turn challenged the realist documentary photography practiced by Natori
and his contemporaries and argued for the portrayal of social issues as personal documents.
dropped. While the work refers to the citys nuclear death on August 6, ical, and industrial arenas. 12 See Nakamori, Experiments with the Camera, pp. 1516.
1945, its title refers to a future momentin terms both of 1968, when 13 Isozaki, quoted in Nakamori, Imagining Cities.
FORMS DISINTEGRATE: My opinion is that new needs need new techniques It seems to me
PAINTING IN THE SHADOW that the modern painter cannot express this age, the airplane, the
atom bomb, the radio, in the old forms of the Renaissance or of any
OF THE BOMB other past culture. Each age finds its own technique. 3
Stephen Petersen Pollock saw, or at least intuited, a connection between his own stylistic
breakthrough and the newly unleashed force of the atom, as did the
many critics who reflexively described his work as explosive.
Italian aesthetician Renato Barilli has more pointedly argued that
postwar artists had to confront the Holocaust of the Second World War,
and, as if that were not enough, that of the atomic deflagration:
It might be said that the Other dramatically irrupted and not only in the
marginal domain of stylistic research, but so as to reach all of human- Fig. 1. Members Roberto Crippa, Lucio Fontana, and Gianni Dova of the Arte
Spaziale group holding their paintings inspired by the atomic bomb, Milan, 1952.
ity. This irruption changed the terms of the problem. Artists, with their Courtesy Galleria del Naviglio Milano
Fig. 3. Unidentified Photographer, United States Government. Flash Burns on Steps of Sumitomo Bank Company, Hiroshima Branch. November 1945.
Silver gelatin print, 1012.7 cm. International Center of Photography, New York.
Purchase, with funds provided by the ICP Acquisitions Committee, 2006
We want to remake, to interpret artistically and poetically the and again in his 1953 Piccolo bambino (Little Boy), whose white blobs of
Fig. 2. Enzo Preda. Per dimenticare Hiroshima (In Order to Forget Hiroshima). 1951.
Enamel on canvas, 10080 cm. Private Collection physical and spiritualand indeed psychicexplosions of the new paint suggest both the mushroom cloud and a small skeletal figure, con-
man in the new world.7 flating the name of the bomb dropped on Hiroshima with its conse-
quences. Bajs and Dangelos works, said Arturo Schwarz, have as their
motif the human condition as it would be after an atomic explosion.9
Epoca blu exhibiteleven nearly identical monochrome panels coated in shadows around absent figures. (The Hiroshima victims were literally 2 Ad Reinhardt, How to Look at Three Current Shows, PM, December 15, 1946, p. 12.
3 Jackson Pollock, interview with William Wright, 1950, in Jackson Pollock: Interviews,
artificial ultramarine pigmenthad been held at the Galleria Apollinaire, vaporized by the blast, their shadows forming negative stains as the ce- Articles, and Reviews, ed. Pepe Karmel (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1999), p. 22.
Milan, in January. In September, Klein signed Bajs manifesto Contro ment around them was blanched). It was, as Klein reportedly said about 4 Renato Barilli, Tachisme, informel, abstraction lyrique, In Les Annes 50 (Paris: Centre
Georges Pompidou, Muse national dart moderne, 1988), p. 80. All translations mine unless
lo stile (Against Style), which denounced convention and style in art as the atomic shadows, close to a monochrome.
otherwise noted.
empty repetition, and in October a monochrome painting by Klein was In 1961 Klein made a series of Fire Paintings using a flame throw- 5 Ibid., p. 81.
included in an important exhibit devoted to Arte Nucleare at the Galleria er, among which some examples, the size of large Abstract Expressionist 6 Ibid.
7 Leonardo Borgese, Arte Nucleare, Corriere della Sera (Milan), November 24, 1951, repr.
San Fedele. Only a few months later, Klein would exhibit his infamous works, register imprints and silhouettes of figures along with scorch
in Enrico Baj: Opere dal 1951 al 2001, exh. cat. (Rome: Palazzo delle Esposizioni, in associa-
Le Vide (The Void) at the Galerie Iris Clert in Paris, presenting the small marks and drips made from water. In the days after the Hiroshima tion with Skira, Milan, 2001), p. 238.
gallery empty and painted a brilliant white, a provocative gesture that he bombing, lacking onsite documentation, a Picture Post story on mans 8 Enrico Baj, Attenzione alla Pittura: Baj par Baj, in Enrico Baj (Paris: Filipacchi, 1980), p. 19.
9 Tristan Sauvage [a pseudonym for Arturo Schwarz], Art Nuclaire, trans. John A. Stevens
contextualized at the time explicitly in terms of the atomic age and the entry into the Atom Age had in fact used the visual example of a flame
(Paris: Editions Vilo, 1962), p. 52.
threat of nuclear annihilation: thrower scorching a Japanese soldier to illustrate the action of the atom 10 Baj and Sergio Dangelo, Manifeste de la peinture nuclaire (Brussels: Galerie Apollo,
bomb, while pointing to the far greater force and speed of the bomb, 1952), n.p.
11 Baj, interview with Freddy De Vree, in Enrico Baj Modifications, trans. Pia Nkoduga, exh.
I am happy to be dealing with a problem that is so much of our time. which literally seared to death all living things.16 Harking back to an
cat. (Antwerp: Ronny van de Velde, 1998), n.p.
One mustand this is not an exaggerationkeep in mind that we are informel aesthetic while visibly suggesting flames and explosions, Kleins 12 Enrico Brenna, Pretion, in Sauvage, Art Nuclaire, p. 204.
living in the atomic age, where everything material and physical could Fire Paintings explored the ambiguous aesthetic territorybut also 13 Yves Klein, My Position in the Battle between Line and Color, 1958, repr. in Otto Piene and
Heinz Mack, eds., Zero, trans. Howard Beckman (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1973), p. 10.
disappear from one day to another, to be replaced by nothing but the the terrifying realitywhere the body disintegrates, fusing with the 14 Klein, quoted in Sidra Stich, Yves Klein (Stuttgart: Cantz, 1994), p. 147.
ultimate abstraction imaginable.13 background. 15 Shinichi Segi, Le raliste de limmatriel, in Yves Klein (Paris: Centre Georges Pompidou,
Muse national dart moderne, 1983), p. 84.
16 Picture Post (London), August 25, 1945, quoted in Christoph Laucht, An Imagined Cata-
Soon thereafter Klein drafted a letter to the International Conference clysm Becomes Fact: British Photojournalism and Real and Imagined Nuclear War in Picture
on the Detection of Atomic Explosions proposing to paint in blue the A Post, in Catherine Jolivette, ed., British Art in the Nuclear Age (Farnham: Ashgate, 2014), p. 83.
phers in the way that the large-scale destruction of the cities did.
A picture (fig. 1) showing two photographers together manifests tiate, other placeholders can be named inaccessible photograph of rape, or
THE NATURAL HISTORY OF RAPE an interest in the photographer in zones of war and violence as a figure
always ready with his camera in his hand. That interest is reinforced by
as yet unacknowledged photograph of rape.
These rapes were discussed, though not in depth or at length, in quite
Ariella Azoulay the invisible presence of yet a third photographer, the one who took the a few historical accounts.3 There is no disagreement among research-
photograph we are looking at. In the context of the alleged absence of ers about the widespread occurrence of rapeonly about the precise
number of women who were violated. To ask where the photographs of
these rapes are, then, is not to search for evidence that women were sys-
tematically raped. Such evidence abounds. Instead, this is an ontopolitical
question forced on the photographic archive, defying the priority given to
photographs as the primary outcome of the event of photography, and the
sanctity accorded to the frame as the boundary that determines what pho-
tographic narratives can be written. These priorities and presumptions
limit what we can learn from photographs to discrete units of information
known as facts, which are often used for summary accounts (as if the most
important issue were whether only 700,000 or 800,000 women were
raped in Berlin) or are dismissed as having anything to do with rape. When
so many oral accounts from victims of rape describe the destroyed streets
full of armed soldiers as the arena of their rape, we cannot refrain from
Fig. 1. Photographers at the Brandenburg Gate (untaken photographs of rape),
May 1945 asking, how is it that none of these photographs of destruction became
associated with rape? What expectations are implied by the dismissal of
photographs of rape, though, we can look at this photograph and ask, these photosthat only a photograph in which a rapist or a group of rapists
where are the photographs of rape that these photographers could have are captured in the same frame with an attacked woman could be recog-
been taking in a city plagued with it? Did they not witness these rapes nized as a photograph of rape?
firsthand, or if women were raped in front of their eyes did they choose Rather than reproducing common assumptions about the scarcity
to avert their cameras? Using the diary A Woman in Berlin as a guide in of images or the archival silence and expecting that after seventy years
my exploration of photography to capture rape, I focus mainly on Berlin, during which photographs of this systemic rape did not circulate, the
where thousands of photographs were taken during this time.2 In a city archive will suddenly provide us with a few rare, previously unseen images
caption assumes the right of those who have destroyed the city to con-
tinue to seize it, administer it, and view it, and to act as if they were
not the destroyers but those who had come to explore, assist, and restore
order. This is the familiar imperial protocol: the plight one perpetrates
becomes ones trophy, the object of ones gaze. Even if most of the rapes
were perpetrated by Red Army soldiers and in the Soviet occupation
zone, the tight daily cooperation among Allied forces made them more
than just spectatorsa position they inhabited without remorseand
certainly responsible for the naturalization and decriminalization of
Fig. 9. The Capital of the Third Reich after the Storming of the City,
this systemic violence. Rather than standing against that violence and
April 1945 using the term rape to name a crime, the occupying powers deliber-
ately conflated violence with sex and lovea private matter with public
of being provided with enough food to survive in exchange for their bod- these are neglected, and appear as more of the same. When imperial vi-
ies and work. This is, though, a photograph of a city from which omni- olence is made into ether, these details can be helpful in making it pal- Fig. 12. Berlin Struggles up out of Rubble (verso)
present rape has been wiped out in order to clear the way for its survivors pable again. After all, innumerable photographs were taken in imperial
to be shaped as consumers by the Marshall Plan devised for them. arenas of violence. Careful attention to smell, color, sound, and other
When the Allies walked into Berlin after heavily bombarding it, tactile aspects is necessary to endow this etheric violence with material
smoke was still hanging in the air and the streets were carpeted with presence in photographic archives.
rubble and the corpses of people and animals. A few refugees on the Visual documents of violence perpetrated in the open are not
run, carrying small bundles, could be seen. These elements gradually missing; they are located within available images falsely declared not to
Fig. 13. Hunger The Price of Defeat, Fig. 14. Hunger The Price of Defeat,
October 23, 1945 (recto) October 23, 1945 (verso)
be images of rape, even though they were taken in the same places and with the help of some of their protectors, she and other women had
at the same time as the rapes. been able to block the entrance of the building they were living in with a
Inserted in such a reconstructed timeline, I propose to read fig. 9 kind of door, which restored, even if in a very vulnerable way, some sem- Fig. 16. Refugees Get Hot Soup
not as another photo of destruction but rather as a photo of an arena blance of privacy, threshold, choice, and order. Rapes didnt cease at from Red Cross, 1945
of rape. In these perforated and porous dwellings, women lived with this point, but with some sign of order and organization, their number
no windows, no doors, no water, no gas, no electricity, and very lit- and frequency diminished. After some of the apartments doors were with him. He would have been familiar with this particular building; he
tle food. The women moved from the upper floors to the basement restored, it came time to clear buildings street entrances (figs. 11, 12). probably knew how to get in and out of each of its holes, and wanted to
and back, depending on the data they could gather on the behavior of Writing on the same morning, Anonymous continued, Some people keep some memories of the many evenings and nights he spent there
This is a short version of a longer text shown as a visual essay at Pembroke Hall, Brown
their rapists. Some of the rapists, they learned, were too lazy to climb equipped with heavy scoops called us down to the street, where we with one woman or maybe many, first having to grab her wrists, jerk University, April 2016, and at the f/stop Festival for Photography, Leipzig, June 2016.
to the upper floors, especially when drunk; others felt less comfort shoveled the pile of refuse on the corner.6 When the photo in fig. 9 was her around the corridor, and pull her, hand on her throat, so she can no 1 On the approximation of the number of rapes in Germany see Atina Grossmann, Jews,
Germans and Allies: Close Encounters in Occupied Berlin (Princeton: Princeton University
able raping women in crowded places like basements, where, after the taken, some time after April 27 and not much after the first week of longer scream, 7 and later providing some vodka, herring, candles, and
Press, 2007), pp. 4849; Antony Beevor, The Fall of Berlin 1945 (New York: Viking, 2002);
aerial bombing, people stayed since their apartments were made un- May, rapes were still numerous. cigarettes after he had raped her. At this point food rations were either and Helke Sanders film Liberators Take Liberties (1992).
inhabitable. Young girls in particular hid in closets and other less ac- nonexistent or minimal enough to push women to choose a sort of 2 Anonymous, A Woman in Berlin: Eight Weeks in the Conquered City. A Diary, trans. Philip
Boehm (New York: Picador, 2000), p. 13.
cessible parts of what was left of their or others homes. Some of the rape-under-control in the form of a food-for-sex exchange in place of
3 In 9,558 pages of books I have looked at that focus on 1945, only 161 address the mass
women managed to reduce the number of men who raped them by other forms of rape. As Anonymous writes, Physically I feel a little rape of German women. In the thousands of photographs taken in 1945 and printed in albums
making deals with individual soldiers who would protect them from better, though, now that I am doing something, planning something, there is no mention of rape at all. A few pages on rape can be read in each of these books:
Douglas Botting, From the Ruins of the Reich: Germany 19451949 (New York: Crown, 1985);
the others and, in exchange for access to their bodies, provide them determined to be more than mere mute booty, a spoil of war.8 The
Ian Buruma, Year Zero: A History of 1945 (New York: The Penguin Press, 2013); Richard
with food. The rubble that blocked buildings entrances didnt stand photographer might be this guy, described by Anonymous: out of all Bessel, Germany 1945: From War to Peace (New York: Harper Collins, 2009); David Stafford,
in the way of those who came to rape women. On the contrary, the the male beasts Ive seen these past few days hes the most bearable, Endgame 1945: The Missing Chapter of World War II (New York: Back Bay Books, 2007);
and Giles MacDonogh, After the Reich: The Brutal History of the Allied Occupation (New York:
chase after women was part of the adventure. Although the buildings the best of the lot.9 Those who succeeded in avoiding rape, or its re-
Basic Books, 2007).
were not secure, women preferred staying in them to going outside currence, found themselves outside any of these providential econo- 4 Anonymous, A Woman in Berlin, p. 84.
and walking to their predators. The deserted street in fig. 9 indicates mies. City dumps were rare places where they could find food (figs. 13, 5 Ibid., p. 155.
6 Ibid.
this clearly: the road is already relatively cleansed of rubble, but only 14). The black-market economy was manipulated to authorize certain 7 Ibid., p. 53. These descriptions in the diary use first-person pronouns where I have used
one or two soldiers are seen on it. people to provide women with food, and to ensure that they were not the third person.
On May 9, Anonymous wrote in her diary that she was alone be- creating their own markets with their own rules (fig. 15). They were 8 Ibid., p. 64.
9 Ibid., p. 116.
tween her sheets for the first time since April 27 (fig. 10).5 The day before, constantly arrested since they never stopped trying to find and install 10 Ibid., p. 204.
Fig. 15. Black Market Arrests, 1945 their own trade networks. When Anonymous met with a friend, this was 11 Ibid., p. 140.
159
3
4
David Smith David Smith
Perfidious Albion The Maiden's Dream
1945 1949
bronze and cast iron bronze
Nasher Sculpture Center, Dallas The Estate of David Smith, New York
161
Joseph Beuys
Hirschdenkmler (Monuments to the Stag)
1958/82
mixed media
Private Collection
5
Joseph Beuys
Hirschdenkmler (Monuments to the Stag)
1958/82
mixed media
Private Collection
6
7
Wolf Vostell
Deutscher Ausblick aus dem Environment Das schwarze Zimmer 8
(German View from the environment The Black Room)
Alina Szapocznikow
195859 Hand. Monument to the Heroes of the Warsaw Ghetto II
dcollage, wood, barbed wire, tin, newspaper, bone, television with cover 1957
Berlinische Galerie Landesmuseum fr Moderne patinated plaster and iron filings
Kunst, Fotografie und Architektur, Berlin The Estate of Alina Szapocznikow, Paris
167
10
9
169
11 12
171
Frank Stella
Arbeit Macht Frei
1958
enamel on canvas
Private Collection
13
173
14 15
175
17
16
177
18 20
19 21
Isamu Noguchi
Isamu Noguchi Isamu Noguchi Study for Bell Tower for Hiroshima,
Isamu Noguchi
Memorial to the Atomic Dead Sculpture Study Little Bomb, and Monument to Heroes Sculpture Study
1952-82 c. 1950 c. 1950 1952
graphite on tracing paper ink wash on paper pencil on paper pencil on paper
The Isamu Noguchi Foundation and The Isamu Noguchi Foundation and The Isamu Noguchi Foundation and The Isamu Noguchi Foundation and
Garden Museum, New York Garden Museum, New York Garden Museum, New York Garden Museum, New York
179
23
22
181
24
25
Karel Appel
Exodus n0 1
Karel Appel
1951 Hiroshima Child
gouache and colored paper on brown kraft pieces 1958
of paper applied on paper oil on canvas
Fondation Gandur pour lArt, Geneva Hara Museum of Contemporary Art, Tokyo
183
26
185
27
187
Yosuke Yamahata
Nagasaki Journey
1945
gelatine silver prints
Daniel Blau, Munich
28
189
30
29
191
32
31
Eduardo Paolozzi Joseph Beuys
Shattered Head Verstrahlter Hangar (Radiated Hangar)
1956 1962
bronze on stone base polystyrene, wood, animal hair, and oil
Private Collection, London Museum Schlo Moyland, Bedburg-Hau
193
33
34
195
Robert Rauschenberg
The White Painting (two panel)
1951
oil on canvas
Robert Rauschenberg Foundation, New York
35
37
36
199
38
39
Roy Lichtenstein Henry Moore
Atom Burst Atom Piece
1965 196465
acrylic on board bronze
Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth Didrichsen Art Museum, Helsinki
201
40
41
42
43
44
205
45
Kim Kulim 46
Death of Sun II
Kim Kulim
1964 Three Circles
oil and object on wood panel 1964
National Museum of Modern and steel, oil on wood panel
Contemporary Art, Gwacheon Collection of the Artist, Seoul
207
47
Mira Schendel
Untitled
1963
tempera and plaster on canvas
Hecilda & Sergio Fadel Collection, Rio de Janeiro
209
Section Introduction
Emily Braun
Salah Hassan
Geeta Kapur
Richard Shiff
Terry Smith
Plates
2 FORM MATTERS
M
aterialist abstraction is accounted for in the exhibition with
works that were grouped under such labels as art informel,
Abstract Expressionism, and Gutai, as well as with works by
artists who responded to the visual appearance of this art but
found different and local meanings in materials and how they handled them.
Contemporary critics emphasized stylistic competitions that in historical
accounts since then have often devolved into a kind of nationalist boosting.
Today it is easier to see the transnational character of many of these strate-
gies. Postwar emphasizes affinities of ideas and materials among American
artists and artists who emigrated to the United States from Europe; it also
documents the encounters of artists from around the world who gathered in
such metropolitan centers as Paris, London, and Mexico City, and reviews
FORM MATTERS the proximity and circulation of artworks in international exhibitions and
small-press publications. This materialist art is typical of the postwar period
in its difference from earlier European versions of modernism, often rejecting
geometric approaches, for example, in a critique of rationality and science,
which were seen as having dead-ended in the war and the atom bomb. Ins-
tead, artists favored gesture, raw materials and the laws of their behavior, and
chance, producing surfaces that are often tactile, rough, and uneven. Many
artists went farther still, invoking the entropy of matter and, more specifically,
the outright destruction related to the traumatic events and lingering ruins of
the postwar landscape. More hopefully, this materialism also embraced or-
ganicist, even vitalist thinking, as well as full-body performative experiments.
Introduction 213
To lay bare with a brutal brush all the tortures, all the filth, that lies at the expression could not be as enduring or pervasive as the previous two
base of our society. paradigms, nor did it aim to be. Its action was swift, the results
Gabriel Dsir Laverdant, De la mission de lart et du rle des artistes decisive: to level the Western pictorial tradition.
(On the mission of art and the role of artists), La Phalange, 1845 The works of Fautrier, Dubuffet, Burri, and others who followed in
their tracks (Antoni Tpies, Manolo Millares, Adolf Frohner, Otto Muehl)
All you need is mud, nothing but a single monochrome mud, if you really want attacked the privileged vertical orientation of easel and mural painting
to paint. The painter has to know how to smear. and with it the view into space, no matter how shallow, above and around
T
Jean Dubuffet, Notes pour les fins lettrs (Notes for the well read), 1945 things. They annihilated the fine in fine art, seized the metaphoric
higher ground that painting had aspired to represent, and reduced it to
he history of Western painting since the Renais-
sance has been framed by two dominant para-
digms. The first, which held sway for centuries,
was that of the window. Artists and viewers
perceived the painted canvas as a transparent
plane, a threshold into virtual depth, be it shallow
dimensions within arms reach or an infinite ex-
panse beyond the limits of the eye. Pictorial illu-
sionism embodied the humanist tradition that saw man as the measure
of all things. By the late nineteenth century, the carpet paradigm of
formalist modernism had displaced the window paradigm.1 Inspired by
theories in the decorative and applied arts, painting subordinated spa-
tial illusionism to the demands of a new realism: the inherent planari-
ty of the canvas. A picturebefore being a war horse, a nude woman,
THE DIRT PARADIGM or telling some other story explained Maurice Denis, is essentially
a plane surface covered with colors arranged in a particular pattern.2
Emily Braun This new concept of pictorial autonomy accompanied the determinis-
tic logic of the industrial revolution. Geometric abstraction aligned on
the grid emulated the rationale of technological systems; bursting color
fields and flat biomorphic shapes signaled a reaction against the same
standardizing forces, a retreat into the interior realm of the pure aesthet-
icism, the spiritual, the dream. The carpet paradigm accentuated a pure-
ly optical, highly subjective viewing experience through the shallow and Fig. 1. Jean Fautrier. Sarah. 1943. Impastos made of oil, white lead, pastel
shifting spaces of figure-ground reversals. It produced beautiful objects powder, ink, and varnish on paper mounted on canvas, 11680.7 cm.
Fondation Gandur pour l'Art, Geneva, Switzerland.
based on pleasing arrangements of color and form, even when disrupted Inv. n. FGA-BA-FAUTR-1
side against Nazi Germany, but were morally compromised by fascism Nor did the dirt paradigm apply to all postwar European gestural ab-
and the Vichy collaborationist regime. They had sunk low, even if collec- stractionists, who preferred the American way in the postwar years of reha- with his soils and thick paints, grapple with it, knead it, impress upon and shifts of the carpet paradigm, as Hubert Damisch explained: It is
tive guilt was mitigated by the sense of collective victimhood at the hands bilitation. Art informel practitioners Georges Mathieu, Hans Hartung, and it.16 As a result, he continued, the viewer would not scan the painting this illusion of the behind-worlds that Dubuffet tirelessly denounces.
of the Nazi occupiers and by the heroic instances of resistance. Pierre Soulages choreographed free-floating strokes of color that hover in passively with an instantaneous glance but would dig deep into it And his work eventually boils down to the stubborn assertion that be-
Dirty painting, dirty handsone day someone will write an essay on a distinct foreground plane (and, in their own time, metaphorically rose as if through touch, becoming one with the matter and reenacting the hind things and under figures there is nothing but the ground.20 The
guilt as a motivating factor in aesthetics. For now we can observe that the above the surrounding devastation). Working in Paris after the war, French- feeling of being crushed, furrowed, plowed, and dragged down by grav- same damning reversal of wall to pavement, vertical to horizontal, holds
dirt paradigm was tilled by avant-garde artists in certain nations whose Canadian artists (on the winning side) invigorated their thick handling ity: Wherever the surface has puckered when drying, he also dried, true even when Dubuffet paints urban walls marred by graffitior dirty
governments and people had shamed themselves by supporting fascism, of paint with luscious white folds (Paul-Emile Borduas) or brilliant colors contracts, puckers.17 words. As with Burris Catrami, Muffe, and Bianchi, layers of bitu-
genocide, wars of empire, and brutal colonial rule. Fautriers involvement in a kaleidoscopic array (Jean-Paul Riopelle). By contrast, expressions of Indeed, these artists privileged tactile sensations over the disem- men, pumice, and grime signal the reality of earthy biological growth
with the Resistance remains murky; Dubuffet, a professed anti-Semite and with dirt resulted in drab hues or the acrid colors of rot. Accumulat- bodied optical experience in tandem with their reorientation of the gaze. and decay. We may view all of these pictures vertically on the wall but
(and admirer of the famously anti-Semitic Louis-Ferdinand Cline), ed particles and pancaked layers accentuated the perception of obdurate The wide visual scope commanded by the upright viewing figure was nar- regard-less, what we see is the world beneath our feet; we press up
profited selling wine to the Germans during the Occupation; Burri mass and refuted the three-dimensional extension of volume and space. rowed and directed downward to contemplate a new kind of landscape, against these images, they rub dirt in our faces.
served in fascist Italys armed forces, including during the conquest of Whereas the motions of Abstract Expressionism and art informel were not vertical motifs standing near or far but bodies in the ground. Fautriers Faces, feces: Ponge noted the resemblance in Fautriers pasty
Ethiopia. The Japanese Gutai artists Uemae Chiy, Saburo Murakami, sweeping, scattering, and elliptical, those of matter painting involved Otages, begun in late 1942 in response to Nazi executions of French adhesive mortars, and in his telling mania for covering up small
ailles analysis missed the embedded self-reflexivity of these artists and rebirth, defeat and victory, begins again. In France, painting filth would Reading of the World, trans. Kent Minturn and Priya Wadhera with revisions by Richard G. El-
liott, Art in Translation 6, no. 3 (2014): 302. First published in Art de France 2 (1962): 33746.
ground maneuvers. The earthbound reality of the painterly medium, not be tolerated for long in a new postwar society of modernization and de- 7 Dubuffet, Notes for the Well-Read, p. 67. See Tony Judt, Postwar: A History of Europe
comprising powdered minerals, decomposing vegetative matter, and colonialization, obsessed with hygiene and smooth, clean surfaces.26 since 1945 (New York: Penguin Press, 2005), pp. 41, 6371.
8 Influenced by Georges Batailles notion of formlessness (see note 22 below), Rosalind Krauss
makes the argument that Jackson Pollocks importance was lodged in an axial rotation of painting
out of the vertical domain of the visual field and onto the horizontal vector. See The Crisis of the
Easel Picture, in Kirk Varnedoe and Pepe Karmel, eds., Jackson Pollock: New Approaches (New
York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1999), p. 161. But while Pollock dripped and scattered paint
onto a canvas laid on the floor, he aimed at a new kind of mural painting, which, as Krauss admits
(pp. 16465) via an excursus into the criticism of Clement Greenberg, reasserted the optical,
vertical orientation of the viewing subject and the opening up of the flat picture plane. Important
for the horizontal vector argued for here is the self-reflexive subject matter (grounds literal and/
or depicted) and materiality of the medium employed, regardless of axial orientation.
9 Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Culture of Defeat: On National Trauma, Mourning, and Recovery
(New York: Picador, 2004), p. 292.
10 Ming Tiampo, please draw freely, in Tiampo and Alexandra Munroe, eds., Gutai: Splendid
Playground, exh. cat. (New York: Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, 2013), pp. 4647. Jiro
Yoshihara had been familiar with the French avant-garde and its periodicals from before the war.
11 See Andreas Huyssen, Anselm Kiefer: The Terror of History, the Temptation of Myth,
October 48 (Spring 1989), esp. pp. 4345.
12 Schivelbusch, The Culture of Defeat, p. 19.
13 Greenberg, American-Type Painting, 1955, in Art and Culture (Boston: Beacon Press,
1961), p. 226.
14 On the influence of Alberto Burri on Robert Rauschenberg see Emily Braun, Alberto Burri:
The Trauma of Painting, exh. cat. (New York: Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, 2015), pp.
7476. On Burris matter painting under discussion in this essay see Braun and Carol Strin-
gari, Materials, Process, Color, in ibid., pp. 11619, 13033, 13639.
15 Jean Paulhan, Fautrier lenrag, 1943, 194546, Eng. trans. as Fautrier, the Enraged,
trans. Carol J. Murphy, in Curtis L. Carter and Karen K. Butler, eds., Jean Fautrier: 18981964
(New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2002), p. 181. First published in Fautrier.
Oeuvres, 19151943 (Paris: Galerie Ren Drouin, 1943), rev. and republished in 194546.
Fig. 3. Alberto Burri. Bianco nero (White Black). 1952. 16 Dubuffet, Notes for the Well-Read, p. 77.
Oil, enamel, pumice, and PVA on canvas, 65100 cm. Private Collection.
17 Ibid., pp. 7778.
18 Francis Ponge, Note sur les Otages, peintures de Fautrier, 1946, Eng. trans. as Note on
the Otages, Paintings by Fautrier, trans. Vivian Rehberg, in Carter and Butler, eds., Jean Fautrier:
plant secretions, or what Dubuffet called the artists forgotten native As befits its origins, the cycles of avant-garde fortune mimic those
18981964, p. 175. First published Paris: Editions Seghers, 1946. For the chronology of Fau-
soil: these base materials stood for themselves.23 Fautrier, Dubuffet, of the military. One might argue that these artists of base materialism triers Otages see Rachel Perry, Jean Fautriers Jolies Juives, October 108 (Spring 2004):
and Burri favored blending their own colored matterblack anthra- buried the Western pictorial tradition, which had reached a saturation 5355; as Perry establishes, he started on these images in Paris well before he took refuge
in the sanatorium at Valle-aux-Loups, Chtenay-Malabry, in April 1944, where he supposedly
cite, blood-red mercuric sulphide, dark-blue cobalt oxide, and the point, for good. Historical events hastened its demise. Nonetheless,
overheard hostage shootings.
whites of zinc, limestone, and gypsum. Their mucking about with ar- the firsthand, highly physical encounter with soil and viscous matter 19 Dubuffet, Notes for the Well-Read, p. 79.
tisanal craft debunked any notion of deskilling; to the contrary, they proved fertile in the postwar decade and the one to follow. Dirt came 20 Damisch, Dubuffet or the Reading of the World, p. 11.
21 Ponge, Notes on the Otages, p. 176.
opposed the assembly production of paint in tubes. We must bear off the wall and onto actual grounds and bodies with new, creative
22 Ibid., and see Yve-Alain Bois and Krauss, Formless: A Users Guide (New York: Zone
in mind, wrote Dubuffet respectfully on the language of materials, force. Notably, the Japanese exponents of the dirt paradigm inaugu- Books, 1997).
rated a new genre of performance art epitomized by Shiraga, who, 23 Dubuffet, Notes for the Well-Read, p. 67.
24 Ibid., p. 71.
that the colors we handle are not abstract ciphers, they are highly while dressed only in his underwear, kicked, rolled, and dug through 1 Joseph Masheck coined and defined the term in his landmark article The Carpet Par- 25 Schivelbusch, The Culture of Defeat, p. 26.
concrete pigments or dilutions made of more or less finely ground earthen wall plaster, rocks, sand, and gravel (Challenging Mud, 1955). 27 adigm: Critical Prolegomena to a Theory of Flatness, Arts Magazine 51, no. 1 (September 26 See Kristen Ross, Fast Cars, Clean Bodies: Decolonization and the Reordering of French
minerals and blended with equally concrete substances like linseed In 1909, midway between Laverdant and Dubuffet, F. T. Marinetti had 1976): 82109. Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1995).
2 Maurice Denis, Definition of Neo-Traditionalism, 1890, Eng. trans. in Charles Harrison, 27 Tiampo, please draw freely, p. 51. On the French/Japanese network in the early 1950s
oil, turpentine (distilled pine resin) and all kinds of other gums, glues already scripted this narrative of regeneration when he recounted how Paul Wood, and Jason Gaiger, eds., Art in Theory 18151900: An Anthology of Changing Ideas and the influence of Gutai on Allan Kaprows Happenings see Munroe, all the landscapes:
and glazes. 24 he drove his car into a ditch and emerged from the dank sludge reborn (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 1998), p. 863. gutais world, in Tiampo and Munroe, eds., Gutai: Splendid Playground, pp. 2736.
SUDANESE MODERNISM
early 1960s had evolved into neral and the Crescent (1963;
the influential Khartoum plate 118) refers to the kill-
Salah M. Hassan School. Fig. 1. Osman Waqialla. Al Sufi al Muazab (The Tormented Mystic) (title page). 1952. ing of Patrice Lumumba,
Ink and color on hand made paper,
In his early works 4636 cm. the democratically elected
Shibrain further developed leader of Congo, executed
the potential of the Arabic letter as abstracted form, seeing it as a figural in a coup in 1961. Lumumbas assassination had been a turning point in
element with an inspiring plastic aesthetic value that he applied to an the era of decolonization, creating an outcry against imperialism and
3
Africanized Sudanese framework. In his innovative pen-and-ink paint- neocolonialism not only in Africa but in the rest of the Third World. The
ings of c. 1960, such as Untitled (fig. 2), Arabic-like characters are ar- crescent moon, seen in other works of El Salahis from the early 1960s,
ranged in a Kufic style on a plain white background. Individual characters recurs here with a procession of mourners, their facial expressions
are barely decipherable, being shortened or elongated, compressed or masklike, carrying a corpse. Abstracted, elongated, and emaciated fig-
expanded, to become part of a larger abstracted composition. Shibrains ures cover the paintings surface. Points of articulation such as knees and
oil painting Message 40 (1966) includes both calligraphy and traditional elbows are delineated with spiral forms, and the male sexual organ is de-
Islamic decorative motifs, such as rosettes, crescents, and semifloral liberately exaggerated, in a style recalling certain West African sculptur-
4
arabesques. The paintings from this period, such as Untitled (1965), al forms and styles.
deploy earthy colors recalling the references to landscape in the work of The real breakthrough in Sudanese visual modernism came in the
other other Khartoum School artists, including El Salahi. Shibrain envi- late 1950s and early 60s in the pioneering work of Waqialla, Shibrain,
sions colors such as blue and bluish green as referring symbolically to the and El Salahi. Iftihkar Dadis argument that El Salahis work should
Nile rivera major life presence in Sudanand red, yellow, and brown as be situated between [Arabic] textuality, African plastic forms, and
the hues of the earth and of northern Sudanese traditional architecture. transnational modernism holds for the other two as well, and they also
Concerns with calligraphic forms and abstracted figurations also shared a distinctive role in developing an aesthetic of decolonization for
appear in the work of El Salahi, who began to break down Arabic let- the Sudan and much of Africa.6 The uniqueness of the dialectics and
ters and abstract their shapes in the early 1960s, focusing on their for- intertextualities in the work of these three artists becomes evident when
5
mal properties rather than on their meanings. Through this process of analyzed in the context of artistic developments in the postwar period,
Liar is he who proclaims: I am the unmixed, the pure pedigree. reviving expressive visual practices that had been suppressed or inter- 4 It is worth noting that Shibrain rarely titled or dated his early works.
5 See Ulli Beier, Ibrahim El Salahi, an Interview, Bayreuth, Iwalewa-Haus archives, University
The only. rupted in the colonial period. Nationalism offered one crucial avenue of Bayreuth, 1983. Repr. in Salah Hassan, ed., Ibrahim El Salahi: A Visionary Modernist (New York:
Yes!, a liar!16 in the practice of calligraphic abstraction, whether in Sudan or else- Museum for African Art, 2013), pp. 10713.6. Iftikhar Dadi, Ibrahim El Salahi: Calligraphic Mod-
I
ernism in Comparative Perspectives, South Atlantic Quarterly 109, no. 3 (Summer 2010): 555.
where, but calligraphic abstraction is also a transnational aesthetic
7 See Hassan, How to Liberate Marx From His Eurocentrism: Notes on African/Black Marx-
ndeed, Waqialla, Salahi, and Shibrain, who were closely associated form that has been shared across the region. This becomes acutely im- ism, dOCUMENTA (13): 100 Notes100 Thoughts No. 091 (Ostfildern: Hatje Cantz, 2012).
with the poets, novelists, and literary critics in the Jungle and the portant when we consider the facts of diaspora and mobility in the life 8 For more on the Afro-Asian solidarity movement in the art and literary arenas see issues of
Lotus, the journal of the Afro-Asian Writers Association from the late 1960s to the late 1990s.
Desert School, shared the goal of constructing a new ethos for Suda- and work of artists such as El Salahi, Shibrain, and Waqiallah, whose
Lotus was important in documenting the development of this body of thought, networks, and
nese identity in the visual arena. A major question was how far art- Western schooling, and experience of living in the West in the early exchanges of ideas among African and Asian writers and artists in the 1960s and 70s. See
ists should be obliged to shake off Western and other influences in their 1950s, challenged them to create a new transnational modernism in Hala Halim, Lotus, the Afro-Asian Nexus, and Global South Comparatism, Comparative
Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 32, no. 3 (2012): 56383.
schooling and to produce art that was uniquely Sudanese. which the development of forms out of experiments with calligraphic
9 See Amanda Alexander and Manisha Sharma, (Pre)determined Occupations: The
Experimentation with calligraphic forms continued in Sudan into modes was fundamental. Post-Colonial Hybridizing of Identity and Art Forms in Third World Spaces, Journal of Social
the 1980s, then took a more conservative ideological turn under the Theory in Art Education 33 (2013): 86104.
10 See Wijdan Ali, Modern Islamic Art: Development and Continuity (Gainesville: University
current Islamist regime, which came to power in 1989. A circle of art-
Press of Florida, 1997), chapters 15 and 16; Nada Shabout, Arab Art: Formation of Arab
ists that included Shibrain joined in the wave of Islamic revivalism that Aesthetics (Gainsville: University Press of Florida, 2007); and Sharbal Daghir, Al Hurufiyah
swept the region, mostly propelled by the success of the Islamic Rev- Al-Arabiyah: Fan wa Hawiyah (Beirut: Sharikat al-Matbuat Lil Twazi wa Al-Nashr, 1990).
11 See Dadi, Modernism and the Art of Muslim South Asia (Durham: University of North Car-
olution in Iran after the mid-1970s.17 In 1986, a group of artists led by olina Press, 2010). See also his article Ibrahim El Salahi: Calligraphic Modernism in Compar-
the painter Ahmed Abdel Aal, a student of both El Salahi and Shibrain, ative Perspectives, South Atlantic Quarterly 109, no. 3 (Summer 2010): 555.
issued the manifesto of a new school called Madrasat Al-Wahid, the 12 See Muhammad Abdul-Hai, Conflict and Identity: The Cultural Poetics of Contemporary
Sudanese Poetry, African Seminar Series no. 26 (Khartoum: Institute of African and Asian
School of the One.18 While acknowledging pioneers such as El Salahi Studies, University of Khartoum, 1976); Mohammed Omar al-Bashir, Cultural Diversity and
and Shibrain, members of Madrasat Al-Wahid claim that a spiritual National Unity in Sudan (Khartoum: Institute of African and Asian Studies, University of Khar-
link with the Islamic faith gives their work a spiritual dimension. In toum, 1980); Muhammad al-Makki Ibrahim, Al Fikr Al Sudani Usuluh Wa Tatawurhu (Khar-
toum: Ministry of Culture and Communication, 1976); and Ali A. Mazrui, The Multiple Margin-
advocating an exploration of the arts of Islam, especially calligraphy, ality of the Sudan, in Yusuf Fadl Hasan, ed., Sudan in Africa (Khartoum: Institute of African
Madrasat Al-Wahid echoes the ideas of the Iraqi modernist Al Said, and Asian Studies, University of Khartoum, 1971), pp. 24055.
13 In the 1930s, Hamza al-Malik Tambal, an influential Sudanese literary critic and editor,
who claimed to have connected his concern with calligraphy as an
proclaimed that Sudanese identity is an ideal to which we should all aspire, it must be re-
artistic practice to spiritual salvation.19 Few of these artists aban- flected in all our work. See Hamza al Malik Tambal, al-Adab al-Sudani wa Ma yajib an yakuna
doned figuration for pure calligraphic forms, but not all artists who use alayhi, 1931 (repr. ed. Khartoum: New Edition, 1972), pp. 66-67, 77; see also Abdul-Hai, Con-
flict and Identity, pp. 710. This ideal has evolved into intellectual movements characterized by
calligraphy work strictly abstractly. Indeed, calligraphy is an influential
conflict and by attempts at reconciliation of identities.
motif within representation for many Sudanese artists. 14 Ahmed El Tayib Zein Al Abdein, Al-Sudanawiyya, Majallat Al Thaqafa Al Sudaniyya no. 15
To assert a Sudanese identity, many Sudanese who engaged with (July 1998): 3035.
15 For an excellent recent autobiographical reflection on the Jungle and the Desert School
calligraphic abstraction emphasized local styles associated with popu-
see Muhammad al-Makki Ibrahim, Fi Zikra al-Ghaba wa al-Sahra (Omdurman: Abdul Karim
lar Islamic schools, an approach known as the Khalwa style.20 In prac- Mirghani Center, 2007).
tice, the work of Madrasat Al-Wahid is a continuation of the Khartoum 16 Salah Ahmad Ibrahim, from Ghabat Al Abanus (Beirut, 1958), p. 45, trans. in Abdul-Hai,
Conflict and Identity, p. 52.
Schools attempt to synthesize the African and the Islamic elements of
17 In the early 1980s members of the fundamentalist Islamic group the Muslim Brotherhood
Sudanese culture. While Madrasat Al-Wahid puts more emphasis on formed a Society for Islamic Thought, which, though, has tried to recruit artists and writers
the Arabic and Islamic identity, and (like Al Sa'id) its member artists who are not fundamentalists.
18 See my translation of the manifesto of the School of the One in Clementine Deliss, ed.,
claim to seek spiritual salvation through artistic creativity, its manifes- Seven Stories about Modern Art in Africa (Paris and New York: Flammarion, 1995), pp. 24446.
to also acknowledges Sudanese culture as hybrid and Africanized. After 19 See Shakir Hassan Al-Said, al-Usul al-Hadariya wa al-Jamaliya lil Khat al-Arabi (Baghdad,
all, the reworking of calligraphic forms in the art of Ahmed Abdel Aal, 1988).
1 Osman Waqialla was a poet, journalist, and broadcaster as well as a visual artist. After 20 The Khalwa style is closer to the Kufic-derived Maghribi tradition, known in North and
Ibrahim Al-Awam, and Ahmad Abdallah Utaibi differs little from the studying at the Camberwell School of Art, London, in 194649, he attended the School of West Africa as Sudani and in North Africa as ifriqi style, than to the Naskh tradition popular in
Khartoum School approach seen in the works of El Salahi and Shibrain. Arabic Calligraphy and College of Applied Arts in Cairo. Returning to Sudan in 1951, he taught the eastern part of the Islamic world.
MATERIAL FACTURE literature narrates the destruction of experience, the destruction of the
body, the destruction of the image.3 Important postwar artists strate-
Geeta Kapur gized nihilist agendas. In 1959, Gustav Metzger, an migr transported
as a child from the Nuremberg of the Nazis to England, issued his mani-
festo Auto-Destructive Art and soon staged a series of destructions in
civic sites, incendiary acts using acid or technologically devised implo-
sions. In South Bank Demonstration of 1961, for example, Metzger sprayed
hydrochloric acid on three large tarpaulinswhite, black, and red, after
the palette of Malevichstretched over a set of frames. His 1966 De-
struction in Art Symposium (DIAS) in London elicited the participation
of international artists and gave the countercultural underground a plat-
form for performance and a credo for hyphenating creation and destruc-
tion as a compound pair. Metzgers work drew attention to the violence
Fig. 1. John Latham. Soft Skoob. 1964. Books on canvas and
immanent within postwar politics. 4 John Lathams assemblages and per- spray paint, 2513250 cm. Courtesy Lisson Gallery
articulates artisanal practices in semiotic rather than ethnic terms, as a ity over historical time. doubt and affirmation. This also permits a turn to a negative aesthet- Foster, Rosalind Krauss, Yve-Alain Bois, and Buchloh, Art since 1900: Modernism, Antimod-
ernism, Postmodernism (London: Thames & Hudson, 2012). Especially relevant to this essay
language and grammar sustainable within modernizing societies. By the 1960s, the manifold cultural imaginaries looped into global ics. The compact of destruction and creation produces a performative are pp. 12529, 17476, 19095, 20811, 37378.
I select another example from the Indian context, the (only) ex- contemporaneity needed to be retranslated into semiotic structures poetics: ironic, activist, and emancipatory. 3 See Theodor W. Adorno, Cultural Criticism and Society, in Prisms (Cambridge, Mass.:
The MIT Press, 1983), pp. 1734. See also Giorgio Agamben, Remnants of Auschwitz: The
hibition of Group 1890, in Delhi in September 1963. 9 Jagdish Swami- based on a principle of difference. Take three artists from the Asian
Witness and the Archive (New York: Zone Books, 2000), esp. the chapters The Witness (pp.
nathanCommunist, journalist, and, later, artist/anarchistwrote diaspora. The Filipino artist David Medalla, founder, with Paul Keeler, Matter relates to materials and means of production. Form contours 1539) and The Archive and Testimony (pp. 13769).
the act of perception and signifies a phenomenology of encounters. 4 See Paul Schimmel and Kristine Stiles, Out of Actions: Between Performance and the
Object, 19491979, exh. cat. (Los Angeles: The Museum of Contemporary Art, 1998). This
That form matters is an instance of how historical materialism aspires
catalogue is widely referenced in this essay.
to the more esoteric operation of a dialectic.11 5 See Georges Bataille, Base Materialism and Gnosticism, 1930, in Visions of Excess: Se-
lected Writings, 19271939, trans. Allan Stoekl (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,
1985), pp. 4552, and Yve-Alain Bois and Rosalind E. Krauss, The Destiny of the Informe, in
Formless: A Users Guide (New York: Zone Books, 1997), pp. 23554.
6 See Alexandra Munroe, Ming Tiampo, Yoshihara Jiro, et al., Gutai: Splendid Playground,
exh. cat. (New York: Guggenheim Museum Publications, 2013). The book includes Jiros Gutai
Manifesto.
7 I cite India as a way of indicating the material and ideological struggles that often char-
acterized transitions from nascent nationhood to a postcolonial nation-state. Indias political
leadership differed on strategy but recognized Britain, its colonial oppressor, as an antifascist
force. The tumultuous decade leading up to independence, in 1947, had seen a volunteer
Indian army of 2 1/2 million soldiers recruited to fight for the Allies, the Quit India Movement of
1942, and the Bengal famine of 1943 (a collateral effect of the war economy), which left c. 3
million dead. India and Pakistan gained independence after the violence of Partition, in which
200,000 or more were killed and 14 million displacedthe largest mass migration in human
history. Gandhis civil disobedience movement placed trust in the populace, and especially
in village India, and was averse to the monolithic nation-state. The new republics constitu-
tion was largely formulated by B. R. Ambedkar, a militant leader of Indias oppressed dalit
Fig. 5. K.G. Subramanyan. King of the Dark Chamber (detail). 1963. caste. Jawaharlal Nehru, Indias first prime minister, shaped a modernizing, socialist-inclined
Terra-cotta mural, 2470270 cm. Courtesy Asia Art Archive
nation-state. Because of him, India became a leading member of the Afro-Asian and Non-
Aligned movements, part of what became the Third World. In art, the Bombay Progressive
Artists Group (1947) developed mytho-realist and expressionist genres (M. F. Husain and F.
the (unsigned, collective) manifesto printed in the catalogue. Octavio of the Signals Gallery, London, was a key avant-garde figure in the 1960s.
N. Souza respectively). Satish Gujral, who trained in Mexico in the 1950s, practiced a form
Paz, then Mexican ambassador to India (and a friend of Indian artists), His itinerant and contrarian practice privileged an ebullient formless- of social-realist expressionism. Abstraction developed in the early 1960s (S. H. Raza, Mohan
wrote a text, Surrounded by Infinity. Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru ness, as in his Cloud Canyons series and in participatory projects with Samant, V. S. Gaitonde). On Group 1890 of 1963 see below.
8 The Egyptian Surrealists, active from the late 1930s and working under the name Art and
opened the exhibition. A full account of this conjuncture would unpack indigenous antecedents such as A Stitch in Time (196872), cloth murals
Liberty Group (the Arabic initials are JFH), were part of a worldwide network of comrades
histories of modernism and indigenism, and of statist, liberal, and radi- stitched with associative fragments by volunteer contributors. Rash- with special connections to Mexico. During and after the war, Egyptian and British authorities
cal perceptions within Indian and Third World discourse in the 1950s and eed Araeens provocations began in Karachi; his mimicry of Englands began to imprison and exile these revolutionaries for their political (at first Trotskyite) affili-
ations. Surrealist theorist and painter Ramses Younan was arrested in 1947, went to Paris,
60s. While that story cannot be told here in detail, I offer a few pointers to ethnic typecasting developed into militant partisanship as an editor
aligned himself with anarchists, and was active in the early 1950s. Gamal Abdel Nassers
the material and formal choices made in this context. of the critical journals Black Phoenix and Third Text, and his wood-and- nationalist military coup in 1952 confirmed the states hostility toward Surrealism.
The foremost artist in Group 1890 was Jeram Patel, who rendered industrial-pipe constructions engaged the international art language 9 In 1962, artists from Delhi, Baroda, Ahmedabad, and Madras met to draft a new aesthetic.
They started with a critique of the ParisLondonNew York axis that had, they argued, over-
the modernist project in erotic-nihilist terms enacted as violence. from a (claimed) level ground. The Iranian artist Siah Armajani realized
determined Indias art since the countrys independence. The twelve artists of Group 1890
He hammered nails and scrap metal into wooden supports, layering a diasporic internationalism on a monumental scale through symbolic (the number in the address of the house in Bhavnagar where they met) exhibited together in
them with shoveled tar and globules of color-dyed glue; he gouged out bridge projects made for public spaces in the United States. 1963, aligning themselves with their Mexican friend Octavio Pazs tilt toward a surrealist/
anarchist, indigenist, and material-based language. These artists were not fully cognizant of
forms with a blowtorch in thick-layered plyboard. While traveling in Eu- contemporary art in Brazil and Japan.
rope in the late 1950s and early 60s he was attracted to Tpies and Burri, Three concluding propositions: 10 See Jagdish Swaminathan, The Perceiving Fingers: Catalogue of Roopankar Collection of
but if Burris wounded and bandaged surfaces suggested the need for Folk and Adivasi Art from Madhya Pradesh, India (Bhopal: Bharat Bhavan, 1987).
11 See Fredric Jameson on Bertolt Brecht and Theodor Adorno (differing protagonists of
haptic healing, Patel asserted psychic potency through an aesthetic of Disparate cultures within or without the modernan attribution that form), in Marxism and Form: Twentieth-Century Dialectical Theories of Literature (Princeton:
destruction, declaring exactly why form mattered to an artist at the remains complicatedfunction through a locus of knowledge that Princeton University Press, 1972).
0 TO 1
Richard Shiff
of cultural civility had been removed. In reaction to the wartime loss of produced in 1944 and 1945, as the war ended in moral ambiguity, with
political civility, arts of the postwar period offered a homeopathic remedy fire-bombing in Dresden and atom bombs in Japan (Untitled, 1944; fig.
by returning to base materialityaesthetic experience lacking aesthetic 2).1 Newmans art may be the clearest expression of a postwar aesthet-
development, experience lacking history. ic devoid of prewar and wartime baggage. His modest compositions
Beginning in 1949, Lucio Fontana punctured his canvases, destroy- groupings of strokes in ink, crayon, or watercolor: straight, angled, loop-
ing the integrity of the pictorial surface, shifting a viewers attention from ing, squiggly, rubbedmarked his return to visual art after a midwar
the potential for depiction to the physical condition of the object. By 1958, hiatus. He was reassessing what art should be. The war itself demon-
Fontana was using razor cuts, sometimes just a single one, causing the strated the extent of a collective moral failing that threatened continued
materiality of canvas to become the image rather than the support for global disorder. Newman was pessimistic; he perceived little difference
1 Barnett Newman, in conversation with Thomas B. Hess, 1968; see Hess, Barnett Newman
(New York: Walker and Company, 1969), p. 26.
2 Around 1944, Newman drafted an anti-Hegelian diatribe, unpublished during his life-
time; see Richard Shiff, Newmans Time, in Reconsidering Barnett Newman, ed. Melissa Ho
(Philadelphia: Philadelphia Museum of Art, 2005), p. 161.
3 Newman, in conversation with Hess, 1969; see Hess, Barnett Newman, pp. 2526.
4 Newman, interview with Alan Solomon, May 20, 1966. Unedited transcript, Barnett Newman
Foundation, New York.
Fig. 3. Kazuo Shiraga. Challenging Mud. 1955. 5 Newman, Letter to the Editor, Artnews, May 13, 1968, in Barnett Newman: Selected Writ-
Performance. Courtesy Fergus McCaffrey ings and Interviews, ed. John P. ONeill (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992), p. 234.
6 Maurice Merleau-Ponty, The Visible and the Invisible, ed. Claude Lefort, trans. Alphonso
Lingis (Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1968), p. 102. Merleau-Pontys text
convey their feelings to receptive minds. Newman spoke of stretching a matter of material abstraction communicates directly, as if, among all remained unfinished at his death, in 1961.
color until it broke: it would break (as if exercising a will to break); he material stuff, it attained the highest degree of sentience. To develop 7 Newman, Art of the South Seas, 1946, Selected Writings and Interviews, pp. 98, 100.
8 Newman, Painting and Prose/Frankenstein, 1945, in ibid., p. 93.
would not break it himself.11 Manipulating matter does not equate with art that speaks outside the static culture of ideological programming,
9 Charles Sanders Peirce, The Architecture of Theories, 1891, in Collected Papers, ed.
controlling it. begin with 0 to 1. Charles Hartshorne, Paul Weiss, and Arthur W. Burks (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University
When we think this way, we imagine that matter must think also. Per- Self-consciousness occurs when we turn our thinking and feel- Press, 195860), 6:20.
10 Gilles Deleuze, Bergson, 18591941, 1956, in LIle dserte et autres textes, ed. David
haps we merely project abstract thoughts onto matter as an indirect way ing upon our thinking and feeling. We exchange self for matter. We
Lapoujade (Paris: ditions de Minuit, 2002), p. 42.
of representing and objectifying those thoughts as external form. Is it like treat our subjectivity, not as if it were condensing and projecting onto a 11 See Shiff, Until It Breaks, Source 29 (Fall 2009): 39.
film projection, with a thought-image that can alight on any surface, leaving material surface, but as if it were penetrating into the surface, becom- 12 Deleuze, Bergsonism, 1966, trans. Hugh Tomlinson and Barbara Habberjam (New York:
Zone Books, 1988), pp. 7475.
no material trace? This would be imposed, top-down thinking. Deleuze ing the object. At moments of self-consciousness, we view our con- 13 Jiro Yoshihara, Gutai Art Manifesto, 1956, in Whats Gutai?, ed. Shoichi Hirai (Hyogo:
suggests that the material medium we use to express our thoughts scious actions as an emergent work of art having material presence. Bijutsu Shuppan-Sha, 2004), p. 84.
and feelings absorbs our excess of psycho-sensory vibrations, with Autonomous will yields to compelling sensation. When passing from 14 Peirce, The Origin of the Universe, 1898, Collected Papers, 6:149 (emphasis eliminated).
15 Bridget Riley, The Artists Eye: Seurat, 1992, in The Eyes Mind: Bridget Riley, Collected
the result that the material itself receives a boost in sentienceits 0 to 1, no self-expression is involved. No self yet exists to be expressed; Writings 19652009, ed. Robert Kudielka (London: Ridinghouse, 2009), pp. 267, 273
sensory form.12 Otherwise why would we feel that any material object it will precipitate from the encounter with matterpart mind, part (original emphasis).
Fig. 1. Lithographic poster for the Antipodeans' exhibition at the Victorian Artists Society,
Melbourne, 1959
and spirit. And yet wherever we look, New York, Paris, London, San promoting one or the other side of these dichotomies. As we shall see,
Francisco or Sydney, we see young artists dazzled by the luxurious the debates were never black-and-white divisions between clearly
pageantry and colour of non-figuration.2 marked positions. Local circumstances, the changing relationships
among places, and above all the constant contrariness of artists made
The signatories of the Antipodean Manifesto were artists Charles them always, everywhere, volatile.
Blackman, Arthur Boyd, David Boyd, John Brack, Robert Dickerson, In the immediate prehistory of contemporary artthat is, the
John Perceval, and Clifton Pugh, along with art historian and critic transformative moment of the later 1960s and early 70s and the postwar
Bernard Smith. The last was its primary author, shaping drafts by the period just before itthe figure of the art critic seems to catch more light
artists into his own unmistakable language.3 While deploring the tri- than other actors. If attention today seems captivated by collectors and
umph of non-figurative art in the West, the Antipodeans also opposed auctioneers, in the 1990s and early 2000s curators were both celebrated
superficially a common vocabulary can be detected among many of ing audiences for art, artists deliberately set out to complicate them, and 1955 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012); and Katy Siegel, Since 45: America and
the Making of Contemporary Art (London: Reaktion Books, 2011). Few individual critics have
these artists: the mask, the sacrifice, spirits, and folklore, Beier under- increasing numbers of younger critics took on the responsibility to do won monographic studies, with Clement Greenberg being the most evident exception.
scores that the way in which this mythological vocabulary is used dif- the same. 6 Ins Katzenstein, ed., Listen, Here, Now!: Argentine Art of the 1960s: Writings of the
Avant-Garde (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 2004). Charles Green and Heather
fers considerably from artist to artist. For example, while Uche Okeke
Barkers No Place like Home: The Idea of Contemporary Australian Art, 19601988, forthcom-
collects and illustrates Igbo folklore, Skunder Boghossian rejects the ing, is a sustained analysis of three generations of critics.
imagery of his country (Ethiopia) in favor of a painstaking constructed 7 See Jill Carrick, Nouveau Ralisme, 1960s France, and the Neo-avant-garde: Topogra-
phies of Chance and Return (Burlington: Ashgate, 2010), and Julia Robinson, ed., New Re-
personal mythology.24 Prefiguring the future for art in Africa, this is an
alisms: 19571962. Object Strategies between Readymade and Spectacle, exh. cat. (Madrid:
art driven by its own differences. Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofia, 2010).
Beier remarks that many artists regret and rightly so that art criti- 8 See Reiko Tomii, Historicizing Contemporary Art: Some Discursive Practices in Gendai
Bijutsu in Japan, Positions 12, no. 3 (Winter 2012): 61141.
cism is a field hardly explored by Africans themselves at the moment,
9 Mrio Pedrosa: Primary Documents, ed. Glora Ferreira and Paulo Herkenhoff (New York:
but that they certainly want to communicate about art.25 Oddly, he The Museum of Modern Art, 2016).
does not cite Okekes Natural Synthesis manifesto, written in 1960, 10 Online at https://www.mfah.org/research/international-center-arts-americas/icaa-doc-
uments-project/ (accessed June 2016).
the year of Nigerias independence. It is a call to the young artists in
11 Lucy Bradnock, Courtney J. Martin, and Rebecca Peabody, eds., Lawrence Alloway: Critic
a new nation to reject the confusion of Western art (What form of and Curator (Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2015).
feelings, human feelings, can void space inspire in a machine artist?) 12 Jos Luis Cuevas, Cuevas: El nio terrible vs. los monstrous sagrados, Mxico en la cultura
no. 473 (April 4, 1958): 7. Eng. trans. as The Cactus Curtain: An Open Letter on Conformity
and, equally, the copying of our old art heritages, for they stand for our in Mexican Art, Evergreen Review 2, no. 7 (Winter 1959): 11120, this quotation 11920.
old order. Instead, Okeke urges artists to create a synthesis based on 13 See Claire F. Fox, Making Art Panamerican: Cultural Policy and the Cold War (Minneapolis:
openness to all possibilities, a natural synthesis, for it should be uncon- University of Minnesota Press, 2013), chapter 3, esp. pp. 15159.
14 See ibid., p. 150.
scious not forced.26 15 See Andrea Giunta, Avant-Garde, Internationalism, and Politics: Argentine Art in the 1960s
(Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2007).
16 Manifesto neoconcreto, Jornal do Brasil, March 22, 1959, Sunday supplement, pp. 45.
Extracted in Mari Carmen Ramrez and Hctor Olea, Inverted Utopias: Avant-Garde Art in Latin
America, exh. cat. (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, in association with the
CRITICISM AS A POSTWAR PRACTICE Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, 2004), pp. 49697.
17 Ferreira Gullar, Teoria do No-Objeto, Jornal do Brasil, December 1920, 1959, Sunday
supplement. Eng. trans. in Kobena Mercer, ed., Cosmopolitan Modernisms (Cambridge, Mass.:
These few examples of different critical practices, undertaken in wildly The MIT Press, and London: Institute of International Visual Arts), pp. 17074.
differing situations, have introduced us to some of the challenges critics 18 Ibid., p. 174. See also Michael Asbury, Neoconcretism and Minimalism: Cosmopolitanism
at a Local Level and a Canonical Provincialism, in ibid., pp. 17489. The contemporary reso-
faced in their immediate localities during a period when international
nance of Gullars essays has eclipsed the fact that the dominant Brazilian critic at the time was
connections between art worlds were gathering pace, inequities between Mrio Pedrosa; see Mrio Pedrosa: Primary Documents, ed. Glora Ferreira and Paulo Herken-
them were becoming more evident, and these differences were being hoff (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 2015), and the introductory essays discussion of
the relationship between the two critics.
both codified and contested. There are marked inequities between the
19 See Ola Oloidi, Art Criticism in Nigeria, 19201996: The Development of Professionalism
dense concentrations of critics in the modern metropolitan centers and in the Media and the Academy, in Katy Deepwell, ed., Art Criticism and Africa (London: Saffron
their relative isolation in towns within internal provinces, in the cities of Books, 1997), pp. 4149. See also comments by Olu Oguibe in the same volume, pp. 99101.
I thank Nicole Coffineau for research assistance and Jennifer Josten and Paulina Pardo for 20 See Sylvester Ogbechie, Ben Enwonwu: The Making of an African Modernist (New York:
colonies and ex-colonies, and in peripheral countries. In such settings,
helpful suggestions. University of Rochester Press, 2008).
certain individuals, many of them artists, took on multiple roles as critics, 1 Nevil Shute, On the Beach (London: Heinemann, 1957). 21 Ulli Beier, Contemporary Art in Africa (New York: Praeger, 1968), p. 168.
curators, art dealers, educators, and administrators. Everywhere critics 2 The Antipodean Manifesto is most readily accessible in Ann Stephen, Andrew McNamara, 22 Ibid., p. 3.
and Philip Goad, eds., Modernism & Australia: Documents on Art, Design and Architecture 23 Ibid., pp. 13, 14.
took for granted that their basic task was to describe and evaluate the 19171967 (Melbourne: Miegunyah Press, 2006), pp. 69497. 24 Ibid., pp. 169, 168.
kinds of art being made and exhibited in their location. With exceptions 3 See Bernard Smith, The Antipodean Manifesto: Essays in Art and History (Melbourne: Ox- 25 Ibid., p. 167.
(including Sontag, Dore Ashton, and Marta Traba), and usually late in the ford University Press, 1975), p. vii. 26 Quoted in Clmentine Deliss, ed., Seven Stories about Modern Art in Africa (London:
4 For example, James Elkins, Art Criticism, Dictionary of Art (London: Macmillan, 1996), Whitechapel Art Gallery, 1995), pp. 2089. See also Chika Okeke-Agulu, Postcolonial Mod-
period, it was rare for women to take prominent roles as critics, but some 2:51719; Donald Burton Kuspit, Art Criticism in the 20th Century, Encyclopedia Britannica, ernism: Art and Decolonization in Twentieth-Century Nigeria (Durham, N.C.: Duke University
(such as Dorothy C. Miller at MoMA) curated significant exhibitions. available online at www.britannica.com/topic/art-criticism/Art-criticism-in-the-20th-century Press, 2015).
Jackson Pollock
There Were Seven in Eight
c. 1945
oil, enamel, and casein on canvas
The Museum of Modern Art, New York
249
49 50
251
51
52
Ernest Mancoba Ernest Mancoba
Composition Untitled
1951 1962
oil on canvas oil on canvas
Gordon Schachat Collection, Johannesburg Moderna Museet, Stockholm
253
53
Lee Krasner
The Seasons
1957
oil and house paint on canvas
Whitney Museum of American Art, New York
255
54
257
55
56
259
Helen Frankenthaler
Lorelei
1957
oil on untreated cotton duck
Brooklyn Museum, New York
57
261
58
59
263
60 61
Ernst Wilhelm Nay Ernst Wilhelm Nay
Augen (Eyes) Meteor
1963 1964
oil on canvas oil on canvas
Ernst Wilhelm Nay Stiftung, Cologne Ernst Wilhelm Nay Stiftung, Cologne
265
John Latham
Untitled (Roller Painting)
1964
spray paint on white duck
Lisson Gallery
62
267
63
64
269
65
66
271
67
68
273
Kazuo Shiraga
Work II
1958
oil on canvas
Hygo Prefectural Museum of Art, Kobe
69
275
Tetsumi Kudo
The Flowing Movement and Its Condensation in Mind
1958
watercolor on cotton fabric
Aomori Museum of Art
70
277
Ramss Younan
Cristaux rocheux (Rocky Crystals)
1960
oil on fiberboard
Museum Moderner Kunst Stiftung Ludwig Wien, Vienna
71
279
72
73
281
Rasheed Araeen
Before Departure (Black Paintings)
1963-64
oil on canvas
3 panels from a series of 5
Sharjah Art Foundation Collection
74
283
76
75
Anwar Jalal Shemza Anwar Jalal Shemza
Composition in Three Parts City Wall
1963-64 1960
oil on canvas on hardboard oil on board
Estate of Anwar Jalal Shemza, London Private Collection, New York
285
77
78
287
Eva Hesse
Untitled
1965
painted cord wrapped around plastic tubing and ring in wood and metal
Moderna Museet, Stockholm
79
80
82
81
291
83
Alberto Burri
Sacco e oro (Sackcloth and Gold)
1953
burlap and gold on canvas
Fondazione Palazzo Albizzini Collezione Burri, Citt di Castello
293
85
84
295
86
87
297
89
88
299
90
Giuseppe Pinot-Gallizio
La sirena e il pirata (The Mermaid and the Pirate)
1958
mixed media on canvas roll
Galerie van de Loo, Munich
301
91
92
Raymond Hains
Les nymphas
Jacques (Mah de la) Villegl
1961 Palissade aux palmiers (Fence with Palm Trees)
torn posters on zinc sheet panel 1957
Centre Pompidou, Paris, Muse national d'art ripped posters mounted on wood
moderne Centre de cration industrielle Private Collection
303
94
93
305
Emilio Vedova
Berlin '64
1964
relief, paper, iron, mixed media on wood
Fondazione Emilio e Annabianca Vedova, Venice
95
307
96
97
Lygia Clark
Carol Rama Obra mole (Soft Work)
Ovale Nero (Black Oval) 1964 (replica)
1961 industrial rubber
mixed media and oil on canvas The Associao Cultural O Mundo
Aishti Foundation, Beirut de Lygia Clark, Rio de Janeiro
309
99
98
Carolee Schneemann
Carolee Schneemann Colorado House
Conversions 1962
1961 wood, stretchers, wire, fur, strips of painted canvas, bottles,
wood, paint, rope, metal on board broom handle, glass shards, flag, photograph, plywood base
Private Collection, London Private Collection
311
101
100
313
John Latham
Little Red Mountain
1960-62
timber base, books, plaster, wires
Lisson Gallery
102
104
103
Jir Kolr
Marcos Grigorian Rasierklingengedicht (A Poem of Razors)
Lee Seung-taek >
Untitled 1962 Non-Sculpture
1963 assemblage, cords, and razor blades on cardboard, wooden frame with glass 1960
sand and enamel on canvas Neues Museum - Staatliches Museum fr Kunst rope, paper, and wooden stick
Grey Art Gallery, New York und Design in Nrnberg, Nuremburg Gallery Hyundai, Seoul
317
105
107
106
321
Gustav Metzger
Recreation of First Public Demonstration of Auto-Destructive Art
1960 (remade 2004)
glass, fabric, table, trash bag, paper, plastic, and steel
TATE, London
108
Tetsumi Kudo
Philosophy of Impotence
1959
cord and resin on painted panel
Private Collection
109
Helio Oiticica
B17, Glass Blide 05 Homage to Mondrian
1965
glass, textile, water, pigment, cork
TATE, London
110
327
112
111
329
David Medalla
Cloud Gates - Bubble Machine
1964
John Chamberlain
stainless steel, methacrylate, water pump, Wildroot
water, soap, and acrylic 1959
Museo Nacional Centro de automobile parts; iron, lacquered, and welded
Arte Reina Sofia, Madrid MMK Museum fr Moderne Kunst Frankfurt am Main
113 114
115
Alfonso Ossorio
Rescue
1961
mixed media on panel
Philadelphia Museum of Art
333
Antonio Berni
La pampa tormentosa (The Stormy Pampas)
1963
oil, tempera, wooden sticks, metals (including sheet metal,
corrugated metal with paint residue , scrap and tin plate),
cardboard , imprint on paper , plastic buttons , threads and
fragments of lace on two plywood panels
Private Collection
116
335
Section Introduction
Yule Heibel
Sarah Wilson
Homi K. Bhabha
Plates
3
NEW IMAGES OF MAN
H
iroshima and Nagasaki, Auschwitz and the other camps, and
colonialism had laid bare the failures of Western civilization.
In the wake of these shocks came ambivalent political attempts
to establish more just geopolitical systems, using new legal
forms such as the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Hu-
man Rightsputatively global but in fact dominated by Western authority.
At the same time, people in former European colonies struggled for full
citizenship and autonomy. Philosophers and artists sought to inquire into
human nature itself, in debates that included the discourses of Ngritude
and existentialism and of the rights of individuals and groups within lar-
ger (often oppressive) social and political entities. New Images of Man
features pictorial versions of such inquiries. Here, humans often appear
NEW IMAGES OF MAN battered, deformed by the horror of modern life, rent by the question of
their own value. The artists making this work often deliberately combined
figuration and materialist facture, refusing the choice between abstrac-
tion and representationor between physical and social life, seeing the
binary as not only ideologically false but also deeply destructive. The most
significant counterforce to universalist Western humanism came, in diffe-
rent veins, from the former European colonies. Sometimes, as with Frantz
Fanon's new man, the formerly colonized claimed a moral right to define
humanism broadly and universally, a right abrogated by the West, and of-
fered a correspondingly more positive, future-oriented vision of humanity.
Introduction 339
G
ermany reentered a contested public life had learned to despise modernism as degenerate Judeo-Bolshevism.
after the Allies defeated Nazism. The many Since they had also mostly exhausted their appetite for heroics, mod-
publications that sprang up between 1945 ernist artists who wanted to risk what Nay called openness and self-
and the currency reform of 1948 gave writ- creation through vitalism could not count on young audiences to sup-
ers and critics platforms on which to probe port their work.7 Nor, in the late 1940s, was there any young German
1
Germanys situation. Much ink was spilled version of the New York critic Clement Greenberg, who was effectively
over the idea of the Menschenbild (image shaping a narrative about the American painting of the time, tying it to
of man), by 1950 a pressing enough issue French modernism while championing its heroic American direction.
2
to justify a conference in Darmstadt. Twelve years of Nazi rule, a Ger- The closest any German critic came to linking German and French
man destruction of states that entrenched Hitlers racialized view of the modernism was Will Grohmann, who by the end of the decade was
world, and the murder of millions of Jews by Germans and their help- in his sixties, and was more than twenty years older than Greenberg.
ers had created an unprecedented crisis in Europe.3 The critical focus In postwar Germany it was (weirdly) up to relatively older writers like
fell mainly on politics and philosophy but the question also mattered Grohmann to lead German youth to an understanding of modern art.
deeply in modernist art, especially abstract painting, where the troubled Yet Nay persisted. In 194548 he embarked on his Hekate series, a
Menschenbild prompted anxieties around expression and expressivity. group of Cubist- and Expressionist-inspired works that take the human
Those anxieties in turn provided figure, often severely abstract-
parameters for arts reception. ed, as their starting point. 8 The
Fast-forward to 1965 and an formal vocabulary Nay created
exhibition at Munichs Galerie here would serve him even in his
Franke by the abstract painter most abstract works, the 195462
Ernst Wilhelm Nay. In opening Scheibenbilder (Disk Paintings).
remarks at the show, Nay told vis- Consider a 1948 Hekate pen-
forces its world view on all typically couched within that American Abstract Expressionism wasnt shown in Germany until the early 1950s. See
my Reconstructing the Subject, pp. 7778.
those who speak it, Krauss Fig. 2. Fritz Winter. Klnge. 1949. Mixed media on paper. Bayerische Staatsgemldesammlungen -
more general indictments 8 See Nays catalogue raisonn, available online at http://www.ewnay.de/werkverzeichnis.html.
writes. As long as one spoke Sammlung Moderne Kunst in der Pinakothek der Moderne Mnchen, Munich of modernity. Consider Max 9 Nay, letter to Herr Voigt, September 19, 1948. Nay file, Archiv fr bildende Kunst, Nuremberg.
10 Space constraints prevent me from discussing the wrangling, especially in divided Berlin,
the language of the infantry- Picards book Hitler in uns
where a Communist-led Kunstmagistrat tried to set an agenda of social realism while attack-
11
man, he was bound to the infantrymans faith. Selbst (Hitler in Ourselves) (1946), which emphasized the nonhumanness ing formalism. But consider the case of Carl Hofer, a supporter of socialism who had the
Geist was altogether different. Consider Joseph Finks paean to the of Nazism, its seeming alienness to civilized norms. The book also gave misfortune of running afoul of both the Communist leadership (for refusing to subordinate his
work to Soviet extra-artistic demands) and West German students (for signing an address
ideal Greek countenance, published in the same year as Krausss dis- Germans a kind of pass by setting the Nazis crimes beyond human
to the World Peace Congress that was published in the Communist journal Vorwrts in 1949).
cussion of slang. Fink wants to explain why the Greeks pursued a Men- bounds: They are so monstrous that one cannot in any way explain 11 Werner Krauss, ber den Zustand unserer Sprache, Die Gegenwart 2, no. 2/3 (1947): 30.
schenbild reflecting the high, the elevated, the affinity to the gods. The them through any human cause that still acts as a cause within human 12 Joseph Fink, Das griechische Antlitz, Aussaat 1, no. 10/11 (1947): 39.
13 Konrad Adenauers slogan in the West German federal election of 1957 was Keine Ex-
Greeks, he writes, discovered the human portrait in a spiritualized order. Nazi cruelty no longer has human measure, but rather the
perimente! (No experiments!) See http://www.kas.de/wf/de/71.5230/.
sensenot physiognomy (the particular, the bodily) but countenance measure of something beyond the human, emanating from a human 14 The art historian Edwin Redslobs postwar careerism seems typical. See my Reconstructing
(the eternal, mental aspect of the face). In championing Geist it was who has become a total apparatus.16 Cassirers description of Nazism the Subject, pp. 11720.
15 Ernst Cassirer, Der Mythos als politische Waffe, Amerikanische Rundschau 3, no. 11
also once again perfectly all right to be just a little colonial: Fink writes, as producing new political myths that did not start by dictating mans
(1947): 34.
Recall the goggly-eyed faces of early, non-Greek artists. Their con- ability to do or not do, [but instead] undertook in the first instance to 16 Max Picard, Hitler in uns Selbst, 1946 (Erlenbach-Zrich: Eugen Jentsch Verlag, 1949), p. 58.
quest was the spiritual deed of the Greek artists.12 As goggly-eyed alter man himself, in order then to regulate and control his actions here This edition of 1949 was the books third printing.
17 Cassirer, Der Mythos als politische Waffe, p. 34.
physiognomy is conquered by a colonizing ideal of countenance, the meshes with Picards conservative critique.17 Man was mutable. Ironi 18 See, e.g., J. A. von Rantzau, Geschichte und Politik im deutschen Denken, Die Sammlung 1
body dies so that Geist may live. Physical being changes but Geist is eter- cally, this realization was brought home by an ideology, Nazism, that had (194546): 54454. In von Rantzaus view, Eastern thinking creates Romanticism (and is
nal. Geist also requires middle-class leisure: contemplation cant happen pretended to give man a fixed, eternal contour. And with this realiza- linked to the Asiatic), which damages Western (Occidental) rationality. In a postwar con-
text, anti-East, anti-Soviet attitudes neatly meshed with rationalism and anti-Communism.
if one is preoccupied with gagging and croaking. tion of mutability, foundational beliefsthat the Menschenbild was secu- 18 On the OMGUSECR (Office of Military Government for Germany, United StatesEducation
rely rooted in Western rationalitycaved. It was impossible to go back to and Cultural Relations Division) see Heibel, Reconstructing the Subject, passim, esp. pp. 12631.
In Europe, the charismatic neo-Marxist philosopher Louis can sculptor Barbara Chase-Riboud followed this path of intellectual 9 See Karl Barth et al., Pour un nouvel humanisme, Rencontres Internationales de Genve
(Neuchtel: ditions de la Baconnire, 1949), with contributions by the theologian Barth as
Althusser displaced Sartre; his texts on the Italian painter Leonardo discovery, fueled by artistic conviviality and personal passions.32 So well as Marxist Henri Lefebvre and orientalist Ren Grousset.
Cremonini marked the passage to what he called a radical antihuman- did many of the artists who would ultimately appear in Postwar: Art 10 Sartre, The Search for the Absolute, in Alberto Giacometti, exh. cat. (New York: Pierre
Matisse Gallery, 1948).
ism.27 These followed a so-called humanism quarrel in the French Between the Pacific and the Atlantic, 1945-1965: Gerard Sekoto, the artist
11 See Sarah Wilson, A Very Great Sculptor: Germaine Richier, in Wilson, Anna Swinbourne,
and jazz musician, friend of Ernest Mancoba, who left the Transvaal and Andr Pieyre de Mandiargues, Germaine Richier: Sculpture, 19341959, exh. cat. (New
for Paris in 1947; Iba NDiaye from Senegal, protg of sculptor Ossip York: Dominique Lvy and Galerie Perrotin), pp. 1017.
12 See Andr Malraux, Museum without Walls (London: Secker and Warburg, 1965).
Zadkine, jazz aficionado and student at the cole des Beaux-Arts;
13 See Robert Ganzo, Lespugue (Paris: Durand, 1942), with eleven lithographs by Fautrier.
Charles Hossein Zenderoudi, who moved from Tehran to Paris in 1961. 14 See Sartre, Doigts et non-doigts, in Wols en personne, acquarelles et dessins (Paris:
And the mission of Malraux was to bring the art of India to Paris on a Delpire, 1963), pp. 1021.
15 Camille Bryen and Jacques Audiberti, LOuvre-Bote. Colloque abhumaniste (Paris: Galli-
grand scale in 1960; the art of Iran in 1961; the art of Africa, historical
mard, 1952)
and contemporary, from the festival he originated in Dakar in 1966; 16 Umberto Eco, The Open Work in the Visual Arts, in The Open Work, 1962, Eng. trans.
and of Tutankhamuns Egypt in 1967, making his imaginary museum Anna Cancogni (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989), pp. 84104.
17 For further contextualization of Jean Dubuffets art brut see Wilson, From the Asylum to
a contemporary reality.
the Museum: Marginal Art in Paris and New York, 19381968, in Parallel Visions: Modern
The humanism debate became scholastic and then was eclipsed. Artists and Outsider Art, ed. Maurice Tuchman and Carol S. Eliel (Los Angeles: Los Angeles
The commodity-based imagery of Pop, geometric abstraction, Op, and County Museum of Art, 1992), pp. 12049.
18 Jean Dubuffet, Peintures initiatiques dAlfonso Ossorio (Paris: La Pierre Volante, 1951).
kinetic art corresponded more vitally to early-1960s optimism and Ossorio wrote the preface for Jackson Pollocks first show in Paris and later housed Dubuf-
space-race competition. The 1959 Kitchen Debate in Moscow between fets art brut on Long Island.
Nikita Khrushchev and Richard Nixon has a place in history more prom- 19 Michel Tapi, Un Art autre, o il sagit de nouveaux dvidages du rel (Paris: Giraud, 1952).
20 See Wilson, Loyalty and Blood: Picassos FBI File, in Picasso and the Politics of Visual
inent than New Images of Man. Yet the power of this art, and the global Representation, ed. Jonathan Harris and Richard Koeck (Liverpool: Liverpool University
Fig. 3. Atelier of Alina Szapocznikow on Brzozowa street, Warsaw,
1965. aspirations of humanist thought implicit in its forms, are given a new life Press, 2013), pp. 11024.
and context in the current exhibition, and are all the more relevant today 21 See Wilson, Picasso/Marx and Socialist Realism in France (Liverpool: Liverpool University
Press, 2013), pp. 15461, 17475.
Communist Party in the context of Nikita Khrushchevs Soviet thaw. in contradistinction to postmodernisms culture of instantaneity and 22 Rico Lebrun, artists chapter, in Selz, New Images of Man, pp. 96101. Naples-born, Lebrun
It was in 1965, however, and in Americain the midst of war against the insatiable appetite for kitsch. emigrated to the United States in 1924.
23 For geometry of fear see Herbert Read, New Aspects of British Sculpture, exh. cat.
Communist Vietnamthat the German migr Erich Fromms
(Venice: XXVI Venice Biennale, British Pavilion, 1952), n.p.
international symposium Socialist Humanism managed to pierce the 24 The New American Painting, as Shown in Eight European Countries 19581959 (New
Iron Curtain, inviting many philosophers from Eastern Europe but also York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1959).
25 Reg Butler also references the Crucifixion, however. See Robert Burstow, The Limits of
Lopold Sdar Senghor, president of Senegal, and Raya Dunayevskaya,
Modernist Art as a Weapon of the Cold War, The Oxford Art Journal 20, no. 1 (1997): 68
author of Nationalism, Communism, Marxist Humanism, and the Afro-Asian 80, and Axel Lapp, The Freedom of SculptureThe Sculpture of Freedom , The Sculpture
Revolutions (1961).28 Journal 2 (1998): 11322.
26 H. C. Westermann, artists chapter, in Selz, New Images of Man, pp. 14145.
Forgotten in the MoMA-driven twentieth-century conception
27 Louis Althusser, Cremonini, peintre de labstrait [196466], in crits philosophiques et
of the Western museum of modern art, artists from the East and the politiques (Paris: Stock/IMEC, 1997), pp. 592609.
South now come to rejoin the humanist conversation in the current 28 Lopold Sdar Senghor, Socialism Is a Humanism, in Socialist Humanism, ed. Erich
Fromm (New York: Doubleday, 196566), pp. 5367; and Raya Dunayevskaya, Marxs Hu-
exhibition. Sartres 1948 text Black Orpheus, celebrating the poetry of
manism Today, in ibid., pp. 6883.
Ngritude, transposed the discourse of Self and Other onto the colonial 29 Senghor, ed., Anthologie de la nouvelle posie ngre et malagache de la langue franaise,
paradigm.29 Subsequently, Martinique-born Frantz Fanon published prcd d Orphe noir de Jean-Paul Sartre (Paris: PUF, 1948).
30 Prsence Africaine, Le 1er Congrs international des crivains et artistes noirs, Paris,
Peau noir, masques blancs (Black Skin, White Masks) in 1952, reconfiguring Sorbonne, 1922 septembre 1956, nos. 810 (JuneNovember, 1956).
the insights of ethnopsychiatry within the discourse of the Other. 31 Hubert Juin, Seize peintres de la jeune cole de Paris (Paris: Georges Fall, 1956), featured
Fanon spoke at the First Congress of Black Writers and Artistsincon- artists from Algieria, Belgium, France, Holland, Japan, Poland, Switzerland, and the United States.
32 See Jean-Hubert Martin and Thierry Raspail, eds., Partage d'exotismes: 5e. Biennale d'art
ceivable in a still-segregated Americaheld in Paris in September 1956, 1 Paul Tillich, A Prefatory Note by Paul Tillich, in Peter Selz, New Images of Man, exh. cat. contemporain de Lyon, 2 vols. (Paris: Runion des Muses Nationaux, 2000), and Martine
with a follow-up in Rome three years later.30 (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1959), p. 9. Franck and Germain Viatte, From Other Lands, Artists in Paris (Arles: Actes Sud, 2011).
M
Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, 1952 boundaries between barbarism and civility; the insatiable fear and
desire for the Negro: Our women are at the mercy of Negroes. ... God
emories of Frantz Fanon tend to the myth- knows how they make love; the deep cultural fear of the black figured in
ical. He is either revered as the prophetic the psychic trembling of Western sexualityit is these signs and symp-
spirit of Third World liberation or reviled toms of the colonial condition that drive Fanon from one conceptual
as an exterminating angel, the inspiration scheme to another, while the colonial relation takes shape in the gaps
to violence in the Black Power movement. between them, articulated in the intrepid engagements of his style. As
Despite his historic participation in the Fanons text unfolds, the scientific fact comes to be aggressed by the
Algerian revolution and the influence of experience of the street; sociological observations are intercut with liter-
his ideas on the race politics of the 1960s ary artifacts, and the poetry of liberation is brought up short against the
and 70s, Fanons work will not be possessed by one political moment or leaden, deadening prose of the colonized world .
movement, nor can it be easily placed in a seamless narrative of libera- What is this distinctive force of Fanons vision that has been forming
tionist history. Fanon refuses to be so completely claimed by events or even as I write about the division, the displacement, the cutting edge of
eventualities. It is the sustaining irony of his work that his severe com- his thought? It comes, I believe, from the tradition of the oppressed, as
mitment to the political task in hand never restricted the restless, inquiring Walter Benjamin suggests; it is the language of a revolutionary awareness
movement of his thought. that the state of emergency in which we live is not the exception but the
It is not for the finitude of philosophical thinking nor for the finality rule. We must attain to a concept of history that is in keeping with this
of a political direction that we turn to Fanon. Heir to the ingenuity and insight. And the state of emergency is also always a state of emergence.
artistry of Toussaint LOuverture and Lopold Sdar Senghor, as well The struggle against colonial oppression not only changes the direction
as to the iconoclasm of Friedrich Nietzsche, Sigmund Freud, and Jean- of Western history but challenges its historicist idea of time as a pro-
Paul Sartre, Fanon is the purveyor of the transgressive and transitional gressive, ordered whole. The analysis of colonial depersonalization not
REMEMBERING FANON: SELF, PSYCHE AND truth. He may yearn for the total transformation of Man and Society, but
he speaks most effectively from the uncertain interstices of historical
only alienates the Enlightenment idea of Man but challenges the trans-
parency of social reality as a pregiven image of human knowledge. If the
THE COLONIAL CONDITION change: from the area of ambivalence between race and sexuality; out of
an unresolved contradiction between culture and class; from deep with-
order of Western historicism is disturbed in the colonial state of emer-
gency, even more deeply disturbed is the social and psychic representa-
Homi K. Bhabha in the struggle of psychic representation and social reality. tion of the human subject. For the very nature of humanity becomes
To read Fanon is to experience the sense of division that prefig- estranged in the colonial condition, and from that naked declivity it
uresand fissuresthe emergence of a truly radical thought that never emerges, not as an assertion of will nor as an evocation of freedom, but
dawns without casting an uncertain dark. His voice is most clearly heard as an enigmatic questioning. With a question that echoes Freuds What
in the subversive turn of a familiar term, in the silence of a sudden rup- does woman want?, Fanon turns to confront the colonized world. What
ture: The Negro is not. Any more than the white man. The awkward division does a man want? he asks, in the introduction to Black Skin, White Masks,
that breaks his line of thought keeps alive the dramatic and enigmatic What does the black man want?
sense of the process of change. That familiar alignment of colonial sub- To this loaded question where cultural alienation bears down on
jects Black/White, Self/Otheris disturbed with one brief pause and the ambivalence of psychic identification, Fanon responds with an ago-
the traditional grounds of racial identity are dispersed, whenever they nizing performance of self-images:
are found to rest in the narcissistic myths of Ngritude or white cultur-
al supremacy. It is this palpable pressure of division and displacement I had to meet the white mans eyes. An unfamiliar weight burdened
that pushes Fanons writing to the edge of things, the cutting edge that me. In the white world the man of color encounters difficulties in the
reveals no ultimate radiance but, in his words, exposes an utterly naked development of his bodily schema. ... I was battered down by tom-toms,
declivity where an authentic upheaval can be born. cannibalism, intellectual deficiency, fetishism, racial defects. ... I took
myself far off from my own presence. ... What else could it be for me
[] but an amputation, an excision, a hemorrhage that spattered my whole
body with black blood?
As Fanon attempts such audacious, often impossible transforma-
tions of truth and value, the jagged testimony of colonial dislocation, From within the metaphor of vision complicit with a Western met-
its displacement of time and person, its defilement of culture and ter- aphysic of man emerges the displacement of the colonial relation. The
ritory, refuses the ambition of any total theory of colonial oppression. black presence ruins the representative narrative of Western person-
The Antillean evolu cut to the quick by the glancing look of a frightened, hood: its past tethered to treacherous stereotypes of primitivism and
359
119
118
361
120 121
363
Alberto Giacometti
La Clairire (The Clearing)
1950
bronze
Fondation Giacometti, Paris
122
Alberto Giacometti Alberto Giacometti
Grande figure II (Tall Figure II) Femme de Venise IX (Woman of Venice IX)
1948-49 1956 (cast 1958)
plaster bronze with black patina
Fondation Giacometti, Paris North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh
123 124
367
126
128
127
125
369
Ben Enwonwu
Anyanwu
1954-55
bronze
Private Collection
129
131
130
373
133
132
Jean Dubuffet
Corps de dame Pice de boucherie
Jean Dubuffet
(Womans Body Butchers Slab) La dame au Pompon
1950 1946
oil on canvas mixed media, oil on canvas
Fondation Beyeler, Basel National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
375
134 135
Wifredo Lam
Wifredo Lam Seated Woman
Lunguanda Yembe 1955
1950 oil and charcoal on canvas
oil on canvas Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden,
Museu Coleo Berardo, Lisbon Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
377
137
136
379
138
139
381
141
140
383
143
142
385
144 145
387
Gerhard Richter
Neger (Nuba) (Negroes [Nuba])
1964
oil on canvas
Larry Gagosian
146
389
147 148
391
150
149
393
151
A.R. Penck
Umsturz (Coup d'Etat)
1965
oil on canvas
395
152
Leon Golub
LHomme de Palmyre
1962
lacquer on canvas
Hauser & Wirth, New York
397
153 154
399
155
401
156
157
403
159
158
160
405
162
161
407
163
164
409
166
165
411
168
169
167
413
171
170
415
Section Introduction
Alejandro Anreus
Ekaterina Degot
Anneka Lenssen
Gao Minglu
Nikolas Drosos and Romy Golan
Plates
4
REALISMS
A
n important aesthetic feature of the Cold War binary was the
Socialist Realism of the Soviet Union, China, and Eastern and
Central Europe. Here, to a greater extent than in the Western
countries, institutional appropriation came before artistic
production, not after it. Yet accounts of this category are often narrow. Even
in the heyday of its governmental enforcement, Socialist Realism was not
a single style. Under Mao Zedong, Chinese artists produced large official
portraits of the chairman and scenes depicting model workers, but they also
made traditional ink paintings, if adding appropriate symbols of the new
order, such as the red flag. In the Soviet Union, art from the 1940s to Joseph
Stalins death in 1953 is primarily characterized by affirmative images of labor
and, especially, by heroic images of party leaders. During the post-Stalinist
REALISMS thaw, genre work influenced by the nineteenth-century Wanderers school
of Russian painting became more prominent, as well as the severe style,
influenced by Soviet art of the 1920s and early 30s. Outside the Soviet Uni-
on there was considerably more latitude for officially sanctioned artists,
and their works, while depicting authorized subjects, introduced personal
drawing styles and Surrealist elements. The Realisms section of the exhi-
bition also features the similarly ideological and popular work of artists in
other parts of the world and from different points on the political spectrum,
from the United States to Mexico, Western Europe, and the Middle East.
Along with some works of moderate size intended for museums, this section
emphasizes enormous public works, popular prints, and documentation.
Introduction 419
I
n the early 1920s the Mexican muralists Jos Clemente Oroz- formal experimentation. If in 1932 Siqueiros had defined his realism as
co, Diego Rivera, David Alfaro Siqueiros, and others created a dialective-subversive painting rooted in an antianecdotal formal-
figurative language that was monumental, narrative, and pub- ism,5 after World War II he began to utilize the terms critical realism,
lic. Their styles had certain visual connections with European new integral formalism, and new realism6 to define his production.
trends associated with the return to order in art after World At the same time, he began to critique apolitical artists like Rufino
War I, and shared an ideological agenda fueled by the evolving Tamayo and the academic Socialist Realism of the USSR and its allies.
politics following the consolidation of the Mexican Revolu- Ironically, while Siqueiross mural work became a parody of itself
tion in the early 1920s. In the period between the two Euro- in the 1950s, his easel pictures from the mid-1940s to the mid-1950s
pean world wars, Mexican muralism was one of the most influential continued to be engaging in their formal concerns while their content
avant-garde movements in the Western hemisphere, affecting artists in acquired a powerful symbolic dimension. Even so, the postrevolutionary
1
both Latin America and the United States. The height of the presence Mexican state that had stabilized its identity and power after World War
and influence of Orozco, Rivera, and Siqueiros among the internation- II was cleverly able to co-opt the formal vocabulary of both Siqueiros and
al avant-garde coincided with the antifascist and Popular Front poli- Rivera while divesting it of its original revolutionary content. When the
tics of the 1930s. After the war, however, their place in the discourse of novelist Jos Revueltas, in 1967, accused both the late Rivera and the still
modern art dramatically shifted: they went from key avant-garde art- active Siqueiros of having painted murals that functioned as ideological
2
ists before 1945 to ideological and aesthetic casualties of the Cold War. fetishes and deformed concepts serving the national myth of Mexico
By the late 1940s, Riveras art had promoted by the Mexican state,
settled into a mannered and senti- Revueltas was lucidly framing the con-
mental vocabulary that bordered on tinuity of Mexican muralism after 1945.7
the folkloric. This was not the case Photography became a source
with either Orozco or Siqueiros. In of imagery for Siqueiros; in the years
ism that had social agency, pictorial rigor, and ran counter to Soviet of- interminable transpositions. When Argentinean art loses all meaning, 3 Siqueiross expulsion from the Communist Party was due to his chaotic personal life and in-
ability to follow orders in that regard, not to policies or aesthetics. Interview between the author
ficialdom, was critically absorbed by artists who embraced an irreverent Alonso dives into the abyss of the human condition, he becomes tempo- and Raquel Tibol, May 27, 1995, Mexico City.
figuration in the early 1960s, such as Argentinas Antonio Berni (19051981) ral, historical, critical, ethical. 14 Between 1966 and the mid-70s, Alonsos 4 In May of 1940, Siqueiros and a number of his assistants attempted an assassination of
Leon Trotsky in his Coyoacn home. Siqueiros was arrested and questioned; eventually, with
and Carlos Alonso (b. 1929).11 After the end of Juan Perns dictatorship in drawings and paintings would echo the loud colors, flatness, and collage
help from the poet Pablo Neruda, he fled to Chile and spent the years 194143 traveling, lec-
turing, and painting in South America and Cuba. Trotsky was assassinated by Stalinist agent
Ramn Mercader on August 20, 1940.
5 See Siqueiros, Palabras de Siqueiros, ed. Tibol (Mxico, DF: Fondo de Cultura Econmica,
1996), pp. 6278. He first used this term in a lecture at the John Reed Club, Los Angeles, on
September 2, 1932. This and all translations from the Spanish by the author.
6 He uses these terms in pamphlets, articles, and lectures such as No hay ms ruta que la
nuestra (1945), Hacia una nueva plstica integral (1948), and La crtica de arte como pretexto
literario (1948), in ibid., pp. 25257, 28792, 293307.
7 Jos Revueltas, Escuela mexicana de pintura y novela de la revolucin, in Cuestionamien-
tos e intenciones, vol. 18 of Revueltass Obras Completas (Mxico, D.F.: Era, 1978), pp. 24174.
Fig. 3. Carlos Alonso. Carnicero N 2 (Butcher No. 2). 1965. 8 See Siqueiros, La funcin de la fotografa, initially published in the magazine Hoy, August
Crayon, graphite, ink, and collage on paper, 150100 cm. 4, 1945, repr. in Palabras de Siqueiros, pp. 22731.
Collection of the Artist. 9 Politically Siqueiros remained a rigid Stalinist until his death in 1974, supporting the invasions
of both Hungary and Czechoslovakia by Warsaw Pact troops. Unlike his fellow Stalinist and friend
the poet Pablo Neruda, he was unable to reinvent himself through the New Left in the 1960s.
representation in a brutalist neo-figuration.17 It would take artists like 10 See Siqueiros, Me llamaban el coronelazo (Mxico, D.F.: Grijalbo, 1977), pp. 44760. In his
Argentinas Luis Felipe No, Cubas Antonia Eiriz, and others to redefine posthumously published memoirs Siqueiros describes these stops in his road movie as not
the real as tattered, bloated, and ragged human images. With his usual simply triumphs but instances of confrontation with the new formalism promoted by the United
States and the retardaire naturalism of Soviet Socialist Realism. In a sense, he was reviving
intellectual clarity, Berni would write that the new and most realistic art his many travels of the 1930s, when he acted as an evangelist for muralism in both the United
to emerge in the 1960s would need to partake of and critique a world of States and Latin America. From the mid-1950s to the early 1960s he was paradoxically both
imported aesthetic chewing gum or of drinking a Coca-Cola type of uni- a cultural ambassador for the Mexican culture industry and an avowed Communist. Although
jailed from August 9, 1960 to July 13, 1964 for his involvement in an unauthorized strike by
versalism, where artists arent as alienated as the rest by the publicity railroad workers, once released he would assume his representation of the Mexican Mural
Fig. 2. Antonio Berni. La gran tentacin o La gran ilusin (The Great Temptation or the Great Illusion).
of the mass media controlled by transnational monopolies.18 An art like movement for the state.
11 As a former Communist but active fellow-traveler, Berni exhibited his work in the Warsaw
1962. Oil, wood, burlap, canvas, paper, ornaments, iron, cardboard, plastic, glass, glue, Bernis, made materially of recycled garbage and from the perspective of
lithographic image and feathers on plywood, 245241.5 cm. Pact nations at the height of the Cold War. His prints in particular were well received by young
Collection MALBA, Museo de Arte Latinoamericano de Buenos Aires the disempowered and the marginal, who nevertheless are drowning in artists in Czechoslovakia in 1959 and Poland in 1966 and 1968.
Coca-Cola and chocolate candy bars, would be the most realistic rep- 12 Berni, El nuevo realismo, Forma (Buenos Aires) no. 1 (August 1936): 8, 14. In this key text
Berni called for a realism that was not a simplistic imitation of the style of Czanne or Picasso,
Argentina, Bernis work began to emerge from a barren and mechanical strategies of Pop art, yet since then, and up to the writing of this essay, resentation of the world that emerged after World War II.
but an interpretation of ones own era with its new phenomena and realities, the spirit and origi-
period; while remaining grounded in the principles of his essay Nuevo he has been painting and drawing with a realism that simultaneously nality of the moment.
realismo of 1936, he adapted formal strategies from both Abstract Ex- converses with the realist tradition and collects the fragmentation and 13 Carlos Alonso, in a questionnaire from the author, December 3, 2009. On Alonsos history
see Alejandro Anreus, Carlos Alonsos Anatomy Lesson, Third Text 24, no. 3 (May 2010): 353
pressionism and Pop.12 Recycling the detritus of consumer society as emptiness of contemporary life.15
60. Alonsos slow but steady disillusionment with the Argentinean Communist Party reflects his
the pictorial matter of his paintings, he told the telenovela-like stories In 1959, the triumph of the Cuban Revolution, and its eventual responses to Stalinism, the repression of workers in East Berlin in 1953, and the invasions of
of the slum boy Juanito Laguna and the seamstress-turned-prostitute self-definition as Marxist-Leninist, brought forth polemics among art- Hungary in 1957 and Czechoslovakia in 1968.
14 Marta Traba, Dos dcadas vulnerables en las artes plsticas latinoamericanas: 195070,
Ramona Montiel. In the world of these personages, atomic explosions, ists and intellectuals in favor of either realism or formal experimenta-
(Mxico, DF: Siglo Veintiuno, 1973), pp. 7778.
environmental degradation, and the pursuit of materialism la U.S.A. tion. Fidel Castro put an end to these polemics in a speech to intellec- 15 In July 1977, Alonsos daughter Paloma, a university student and activist, was disappeared
are everyday threats. Through formal disruptions and narrative parody tuals at the Biblioteca Nacional in June 1961, rejecting Socialist Realism by the military junta that was ruling the country with the support of the U.S. government. The artist
and the rest of his family had to flee the country for their own safety, living in exile in Italy and Spain
Berni renewed realism with a certain tongue-in-cheek ferocity. Alonso, and allowing experimentation unless it was critical of the revolution: until returning in 1981, two years before democracy was restored through the election of Ral
a Communist from 1945 to late 1967, has always believed in the human Within the revolution everything, against the revolution nothing. 16 Alfonsin in 1983. This personal tragedy recharged Alonsos commitment to a political realism.
figure as the vehicle through which we can, with an incorruptible mem- By 1965, the real as expressed through realism had long left behind 16 See Robert E. Quirk, Fidel Castro (New York: Norton, 1993), pp. 38185.
17 The work of the Otra figuracin group in Argentina, Antonia Eiriz in Cuba, and Jacobo Borg-
ory, fix the wounds that reality leaves on us. 13 Between 1960 and 1965 Siqueiross strategies. The realities of a postatomic, consumerist world es in Venezuela are prime examples of this neo-figuration.
he produced an extraordinary group of works combining drawing and bursting with anticolonial revolutions had found a more convincing 18 Berni, Escritos y papeles privados (Buenos Aires: Tema Grupo Editorial, 1999), pp. 137, 140.
I
alism marked the difference from the previous dominant tendency in
Russian art. Futurism, insofar as it was deemed that the future anticipat- mmediately after World War II (which in the Soviet Union was giv-
ed by the Futurists, had now become everyday. Socialist was meant to en the deeply felt name the Great Patriotic War), in party decrees
demarcate this new realism from bourgeois nineteenth-century realism, and in the public sphere, the rhetorics of class struggle and inter-
thought to have betrayed itself and started the descent into modernist for- nationalism disappeared and resistance to the bourgeois order
malismthe main adversary of Socialist Realism for many years to come. received a cultural interpretation. The Soviet victory over Nazism (Jap-
By the 1930s, the Soviet avant-garde had grown dissatisfied with anese imperialism was too far away from Moscow to be acknowledged),
modernist art, which they saw as translating social alienation into its achieved through Joseph Stalins tactical reconciliation with the Russian
symbolic representation through flatness and fragmentation. Instead, Orthodox Church, among other things, was seen as a victory over Western
Communist artists gravitated toward holistic, synthetic forms that de- colonial dominance. (To some extent this may have been justified, since
fied social alienation rather than mimicking it. The radical left shifted Hitlers policies in Eastern Europe were implicitly colonial.) The cultural
toward various forms of documentary, photomontage, and film (a ten- war on the West became intense after 1946, when campaigns against
COMMITMENT TO HUMILITY dency they called factography), but also toward politically engaged
figurative painting. In its violent rejection of autonomous art, seen as
so-called rootless cosmopolitanism and kowtowing to the West
were declared. In 1948, an aggressive press campaign ostracized dozens
Ekaterina Degot a comfortable bourgeois institution, this postabstract propagandistic of theorists and critics, almost exclusively of Jewish descent. Basically,
realism set out to be destructive rather than descriptive. internationalism and modernism were stigmatized as Jewish.
The new institutional system stood almost unchanged from the Victors over the West took classical Western art as booty both
1930s to the early 1990s. In an unprecedented challenge to earlier pat- literally and metaphorically. Vasiliy Yakovlevs Portrait of Georgy Zhukov
terns of individual production, division of labor, and the market, the new (1946; plate 172), a neoacademic tour de force, shows Marshal Georgy
art positioned itself as an element of the new, noncapitalist public sphere. Zhukov, a Russian commander during the battle for Berlin, riding on a
Artworks were ideally to be produced collectively (or at least, more real- mighty white stallion. He triumphs not just over Nazi Germany and Ger-
istically, through advance collective discussions among producers) and man cultureboth swastika banners and medieval churches are shown
were intended for a mass audience that, also ideally, would engage with falling behind himbut over the whole European tradition of neo-ba-
them through political debate. In the total absence of a private market, roque portraiture, which Yakovlev proudly appropriates and tames just as
production would rely on state commissions, which in turn were distrib- Zhukov tames his horse. (Besides being a painter, Yakovlev ran the res-
uted through artists unions and cooperatives. Murals, public sculptures, toration department of Moscows Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts,
illustrated books, film, and photography allowed access to the masses, where he specialized in restoring paintings by Rubens. Secular painting
but easel painting was also integrated into this system through a vital was imposed on Russia in the eighteenth century by Peter the Great;
emphasis on distribution through the media: publishing houses issued some 200 years later, in a triumphalist justification of ancient self-col-
art magazines and postcards by the millions of copies, constituting the onization, Yakovlev was claiming the right to the Western style because
staple of the Soviet art system alongside traditional museums. To some the West had now betrayed its true westernness, having embraced
extent, originals kept in museums were seen as master copies for further modernism.
reproductions, whether mechanical or, more often than not, manual. In a different but related dynamic, this antiinternationalist de-
During the Stalinist periodthat is, until 1953the initial egal- colonization was accompanied by colonization of the Soviet Unions
itarian impulse of this system was violently repressed. Debates within own margins, called national republics in an assumption that Russia
artists unions, once to some extent democratic, stopped. A politically was not one. The artists of the non-Russian republics were expected
servile artistic bureaucracy emerged, negotiating enormous fees that to represent their regions life in a style bearing no resemblance to its
made its members extremely well off in comparison to an average worker traditional art, since the decorative qualities of traditional arts were
Chapter
4. 2Realisms
Form Matters Ekaterina Degot 425
seen as a kind of formalism. In 1947, the Ilya Repin Leningrad Insti- come in a still imperfect reality, why would it not foresee painting
tute for Painting, Sculpture and Architecture set up a studio of na- itself in its different statebetter, stronger, closer to the ideal, as if created
tionalities to prepare young artists from outside the European tra- by one of the classic humanist painters, realists avant la lettre, whom
dition for the vicissitudes of drawing from nature. Semyon Chuikovs Soviet painters and art historians idolized during the entire Soviet period.
Doch Sovetskoi Kirgizii (Daughter of Soviet Kirgizia, 1948; fig. 1), for If, through their painterly style, artists expressed the ambition to be
example, was praised as a successful example of the cultural awak- a Rembrandt or a Velzquez, a Zurbarn or a Chardin (and many did),
ening not just of a girl from the steppes, who prioritized study over they were showing themselves at their best not just in an aesthetic but in
tending sheep, but of Kirgiz national realist painting, a previously an ethical sense. And since they knew they were not Velzquez after all,
unknown genre. The republics were forced to embrace a high culture they also demonstrated humility. The viewer might then give them the
represented by a generic realist visual language interpreted as the na- benefit of the doubtBlochs principle of hopeby looking at what the
tional Russian style. Russian culture, understanding itself as supra- painting might have been, might still become, rather than at what it was
national, was spread abroad, too: in the 1950s, the painter Konstantin and at the limitations it had.
Maksimov was sent to China to teach the methods of realist art there. The theory of Socialist Realism as an epistemological tool was
based on Lenins theory of reflection, which stated the correlation be-
tween objective reality and cognition, but in both directions: according
to Lenin, cognition mirrors reality in an active, transformative way,
REALISM OF THE POSSIBLE bringing out the best of it (and that, one can deduce, works better than
cognition per se, only possible through a process of necessarily limited
Soviet realist aesthetics were heavily influenced by Vladimir Lenins famous approximations).5 Slavoj iek is right to see Lenins theory as implicitly
essay Leo Tolstoy as the Mirror of the Russian Revolution (1908), in idealistic, since the very idea of mirroring divides objective reality and
which Lenin praised Tolstoy as a genius who has drawn incomparable consciousness.6 Marxism and Questions of Linguistics, signed by Stalin
pictures of Russian life.2 This pictorial metaphor brought the narrative (but not necessarily written by him) and published in 1950, goes still far-
and the visual into a dialectical embrace that later critics had in mind ther, proclaiming the relative independence of societys superstructure
when they tended to evaluate each art through the criteria of the other. A from its basesomething that was never contested, even during the
realist text had to be as vivid as a painting, while a realist painting, without years of de-Stalinization, and became the most important ideological
losing its sensuous credibility, had to encompass the whole range of real- platform for arts seeking the ideal.
ity, the fullness of its connections and relations, past and futuresome-
thing that only a novel could perhaps have at least hoped to offer.
One new genre promised just that: thematic painting, a political
statement embedded in a visual narrative. A paradigmatic example is THE POWER OF TRUTH
Fyodor Shurpins Utro nashei rodiny (Morning of our Motherland, 1946
48; plate 173), a portrait of Stalin significantly never positioned as a por- On March 5, 1953, Stalin died; in February 1956, the 20th Congress of the
trait of Stalin: it claimed a higher ambition. The narrative here, however, Communist Party of the Soviet Union condemned his cult of personality
is minimalist to say the least: there is almost nothing to be seen but the and called for a return to Leninist norms of party life. That opened the
indirect glow of the sun and the figure of Stalin. Yet the viewer is asked short period of socialism with a human face, which ended in 1968 when an
to imagine a magnificent future. In 1946, in a country devastated by the even more humanly faced socialism in Prague was crushed by Soviet tanks.
recent war, to ask for that sort of imagination was to ask for the superla- The partys greeting to the First All-Union Congress of Soviet Art-
tive public-spirited exertion that in the Soviet Union would come to be ists, in 1957, called for works providing a feeling of genuine aesthetic
Fig. 1. Semyon Chuikov. Daughter of Soviet Kirgizia. 1948. Oil on canvas, 120 x 95 cm.
The State Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow called shock work. One can, and probably should, dismiss this painting pleasure and joy for millions, which enrich their spiritual world, which
for its utter glorification of the tyrant, but it also marks an important shift ennoble and elevate man.7 The assumption that rich and noble were
in Soviet realism from the actual to the potential. A later Soviet dictionary positive qualities was rather unexpected. In the same way, the autono-
of aesthetics would argue that artistic reflection is high aesthetic selec- my of art was partly rehabilitated, insofar as artists gained it de facto.
tiveness, orientation to the possible and the probable.3 For Soviet critics, Artists unions now controlled media distribution and museum acqui-
realism had to represent not so much the current reality as hopes for a sitions, and by the 1960s, at least in Moscow and Leningrad, had turned
better one; this sort of realism presupposes possibility beyond already into a relatively privileged caste of professionals isolated from the rest of
existing reality, as Ernst Bloch put it, describing the warm movement in society. For the artists of the austere style of the early 1960s, as well as
Marxism.4 for the first generation of conceptualists later in the decade, this auton-
The haunting of the real by the possible also challenges the norma- omy enabled a self-reflexive process: both groups were reflecting on the
tive idea of quality. If the audience had to discern a Communism yet to choices made in the 1920s, the figurative turn in the first place.
Fig. 3. Geliy Korzhev. Raising the Banner. 1960. Oil on canvas, 156 x 290 cm.
State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg
ism as a cognitive tool and sensuous instrument in the search for truth.
Truthfulness for Lifshitz was the representation of what, after Hegel, he
called veritas reithe truth of things, the best in them, their ideal projec-
tion. The very fact of revealing something in sensuous form was already
considered aesthetic, but the highest form of this revelation would be the
revelation of the universal inside and through the unique.
The idea of the hard ascension, physical as well as spiritual, toward
the ideal, the universal, toward something that transcends even the notion
of class, is at the core of Geliy Korzhevs iconic triptych Communists (1957 1 See Matthew Cullerne Bown, Socialist Realist Painting (New Haven and London: Yale
60). In the central panel a worker raises a heavy flag that has fallen from University Press, 1998), pp. 14041.
2 The essay is available online at www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1908/sep/11.htm
the hands of a dead comrade (fig. 3); to the right, The Internationale, two
(accessed May 2016).
brave horn-players raise their instruments and defy death in a battle in the 3 Estetika. Slovar (Moscow: Izdatelstvo politicheskoe literatury, 1989), p. 246.
Fig. 2. Geliy Korzhev. Homer. 1960.
Oil on canvas, 290 x 140 cm.
Russian Civil War (fig. 4). In the lefthand panel, Homer, we see what all this Fig. 4. Geliy Korzhev. The Internationale. 195758. 4 Ernst Bloch, The Principle of Hope, 195459, excerpted in Richard Noble, ed., Utopias,
Oil on canvas, 285 x 128 cm. State Russian Museum, Documents of Contemporary Art (London: Whitechapel Gallery, and Cambridge, Mass.: The
State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg was for: in a studio after the war, two former soldiers copy, meticulous- St. Petersburg
MIT Press, 2009), p. 44.
ly and modestly, a bust of Homer, elevating themselves above their own 5 Vladimir Lenin, Philosophical Notebooks, 1915.
maleare represented as anti-Stalinist political subjects who do not background and past to the universalist and classless level of the human- its abstractness, the concrete that is deeply reflected in its concreteness, 6 Slavoj iek, Afterword: Lenins Choice, in Lenin, Revolution at the Gates: A Selection of
Writings from February to October 1917, ed. iek (London: Verso, 2002).
just follow orders but are architects of their own destiny, who combine ist culture of European antiquity (fig. 2). This ennoblement and elevation the realistic that is more than just representation, the proper and unique 7 Iskusstvo no. 4 (1957): 3.
physical strength with independent minds, and whose labor on behalf of is achieved, notably, through mimetic copying, an activity a dedicated that opens up toward a higher level of generalization. It is high culture and 8 The translation severe style is common, but has a punitive note absent from the original
society allows them time for their own intellectual development. In con- realist like Korzhev identified with. And it was precisely this copying philosophical thinking that have freed themselves from their historical Russian term, which rather stresses asceticism.
9 Keti Chukhrov, Classical Art and Human Resignation in Soviet Marxism, in Georg
trast to the mythomaniac art of the Stalinist period, artists of the aus- that, for him, opened the door to the immensity of the absolute truth limitations and joined the common, classless future. The contemporary Schllhammer and Ruben Arevshatyan, eds., Sweet Sixties: Specters and Spirits of a Parallel
tere style insisted on truthfulness. That did not mean more credible that transcends any categorization, be it epistemological or sociological. theorist Keti Chukhrov points out that in Soviet aesthetics, art, even Avant-Garde (Berlin: Sternberg Press, 2014).
EXCHANGEABLE REALISM
Anneka Lenssen
English and in Arabic. The events National Union organizers had suc- and human goodness, often in tension with actual policies or expe-
ceeded in staging a photogenic rally. The Egyptian magazine al-Mu- riences. Many Arab art critics called for an art that engaged reality,
sawwar printed a stunning full-spread image showing the protesters but the works of art they prized typically drew their authority not
facing off against the motifs of industrial warfare, thereby conceptually from conformity to observable appearances but rather from the
linking the cause of Algerias active struggle for independence from authenticity of the artists intentions and capacities.5 As the young
France to the collective fate of the Arab countries, the African conti- Syrian artist Ghazi al-Khaldi put it in March 1959, it was impossible
nent, and the entirety of the colonized world (fig. 1).2 to separate the artist from his production, for both emerged from
The Afro-Asian liberation struggle so pictured would have real the same experience of life.6 To al-Khaldi, a painting or other art
historic consequences. And yet, like any show of solidarity, its images object would need to be evaluated in an organic continuum with social
also worked to sustain a number of simulations, including, in this case, and physical forces, which made an artists sovereign expression less
promotion of the moral authority of Egyptian President Gamal Abdel important than his or her demonstration of humanity.7
Chapter
4. 2Realisms
Form Matters Anneka Lenssen 431
These realist expectations would increasingly find sustenance in a having applied it to their own creative work. 12 The sheer iterability of
developing circuitry of government exchange programs that kept art- these exchanges gave them an ideological power. Within this circuit
ists and artworks mobile across the Second and Third Worlds, thereby of ongoing and collective effort, Egyptian, Iraqi, and Chinese artists
demonstrating the universal exchangeability of the cause. Syrian artists, alike might take something nutritive from Chinese traditional art.
for example, began to study in the Eastern bloc in addition to the Italian Artists worked synthetically, acting as sensitive instruments for
academies they had once preferred, with Elias Zayyat going to Sofia, Bul- conveying the vitality of cultural inheritance.
garia, in 1956 and Abdul Manan Shamma to Moscow in 1958. In 1959, the Back in Cairo, the College of Fine Arts was admitting increasing
Moroccan artist Farid Belkahia, who had been studying in Paris, left for numbers of students from other Arab states, including a large contin-
Prague, where he hoped to observe a Communist approach to culture gent from Syria, which did not yet have its own degree-granting art
and where he was able to mix with left-wing writers and artists passing school. The curriculum, in accordance with the populist emphases of
through on their way to Beijing or Moscow. 8 That same year, Egypt sent Nassers government, brought field observation of Egypt-in-construc-
Hamed Owaisa consummate painter of the worker and of populist tion to the fore, sending art students to depict the Aswan High Dam
causesto Poland to stage two exhibitions, and the Moroccan artist
Ahmed Cherkaoui undertook a years study in Warsaw beginning the
following year. Exchanges of collective exhibitions proliferated at the
same time. Poster art by Eastern European designers became a fixture
in the National Museum of Damascus, with Syria returning the favor
with touring exhibitions of painting, sculpture, and folk arts. In Bagh-
dad, an exhibition of watercolors, woodcuts, and antique masterpieces
sent from Beijing impressed students with its technical virtuosity.9
Given the diversity and volume of these artistic exchanges, it is
instructive to consider the nature of the training offered to those who
took fellowships abroad. Notably, the positive character of the realist
paradigm hinged upon the cultivation of recognized skill, typically
via the highly structured environment of a national academy. From
the memoirs of Iraqi artist Rafa al-Nasiri, for example, we learn that
the Chinese exhibit in Baghdad motivated him to pursue a four-year
fellowship at the Central Academy of Fine Arts, Beijing, where he Fig. 2. Rafa Al-Nasiri. Chinese Girls. 1961.
immersed himself in a refined tradition of master printmaking.10 His Woodcut print, 1520 cm. Courtesy Rafa Nasiri Studio
faces of the participant typesurbanized builder, agricultural worker, book Being Mobilized, a study of painting and populist politics in Syria and the Arab East,
193067.
and peasant motherin gray shadow, as if to foreclose the possibility of 8 See Kenza Sefrioui, La revue Souffles, 19661973. Espoirs de rvolution culturelle au
an allegorical reading. 18 Maroc (Casablanca: ditions du Sirocco, 2012), p. 339.
9 See Rafa Nasiri: 50 Years of Printmaking, ed. Vincenza Russo (Milan: Skira, 2013), p. 25.
Because Owais maintained such a principled commitment to the
10 Ibid.
quality of immediacy in his pictures, his occasional deviance from 11 Egyptian National Archives (Dar al-Wathaiq al-Qawmiyya), Delegations file, 4031-103334.
this norm becomes all the more compelling as his testimony shifts to 12 Ibid.
13 See Khaldi: 50 Years of Painting, 19502000 (Paris: Union of Plastic Artists/Unesco, 2000),
the larger system of exchange. Consider, for example, his 1965 painting
and Nazeer Nabaa: An Eye on the World An Eye on the Soul (Damascus: Tajalliyat Gallery, 2009).
of the Aswan High Dam, now in the collection of the State Museum of 14 Al-Khaldi, Sanna Kamila fi al-Qahira.
Oriental Art in Moscow (fig. 3). Tucked into a riveted contraption high 15 Ibid.
16 Ibid. Burhan Karkutli would go from Spain to Morocco, where he lived for several years,
above the newly created Lake Nasser reservoir, men work on the con-
working as a graphic designer for the Union nationale des tudiants du Maroc, among other
struction of transmission towers and power grids. Here Owais depicted activist groups.
a vertiginous space of labor, bringing together several perspectival 17 On pedagogical attitudes before 1952 see Dina A. Ramadan, Cultivating Taste, Creating
the Modern Subject: Sawt el-Fannan and Art Criticism in 1950s Egypt, MESA Bulletin 42, no.
modes, from a birds-eye view of the barges to an assembly of cascading
1/2 (Summer/Winter 2008): 2631, and Patrick Kane, Egyptian Art Institutions and Art Ed-
pipes and braces. And, unusually for him, he opted to denote his human ucation from 1908 to 1951, The Journal of Aesthetic Education 44, no. 3 (Fall 2010): 4368.
actors by means of abstract geometry, giving the two hard hats the per- 18 The painting is reproduced in Galina Lassikova, Contemporary Painting and Graphic Works
of Arab Countries in the Collection of the Moscow State Museum of Oriental Art: Catalogue
fect circular shape of cogs. Presumably, Owais intended to convey the (Moscow, 2007), p. 30.
awesome power of human and nonhuman collaboration in the painting, 19 On this subsequent phase see Kristin Ross, New Men, in Fast Cars, Clean Bodies: De-
linking flesh to steel and water to electricity. Yet in using this schematic colonization and the Reordering of French Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1994),
pp. 15596; Anneka Lenssen, The Plasticity of the Syrian Avant-Garde, ARTMargins 2, no. 2
shorthand, he also left the immediacy of his realism behind, signaling (June 2013): 4370; and Davies, Decolonizing Culture: Third World, Moroccan, and Arab Art
submission to industrial power. in Souffles/Anfas, 19661972, Essays of the Forum Transregionale Studien (February 2015).
artists studied at the Repin Institute of Art in Leningrad, and in 1955 the all reveal the early-1950s pursuit of an original model for a national-
Soviet painter Makchmobk.M held a training class in the Chinese ist style. Even later, when the Soviet-influenced Socialist Realist style head of propaganda, had stressed an opposition to national nihilism
Central Academy of Fine Arts in Beijing, which some of Chinas most reached its peak, the art of the early period of the Peoples Republic of and wholesale Westernization, terms used in the 1950s to warn artists
promising artists attended during this period.10 The impact of the Soviet China retained a strong tendency toward nationalism. not to follow the Soviet example unquestioningly.12 Second, it reflected
influence was not really felt, however, until the late 1950s, and particular- In fact the greatest influence on the Chinese artists of the 1950s Maos approach to proletarian art, more romantic and utopian than the
ly around 1959, the ten-year anniversary of the founding of PRC. was not Soviet Socialist Realism but the art of the nineteenth-century art of any other national ideology.
In the first half of the 1950s, early in the second phase of Maos art, Peredvizhniki (Wanderers), notably Ilya Repin and Vasili Surikov. Chi- It is clear that Maos ultimate model of art combined a nationalist
two phenomenathe New Year Painting Movement (xinnianhua yundong) nese artists of course learned of the school through the Soviets, who had style with a peasants distaste for elite expression and academicism.
and the debates on the reformation of traditional ink paintingdemon- begun to advocate for it in the early 1930s. There were several reasons From the late 1950s until 1966, however, art practice seemed orient-
strated the newly founded nations need for a renewal of nationalist iden- why these Russian painters affected the Chinese so deeply. First, most ed against Maos ideas, especially after the political changes incurred
tity. For a thousand years, the Chinese had enjoyed buying and hang- of the Peredvizhniki painters came from the lower class, and so were in- when he resigned as national chairman and was replaced by Liu Shaoqi,
ing new year paintings (nianhua) in their homes at the Chinese New clined to feel that art should serve the needs of the people and should in 1959. The change was a result of the failure of Maos Great Leap
Year. These pictures were mainly colorful woodcuts, showing images align itself with their emotions and sentiments. Second, these painters Forward policy the previous year. In comparison with Maos radical
and subjects of good omen. After Maos Yanan Talk they became effec- paid attention to national traditions in their choices of both artistic lan- revolutionary sentiment, Liu took a more realistic, constructive, and
tive revolutionary media and were widely produced in the Communist- guage and topic. Third, they were essentially romantic. Chinese artists professional approach to national affairs. Under his leadership, art
controlled Liberation Area ( jiefang qu). After the founding of the PRC, long misunderstood them as critical realists, but the critical realists were moved toward a more academic socialist model.
the Chinese government immediately launched the New Year Painting really the previous generation of Russian artists, who had exposed the A number of the finest Maoist popular artworks created in this
Fig. 2. Quan Shanshi. Heroic and Indomitable. 1961.
Movement to develop this legacy for purposes of national propaganda. dark side of society and held an elite view of social inequality. The Wan- style appeared between 1958 and 1964, after several years of Soviet-
Oil on canvas, 233217 cm. National Museum of China, Beijing On November 23, 1949, the official newspaper Peoples Daily published a derers instead expressed their own feelings in their paintings, affirming ization. These pictures used academic realist techniques to depict
mandate promoting new year painting. In the early 1950s, the genre was the masses hopes for the future by depicting their daily lives. Fourth, romantic and symbolic themes. Works portraying models of heroism,
popular, was to make the masses happy to hear and see (xiwen lejian).7 developed on a large scale to eulogize Mao, the Communist Party, and Chinese artists admired and emulated the skillful academic tech- for example, include Zhan Jianjuns Five Warriors on Langya Mountain
Rather than transform the revolutionary masses, art was to be received by the new life through which the working people would become masters niques of the Peredvizhniki.11 Before this time in China, artists such as Xu (1959) and Quan Shanshis Heroic and Indomitable (1961; fig. 2). These
them in this particular popular way; it was the artists themselves who were of the country. Beihong, Wu Zuoren, and others had studied in France and been ex- oil paintings, by artists who had trained either in the Soviet Union or
to be reeducated by the masses, eventually becoming proletarianized. Since the early 1950s, artists had grappled with the problem of how posed to European academic art, but they were few in number and had under Soviet artists in the 1950s, produced a number of what I call
The purpose of revolutionary art, then, was not only to change the to represent this new life under the Communist party and to integrate no major influence during this period. Most Chinese artists had no academic Socialist Realist works (xueyuan shehuizhuyi xianshizhuyi).
point of view on revolutionary reality, the way of thinking about and a distinctly Chinese style with Western realism. Jiang Feng and others opportunity to view European academicism directly, they could learn Sun Zixis painting In Front of Tiananmen Gate (1964; fig. 3) is another
of the Tragedy and A Sip of Water, also of 1953, voiced the calamity of the ing decades. Arbeitpause (Break, 1959; plate 177), by the East German in Francine Weiss, Kindred Spirits: Robert Frost and Andrew Wyeth, in David Cateforis, ed.,
Rethinking Andrew Wyeth (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014), p. 145.
unfulfilled national aspirations of the Palestinians (plates 286, 287).14 Willi Sitte, further updates the representation of labor by shifting the 3 See Chang-Tai Hung, Oil Paintings and Politics: Weaving a Heroic Tale of the Chinese
focus to rest and leisure. His construction worker sits on scaffolding high Communist Revolution, Comparative Studies in Society and History 49, no. 4 (October 2007):
783814, and Maos New World: Political Culture in the Early Peoples Republic (Ithaca: Cornell
in the sky, relaxed, legs crossed, a cigarette between his fingers, absorbed
University Press, 2011).
in a book. The lightheartedness of this painting may have owed a debt 4 See Jeannine Verds Leroux, Lart de parti. Le parti communiste franais et ses peintres
UNFINISHED BUSINESS to Fernand Lgers series Les Constructeurs (Construction Workers; fig. 3), 194754, Actes de la Recherche en Sciences Sociales 28 (June 1979): 3355, Sarah Wilson,
La Beaut Rvolutionnaire? Ralisme Socialiste and French Painting 19351954, Oxford Art
which had circulated east of the Iron Curtain in the previous years.19
Journal 3, no. 2 (October 1980): 6169, Wilson, Picasso/Marx and Socialist Realism in France
Chuikovs prominent acknowledgment of the Kirghiz girls race is sig- Chinese Communism, on the other hand, remained entrenched, (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2013), and Nicoletta Misler, La via italiana al realismo. La
nificant within the Cold War context. In the early 1950s, Soviet prop- resistant to the pressures of de-Stalinization. Quan Shanshis Unyielding politica culturale artistica del PCI dal 1944 al 1956 (Milan: Mazzotta, 1973).
5 Alice Neel, quoted in Andrew Hemingway, Artists on the Left: American Artists and the
aganda often contrasted the rampant racial segregation in the United Heroism (1961), painted at the apex of the Sino-Soviet split, embodies
Communist Movement, 19261956 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), p. 248.
States with the equality affordedin theory, at leastto all the races China standing its ground. Shanshi had studied at the Repin Institute of 6 Andr Breton, Pourquoi nous cache-t-on la peinture russe contemporaine? Arts, January
and nationalities of the Soviet Union.15 In both cases access to education Art in Leningrad. This work, executed in the painterly late Socialist Real- 11, 1952.
7 See Antoine Baudin, Why is Soviet Painting Hidden From Us?: Zhdanov Art and Its In-
was crucial. In his History of Negro Education in Morris County, Texas (1955; ist style, is one of the most famous among those selected by the party for
ternational Relations and Fallout, 194753, in Thomas Lahusen and Evgeny Dobrenko, eds.,
plate 176) John Biggers adapts the idioms of Rivera and Thomas Hart display in the National Museum of China. In Jia Youfus Marching across Socialist Realism Without Shores (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1997), pp. 22756.
Benton, which he had encountered while studying at the Hampton the Snow-Covered Mount Minshan (1965; plate 188) a Socialist Realist image 8 See Katarzyna Murawska-Muthesius, How the West Corroborated Socialist Realism in the
East: Fougeron, Taslitzky, and Picasso in Warsaw, Biuletyn Historii sztuki 65, no. 2 (2003):
Institute, Virginia, in the 1940s, to produce a mural on the history of the of Mao leading his Long March is superimposed on a monochromat- 30329, and Remapping Socialist Realism: Renato Guttuso in Poland, in Jrme Bazin, Pas-
first black school in the area.16 Replete with portraits of contributors to the ic mountain landscape, signaling a new direction in the 1960s, that of cal Dubourg Glatigny, and Piotr Piotrowski, eds., Art Beyond Borders: Artistic Exchange in Com-
schools history, Biggerss realism is a thoroughly engaged one. This particu- a fusion of traditional and Western techniques. While the medium and munist Europe (19451989) (Budapest: Central University Press, 2016), pp. 13950.
9 Diego Rivera, quoted in El Nacional, June 18, 1950, and quoted here from Philip Stein,
lar work was made a year after the landmark U.S. Supreme Court decision technique are Western, the flat bright colors and the graphic ornamental Siqueiros: His Life and Works (New York: International Publishers, 1994), p. 187.
Brown v. Board of Education, a key moment in the civil rights movement. pattern of the mountain peaks aim to evoke Chinese New Year prints. 10 See John Berger, A Socialist Realist Painting at the Biennale, The Burlington Magazine 94,
Almost a decade later, school desegregation in the South was still no. 595 (October 1952): 294, 29697.
11 Francis K. Pohl, An American in Venice: Ben Shahn and the United States Foreign Policy
lagging. Norman Rockwell, hitherto known for saccharine illustrations at the 1954 Venice Biennale or Portrait of the Artist as American Liberal, Art History 4, no. 1
of wholesome American life, faced the problem head-on in his first as- (March 1981): 80113.
signment for Look magazine, producing a foldout commemorating the BEYOND THE FRAME 12 German A. Nedoshivin, U.R.S.S., in XXVIII Biennale di Venezia (Venice: Alfieri Editore,
1956), pp. 5089.
tenth anniversary of Brown v. Board of Education. The Problem We All 13 See Liliane Karnouk, Contemporary Egyptian Art (Cairo: American University in Cairo Press, 1995).
Live With (1964) depicts Ruby Bridges, the first African American girl When Siqueiros completed De Porfirismo a la Revolucin (From the Dicta- 14 See Jlio Pomar, Alexandre Pomar, and Natala Vital, Jlio Pomar. Catalogue raisonn (Paris:
Diffrence, 2001), and Gannit Ankori, Palestinian Art (London: Reaktion Books, 2006).
to be integrated into a white school in New Orleans, escorted there by torship of Porfirio Daz to the Revolution, 195765; plate 186), his vast, un-
15 In response to this pressure, the U.S. Pavilion at the 1958 Brussels World Fair contained an
U.S. marshals for her protection. Heavily reliant on John Steinbecks dulating mural for the Castillo de Chapultepec in Mexico City, the mural exhibit on civil rights Unfinished Business. See Michael L. Krenn, Unfinished Business: Segrega-
detailed description of the incident in his Travels with Charlie (1962), had already been a native format for decades. Siqueiros heightened the tion and U.S. Diplomacy at the 1958 Worlds Fair, Diplomatic History 20, no. 4 (Fall 1996): 591612.
16 See Ollie Jensen Theisen, Walls That Speak: The Murals of John Thomas Biggers (Denton:
Rockwells meticulously rendered painting is a transcription of a tex- drama by compressing his multifigure composition around a specific, ex-
University of North Texas Press, 2010).
tual realism into a pictorial one.17 plosive historical event. The year is 1906, when Mexican workers went on 17 See Karal Ann Marling, Norman Rockwell (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1997), and Maureen
strike to demand equal pay with American miners working alongside them Hart Hennessey and Anne Knutson, eds., Norman Rockwell: Pictures for the American People
(New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1999).
at the Canadea Consolidated copper mines, a scene that typifies the ex-
18 See Matthew Bown and Matteo Lafranconi, eds., Socialist Realisms: Soviet Painting 1920
ploitation of Mexicos natural resources by foreign powers during the Daz 1970 (Milan: Skira, 2012).
DIVERGENT REALISMS regime.20 Glorifying the anti-imperialism of the early years of the Mexican 19 See Antoine Baudin, Les Constructeurs de Fernand Lger. De la Place Smolensk la
Valle de la Chevreuse, ou quelques tribulations dun chantier pictural, Matires no. 2 (1998):
Revolution at a time of continuing neocolonial American involvement in 6875, and Jrme Bazin, Le ralisme socialiste et ses modles internationaux, Vingtime
In the early 1960s the internal reforms of the Soviet system during the Latin America, Siqueiross mural has implications both specific and glob- sicle. Revue dhistoire 109 (JanuaryMarch 2011): 7387. A prominent painting in the series
Thaw eventually led to the revision of high Socialist Realism into a al. Simultaneously a style, a method, and a political stance, realism always was donated to the Soviet Union in 1969 by Lgers widow, Nadia Khodasevich, and is now in
the collection of the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts, Moscow.
new form of painting, alternatively called severe or contemporary carried an intrinsic mandate: to point to social and geopolitical realities be- 20 See Mary K. Coffey, How a Revolutionary Art Became Official Culture: Murals, Museums,
style. 18 While still fitting the established prescriptions for realism, yond the frame. Its global ambition was unmatched in the postwar period. and the Mexican State (Durham: Duke University Press, 2012).
172
451
174
175
453
176
John Biggers
The History of Negro Education in Morris County, Texas
1955
cont crayon and gouache on paper
Michael Rosenfeld Gallery, LLC, New York
455
178
177
457
179
180
459
Renato Guttuso
Boogie-Woogie
1953
oil on canvas
Mart, Museo di arte contemporanea di Trento e Rovereto
181
461
Boris Taslitzky
Riposte
1951
oil paint on canvas
TATE, London
182
463
183
185
184
465
187
186
467
188
Jia Youfu
Marching Across the Snow-Covered Mount Minshan
1965
ink and color on paper
CAFA Art Museum, Beijing
469
189
Li Xiushi
Morning
1961
oil on canvas
CAFA Art Museum, Beijing
471
191
190
Hamed Owais
Chua Mia Tee Al Zaim w Ta'mim Al Canal
Epic Poem of Malaya (Nasser and the Nationalisation of the Canal)
1955 1957
oil on canvas oil on canvas
National Gallery Singapore QM/QF - Mathaf: Arab Museum of Modern Art, Doha
473
Section Introduction
Pedro Erber
Andrea Giunta
Mari Carmen Ramirez
Plates
5
CONCRETE VISIONS
W
hile the abstract style that dominated the postwar interna-
tional world was primarily materialist and gestural, prewar
geometric abstraction did persist, albeit with an impetus
quite distinct from that of European prewar artists. In South
America, Neoconcrete art united the vitalism of Joaqun Torres Garca with
European modernism and became an entirely independent phenomenon.
Modernist forms were adopted early on, in parallel to a nationalist develop-
mentalism that did not simply stand against Western capitalism but figured
in competition with it. Concrete art in Latin Americaby the Mad group,
for examplewas quickly followed by Neoconcretism, its forms apparently
similar but quite different in spirit. As Lygia Clark said, We use the term neo-
concrete to differentiate ourselves from those committed to nonfigurative
CONCRETE VISIONS geometric art and particularly the kind of concrete art that is influenced by
a dangerously acute rationalism none of which offers a rationale for the
expressive potential we feel art contains. Instead, South American Neo-
concrete art was imbued with an antirational vitalism, made socially spe-
cific, physically participatory, and psychologically liberating. In this sense, it
rhymes with the nonprogrammatic, everyday formalism of artists around
the world whose geometric art eschewed the rationalism and, still more
broadly, the authority and dogmatism of earlier avant-garde movements.
Introduction 477
L
ygia Papes Livro da criao (Book of creation, 195960) commentary on the suspicion and paranoia that dominated the early
is a set of fifteen three-dimensional geometric compo- days of Brazils military dictatorship. In Japan during the same period,
sitions, made in gouache on cardboard, intended to be the avant-gardist Kitasono Katue published plastic poems composed
handled and interacted with by viewers, and entirely of photographed newspaper cutouts, some of them including foreign
without words. It can at first be hard to think of each (mostly French) writing and others containing no writing at all (fig. 2).
of the individual compositions as pages of a book. If But can such works still be called poetry? If they are entirely without
anything it may be the works titleand perhaps some words, what would make them belong to the realm of poetic experimen-
knowledge of Papes creative trajectory and aesthetic af- tation rather than to that of the plastic arts?
filiationsthat first suggest to the viewer its identity as a (very special) kind Suspending for a moment any verdict on the poetic identity of such
of artists book and its place within the context of the experimental poetry works, it is worth examining how they came to be designated as poems:
practiced by members of the Rio de Janeirobased Neoconcrete group. that is, through their continuity and dialogue with a certain trajectory in
In its absence of words and letters, Livro da criao is not alone the materialization of poetic language, a trajectory seen in a significant
among book works of Papes such as Livro da arquitetura (Book of share of avant-garde poetry in the postwar era. If, following the critics
Architecture, 195960; plate 240) and the monumental Livro do tempo Lucy Lippard and John Chandler, the Conceptual art of the late 1960s and
(Book of Time, 196165; fig. 1), in which she stretched the concept of 1970s has been repeatedly described in terms of the dematerialization
the book even further by attaching its 365 compositions to the wall, of the art object, postwar avant-garde poets performed the opposite
eliminating the interactive aspect of the previous pieces. Indeed, operation.1 Emphasizing the visual and vocal aspects of verbal language,
some of the most radical poetic experiments of the postwar years in they pursued a radical materialization of the poetic word, a process that
Brazil and beyond lack verbal language. In 1964, working with photo- culminated, in some cases, in the disappearance of verbal language from
graphs cut from printed media, the So Paulobased concrete poet poetic composition.
Augusto de Campos produced Olho por olho (Eye for eye), a poignant
avant-garde movement started by the Brazilian poets Dcio Pignatari and od, with Simias of Rhodess axe-shaped poem from the third century B.C.5
the brothers Haroldo and Augusto de Campos, together with Ulm-based Yet it was precisely because of its historical consciousness, and its
Swiss-Bolivian poet Eugen Gomringerthat most characteristically em- self-reflective and explicitly theoretical attitude toward the literary tra-
bodied such aspirations, to the point of becoming nearly synonymous dition and toward poetic composition itself, that concrete poetry came
with postwar visual poetry. to occupy a hegemonic position in postwar visual poetry and poetics.
Concrete poetry: tension of word-things in spacetime, reads the Borrowing the adjective concrete from music and the visual
Plano-piloto para poesia concreta (Pilot Plan for Concrete Poetry), the arts, the Noigandres group proposed to bring poetic technique up
Fig. 2. Kitasono Katsue. Prosprit solitaire. 1974. movements manifesto, which was signed by Pignatari and the Campos to date, to synchronize it with other realms of artistic creation. On
Gelatin silver print, 15.5 x 13 cm.
brothers and published in 1958 in the fourth issue of the groups journal, the one hand, they argued, in the work of Piet Mondrian, Josef Albers,
Noigandres.3 One of many definitions of the scope of their endeavor and others, time had intervened in painting, an art of space par excel-
provided in this brief text, the sentence introduces not only a conver- lence; on the other, Anton von Webern and his followers had introduced
gence between word and thing but an attempt to theorizethrough space into music, which is fundamentally an art of time. 6 Meanwhile,
multiple meanings in a single act. the illusion of such simultaneity, since reading, unlike the act of viewing a concreta, Noigandres 4 (1958), Eng. trans. as Pilot Plan for Concrete Poetry in Haroldo de
Campos, Novas. Selected Writings (Evanson: Northwestern University Press, 2007), p. 218.
The project of concrete poetry might sound like a rather formal- painting, inevitably implies a succession of instants; it cannot take place 5 Augusto de Campos, Poesia Concreta, in Augusto de Campos, Haroldo de Campos, and
istic utopia but it is worth emphasizing that what was at stake here was in a single apprehensive act.13 In lieu of the search for synchrony, for the Pignatari, Teoria da Poesia Concreta. Textos crticos e manifestos (19501960) (So Paulo:
Edies Inveno, 1975), p. 34.
also to some extent a geopolitical endeavor. In the ideographic model embodied, material relationship with the poem as a concrete thing Gullar
6 On Simias of Rhodess Axe see Luis Arturo Guichard, Simias Pattern Poems: The Mar-
of composition the concrete poets envisioned the basis for a new mode proposed a poetics of duration, and he created devices to return the act of gins of the Canon, in Hellenistica Groningana: Beyond the Canon, ed. Annette Harder et al.
of transnational, translingual communication based on the lowest reading to its fully embodied essence. Since his first book-poems of 1956, (Leuven: Peeters Publishers, 2006), p. 91.
7 Augusto de Campos, Haroldo de Campos, and Pignatari, Pilot Plan for Concrete Poetry, p. 218.
common denominator of languagea mode that could almost dis- he had been experimenting with the embodied temporality of the act of
8 Ibid.
pense with the need for translation.9 In challenging linguistic borders reading. With odd-sized pages containing as little as one single word, the 9 Ibid., p. 217.
they sought to establish a universal poetic syntax and ultimately a new book-poem calls attention to the act of reading as a participatory activity 10 Ibid., p. 218.
11 On modernist visual poetry in Taiwan and its relationship to the transnational avant-garde
kind of poetic universalism. Indeed, the Campos brothers dedication entailing as much bodily as intellectual praxis. Later on, in his spatial po-
see Andrea Bachner, Beyond Sinology: Chinese Writing and the Scripts of Culture (New York:
to the theory and practice of translation from a wide range of languages ems, words were hidden beneath a sort of wooden lid, and revealed only Columbia University Press, 2013), pp. 7491. On the political underpinnings of visual poetry in
was an aspect of their conscious effort both to overcome the suppos- upon the lids removal by the reader/participant (fig. 3). colonial Korea and the poetics of Yi Sang see Travis Workman, Imperial Genus: The Formation
and Limits of the Human in Modern Korea and Japan (Oakland: University of California Press,
edly peripheral position of Brazilian culture in the global panorama of With their increased emphasis on the bodily character of the act of
2016), pp. 24048.
cultural exchange and to challenge the center/periphery model in gen- reading, first in the simple act of turning pages and later in more com- 12 See L. C. Vinholes, Intercmbio, Presena e Influncia da Poesia Concreta Brasileira
eral. Transnationalism was an important feature of postwar artistic plex ways to uncover writingsuch as by lifting objects and even walk- no Japo, available online at www.usinadeletras.com.br/exibelotexto.php?cod=43689&cat=
Artigos (accessed March 2016).
culture, but few artists were more actively engaged than the concrete ing down stairsNeoconcretism brought poetry closer to things and, 13 Ferreira Gullar et al., Manifesto Neoconcreto [Neoconcrete Manifesto] in Suplemento
poets in creating connections across national borders and in establish- to some extent, farther from words. Gullars Poema enterrado (Buried Dominical do Jornal do Brasil, March 22, 1959, repr. in Aracy Amaral, ed., Projeto Construtivo
ing an international community around an artistic ideal. In this con- Poem, 1960), in which the viewer must literally enter the poem and re- Brasileiro na Arte, exh. cat. (Rio de Janeiro: Museu de Arte Moderna do Rio de Janeiro, 1977),
pp. 8084.
text synchronization also implied the establishment of transnational move several objects in order to unveil a single word, can be regarded as the 14 Gullar, Letter to Augusto de Campos, in Gullar, Experincia neoconcreta: momento limite
contemporaneity by creating direct ties with artists in distant locales, climax of this process. Yet Papes books bring concrete poetry to an even da arte (So Paulo: Cosac Naify, 2007), p. 113.
SIMULTANEOUS ABSTRACTIONS AND New York, Joaqun Torres-Garca had returned to his native city of
Montevideo, Uruguay, intending to found a new school. The following
(Emilio Pettoruti, Juan Del Prete, Lucio Fontana), or the traditions of
European abstraction. Their solutions came, more exactly, from the out-
POSTWAR LATIN AMERICAN ART year he gave a lecture proposing a School of the South: I have said
School of the South because in reality our North is the South. There
breaks and the dispersion of the principles of both historical and recent
European abstract avant-gardes: Mondrian and de Stijl, French Art Con-
Andrea Giunta should be no North for us, except in opposition to our South now we cret, Kazimir Malevich, the Bauhaus, the Swiss Allianz group, and the
know what our true position is, and is not the way the rest of the world Konkrete Kunst exhibition, organized by Max Bill in Basel in 1944. The
would like to have it.3 The most eloquent aspect of this strategy of de- South American artists understood these avant-gardes as repositories of
centering was the inversion of the map of the South American continent ideas from which to create new visual concepts. Two such, in 1945, were
with the south at the top, the north at the bottom, and Montevideo as the the shaped canvas (explained by Rothfuss in Arturo), and the coplanar
new center. Torres-Garcas program of Universalismo constructivo (Uni- structure, in which interrelated elements activated the plastic relevance
versal constructivism) elaborated on and exceeded elements not only of the surrounding space.
of European Surrealism and abstraction but of pre-Columbian art, and The artists were analyzing paintings by Europeans such as
proposed a new model of abstraction. Malevich and Mondrian, subverting their postulates, and proposing the
The young abstract artists of Buenos Aires, Argentina, across the next step. They presented themselves as artists of the international ab-
Rio de la Plata from Uruguay, visited Torres-Garca to understand his stract avant-garde. It is important to understand, however, that these
program but soon excluded its symbolic elements. The exchange is not- young artists had not visited Europe and had not seen the original works.
ed not to suggest genealogy but to highlight the effects of the European (The South American museums of the time had no European abstraction
diaspora, and its relationship to the young Latin American artists who in their collections.) They extracted their conclusions and generated their
looked at the cultural deposits of the European avant-garde as toolboxes. solutions from a print culture made up of texts as well as of reproductions.
Invention was the word used to name their creative place in the To the extent that the printed images they saw flattened or eliminated tex-
new map of the world. The term appeared in the single issue of Arturo ture and modified color, the available reproductions diverted the original
magazine, published in 1944 by the young Argentine artists Gyula Kosice, programs. Years later Kosice remarked, What I wanted was to be unlike
Toms Maldonado, and Edgar Bayley and the Uruguayans Rhod Rothfuss anyone else.4 From that perspective the art of the European avant-gardes
and Carmelo Arden Quin. Its pages trace a regional map: Torres-Garca, was more loot than heritage.
the Chilean poet Vicente Huidobro (founder thirty years earlier of the It is also important to understand that these artists were working to
literary movement Creacionismo, or Creationism), the Portuguese artist conceive a new society. In 1945, the Argentine Communist Party newspa-
Maria Helena Vieira da Silva (in exile in So Paulo, Brazil), the Brazilian per, Orientation, named Hlito, Maldonado, Manuel Espinosa, and Claudio
Chapter
5. Concrete
2 Form
Visions
Matters Andrea Giunta 485
Girola as artists of the concrete movement who adhered to the Party. It In Brazil, Mondrian and Bill were also repertoires to explore. In 1957,
was the time of the populist democracy of Juan Domingo Pern, which when the strength of the concrete-art movement was waning, Clark
the Buenos Aires intelligentsia associated with the fascist regimes that had wrote a fictional letter to Mondrian, asking the dead master whether she
been overthrown in Europe. Unlike the Nazis, Peron never persecuted ab- should break with the group. In 1958, her paintings began to question the
stract art, but it was not his regimes preferred style.5 In response, the artists boundaries of the frame, opening it to space (Unidades 17; fig. 2). The
activated the oppositional and emancipatory meaning that abstraction edge of the work became a living border, the line began to breathe; form acti-
had taken on in the context of the European war. The stance reinforced vated space, and planes became a mobile, flexible structure whose shapes
their representation of themselves as avant-garde both aesthetically and depended on the viewers decisions in manipulating them. (Kosice had
politically. They believed that it was possible to join Marxism with con- explored this kind of mobility in works such as Roy, of 1944.) By 1963,
crete art, which, however, the Communist Party condemned. Maldonado form had dissolved in experience: Caminhando (1964), arising out of the
read the polemics between Elio Vittorini and Palmiro Togliatti in Milan phenomenology of Maurice Merleau-Ponty, asks us to cut a paper Mbius
and between Andr Breton and Tristan Tzara in Parisdebates over ar- strip with scissors, generating knowledge through the experience of
tistic independence in relation to the aesthetic choices of the Communist creating ephemeral forms.
Party. Making a similar attempt to allow for an abstract alternative within
the Argentine Communist Party, he failed and left the Party in 1948.
Postwar abstract innovation spread in a complex network
through Latin America. In Chile it reached its peak in Valparasos Es-
cuela de Arquitectura, the Ciudad abierta project to integrate archi-
tecture with landscape and with Latin American roots, and the de-
velopment of the various abstract programs of artists such as Gustavo
Poblete, Ramn Vergara Grez, and Matilde Prez.6 Bayley and Arden
Quin visited Brazil in 1942, establishing contacts reflected in Arturo.
In 1947, the magazine Joaquim, produced in Curitiba, Brazil, published
the AACIs Invencionista manifesto along with reproductions of several
Argentine works, among them Maldonados and Lozzas shaped-can-
vas and coplanar structures. In 1950 the Argentine critic Jorge Rome-
ro Brest lectured in So Paulo and in 1951 he was a jurist in the first
Bienal de So Paulo (where his support for abstract art allowed the
main prize to go to Bills Tripartite Unity of 194849, a steel sculpture
shaped as a Mbius strip). That same year, Maldonado and Prati visited
the Brazilian critic Mario Pedrosa in Rio de Janeiro. Romero Brests
magazine Ver y Estimar included collaborations with Bill and Mathias
Goeritz, a German artist residing in Mexico. Fig. 2. Lygia Clark. Unidade VI. 1958. Industrial paint on wood, 3030 cm.
Brazil also developed its own chronology of postwar abstraction. In Collection MALBA, Museo de Arte Latinoamericano de Buenos Aires
1 See Harold Rosenberg, On the Fall of Paris, Partisan Review 7, no. 6 (December 1940):
44048.
2 Brazil declared war on the Axis in 1942, Argentine in 1944, and Chile in 1945.
3 Joaqun Torres-Garca, speech delivered at the Asociacin Cristiana de Jvenes, Monte-
video, February 1935, in Torres-Garca, Universalismo Constructivo (Buenos Aires: Poseidon,
1944), pp. 21319.
4 Gyula Kosice, in Gyula Kosice in Conversation with Gabriel Prez-Barreiro (New York and
Caracas: Fundacin Cisneros, 2012), p. 39.
5 In 1949, Juan Perns minister of education, Oscar Ivanissevich, called abstract art per-
verse, but abstraction was included in an exhibition on Argentine art at the Museo Nacion-
al de Bellas Artes, Buenos Aires, in 1952. Abstract artists were also in the Argentine rep-
resentation at the second Bienal de So Paulo, in 1953. See my Avant-Garde, Internationalism
and Politics: Argentine Art in the Sixties (Durham: Duke University Press, 2007), pp. 2754,
and Mara Amalia Garca, El arte abstracto. Intercambios culturales entre Argentina y Brasil
(Buenos Aires: Siglo XXI, 2011).
6 Mara Berros, Invisible Architecture and the Poetry of Action, in Erica Witschey (ed.),
Drifts and Derivations: Experiences, Journeys and Morphologies, (Madrid: Museo Nacional
Centro de Arte Reina Sofa, 2010), pp. 7281; and Cristina Rossi, Redes latinoamericanas de
arte constructivo, Cuadernos del Centro de Estudios en Diseo y Comunicacin (Universidad
de Palermo) 60, (2016): 103125.
7 The exhibition included works by Max Ernst, Wassily Kandinsky, Alfred Kubin, Karl
Schmidt-Rottluff, Lasar Segall, and Wilhelm Woeller.
8 The review of the exhibition Tucumn Arde (Rosario and Buenos Aires, 1968) in the
French magazine Robho also connected the aesthetic and the political avant-gardes. See
Dossier Argentine: Les Fils de Marx et Mondrian, Robho (Paris) no. 56 (1971): 1622.
Fig. 3. Hlio Oiticica. Metaesquema. 1958. 9 Ferreira Gullar, Manifiesto neo-concreto, Jornal do Brasil (Rio de Janeiro), March 22, 1959.
Gouache on cardboard, 39.557 cm. Collection MALBA, Museo de Arte Latinoamericano de Buenos Aires
10 Mathias Goeritz and Jorge Romero Brest had met in Spain during the experience of the
Escuela de Altamira (194849). See Andrea Giunta, Goeritz/Romero Brest. Corresponden-
cias (Buenos Aires: Instituto de Teora en Investigaciones Estticas Julio E. Payr, Facultad
Goeritz joined the faculty of the Universidad de Guadalajaras Gegos works, drawing in space while modeling the human milieu,
de Filosofa y Letras, Universidad de Buenos Aires, 2000), p. 46.
Escuela de Arquitectura in 1949, organizing an exhibition and educa- led to a critique of the concept of sculpture.11 The repetition of lines 11 See Catherine de Zegher, Gegos Traces of Traces, in Gego: Between Transparency and
tional program there. He described the school to Romero Brest as a and the reduction of visual resources in both her work and Schendels the Invisible (Houston: Museum of Fine Arts, and Buenos Aires: malba Coleccin Costantini,
2006), pp. 5077.
new Bauhaus. 10 Artistic abstraction was difficult to establish in Mexico, has parallels in the work of Agnes Martin in the United States and of
12 See Abigail Winograd, The Trauma of Dislocation and the Development of Alternative
home of the figurative mural; Goeritz did so through an alliance with Nasreen Mohamedi in India. Schendel, Gego, and Mohamedi also share Abstractions in Latin America: Renegotiations of Space, Experience, and Self in the Work
architecture. His Museo Experimental El Eco in Mexico City (195253) an abstract repertoire that seems to be connected with the trauma of of Gego (Gertrud Louise Goldschmidt) and Mira Schendel, in Transnational Latin American
Art from 1950 to the Present Day (Austin: The Permanent Seminar in Latin American Art
was conceived as an experimental museum; its courtyard, where Walter war and exile. In this sense, the abstraction of the postwar period con- and Meeting Margins, 2010), available online at http://utexasclavis.org/wp-content/up-
Nicks rehearsed a ballet with choreography by Luis Buuel, con- stituted a language with which to imagine a future or a resource with loads/2012/10/2009_FORUM_PAPERS.pdf (accessed June 2016).
tained a black serpent of welded metal. Thematic elements of Mexican which to investigate interiority and develop the trauma of desolation.12 13 See Giunta, Farewell to the Periphery: Avant-Gardes and Neo-Avant-Gardes in the Art of
Latin America, in Concrete Invention. Coleccin Patricia Phelps de Cisneros. Reflections on
culturegolden altarpieces, pumpkins, the snake, the use of colors The various bodies of abstract art in Latin America were not pe- Geometric Abstraction from Latin America and Its Legacy (Madrid: Museo Nacional Centro de
derived from popular traditionstransformed Goeritzs vocabulary. ripheral episodes of European modernity. Departing from similar Arte Reina Sofa, 2013), pp. 10517.
THE NECESSITY OF CONCRETENESS: ful expression in everything from architecture to urban planning and the
visual arts. In Europe, it became embodied in a new kind of figure emerg-
A VIEW FROM THE (GLOBAL?) SOUTH ing from the debris, inspiring the visceral humanism of a vital part of post-
war painting and sculpture. Yet the postwar decades also produced forms
Mari Carmen Ramrez of concrete and geometric art, linked to architecture and urban design,
that reset the stage for a type of positivistic aesthetic rationalism moving
from Russian Constructivism to the International Style (an offspring of
World War I), from the Bauhaus to the Hochschule fr Gestaltung Ulm,
the schools postwar reincarnation. The ideas of precision, purity, and
even an undeniable minimalism at play here were indicative of the urge to
start anew by constructing the construct at stake: modern societies ca-
pable of erasing in a stroke the chaos generated by the six-year devastation. Fig. 1. Max Bill. Dreiteilige Einheit (Tripartite Unity). 1948/49.
Stainless steel, 113.583100 cm. Museu de Arte
This overarching tendency toward rational organizationtoward analyti- Contempornea da Universidade de So Paulo
thrust of that decade. The con- Fig. 2. Toms Maldonado. Untitled. 1945.
Argentina. In 1951, the first Bienal These fundamental traits of concrete-art orthodoxy proved easy
crete poetry movement (195285) Tempera on board, 7960 cm. Private Collection. de So Paulo awarded Bill a prize for postwar concrete artists to renounce, instead favoring more icono- but a basic element of the Kraftfelder (energy fields), or objectively
put Brazil at the same level of ex- for his sculpture Dreiteilige Einheit clastic approaches that nevertheless sought to take advantage of the uni- determined chromatic progressions, that distinguished concrete art
perimental innovation as Germany and Japan, and there were also (Tripartite Unity, 1948; fig. 1). This paradigmatic work embodied the versality of concretism. In Untitled (1945; fig. 2), for example, Maldonado from abstract art in general.12 Yet in the hands of postwar artists, the use
developments in industrial and graphic design and in photography, 6 principlesForm-Funktion-Schnheit (Form, function, beauty)of the consciously quoted from Kazimir Malevichs well-known Suprematist of color sequencing seemed to hinge more on chance and subjectivity
all of which paved the way for the concrete sensibility. Swiss masters version of concrete art, establishing his version of the painting Painterly Realism of a Boy with a KnapsackColor Masses in the than on any scientific principle of chromatic behavior. The Brazilian
concrete-art canon in Latin American soil.7 Fourth Dimension (1915). Rather than merely copy the original, though, he artist Waldemar Cordeiro and the Cuban Sand Dari, for example,
To these crucial figures must be added many artists who not only rearranged Malevichs black and red abstract shapes against the white used the type of chromatic progression favored by Bill in, respectively,
pioneered modern art in their countries of origin but, more important, background, anthropomorphizing the relationship between them.10 Movimento (1951; plate 217) and Sin titulo (Untitled) (c. 1950; plate 216),
served as active bisagras for the creative translation of both central and Goeritz employed a similar strategy in a monumental steel sculpture yet whereas the Swiss artist followed strict rules of sequencing and
cal system that paired numbered series known as Bichos (Critters), Venezuela from Germany; Sand Dari, to Cuba from Romania.
3 The Brazilian critic Mrio Pedrosa wrote, Through the fate of our formation, we [Brazil-
slips of paper to eighteen differ- hinged aluminum structures ians] are condemned to modernity. Braslia, a Cidade Nova, a paper presented at the 1959
ent hues, yet made the end result that, like Daris Untitled, AICA Congress BrasliaSntese das Artes, in Acadmicos e Modernos, ed. Otlia Arantes
(So Paulo: EDUSP, 1998), 3:41213.
a product of chance. Transformable Structure (c. 1950s),
4 The Cuban Concretos came together in 1959 at the Diez pintores concretos (Ten concrete
Other versions of postwar require the viewers action to ma- painters) exhibition, Galera de Arte Color-Luz, Havana. They included Dari, Luis Martnez
concrete art adopted formal nipulate them (plates 203, 218). By Pedro, and Lol de Soldevilla, the groups leader.
5 Sevcenko, Brazilian Concretismo, p. 13.
principles and elements derived contrast, in Lygia Papes Livro da
6 See Alexander Wollner, Art and Design: Discovery and Attitude, in Olea and Ramrez,
from vernacular traditions and criao (Book of Creation, 195960; eds., Building on a Construct, pp. 8399.
local contexts. In Shemzas Square fig. 4), each book page is ren- 7 On Max Bills arrival on the Brazilian and Argentinean scenes and his reception there see
Mara Amalia Garca, Max Bill on the Map of Argentine-Brazilian Concrete Art, in ibid., pp.
Composition 3 (1963; fig. 3) and dered as a colorful, autonomous
5368, and El arte abstracto. Intercambios culturales entre Argentina y Brasil (Mexico City:
Square Composition 6, the grain of geometric composition for the Siglo XXI Editores, 2011).
the wood support is left deliber- viewer to manipulate playfully, 8 Olea, Versions, Inversions, Subversions: The Artist as Theoretician, in Ramrez and Olea,
Fig. 4. Lygia Pape. Book of Creation Walking (detail). 1959. Inverted Utopias: Avant-Garde Art in Latin America, exh. cat. (Houston: The Museum of Fine
ately exposed, inserting an ele- Gouache on cardboard, 18 parts, 30300.2 cm (each). creating his or her own storybook
Arts, Houston, and New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), pp. 44352. See also the nine-
ment of the natural world into version of humanitys origins. ty-two documents on Latin American theoretical premises translated into English in the same
the blend of symmetry and asymmetry that grounds these arrange- The incorporation of the subject in concrete art went hand in hand book, pp. 45339.
9 Max Bense, epigraph to the Portuguese edition of Kleine Aesthetik (So Paulo: Editora
ments of circles and half-circles over squares. In a similar vein, Choucairs with the transition from two-dimensional supports to unconventional Perspectiva, 1978).
interlocking modular grid-sculptures (plates 234, 235) are made out objects and forms. That transition can be read as the ultimate exaltation 10 See Sean Nesselrode, Art for Partisan Life: Nonobjectivity Translated to Buenos Aires,
of terra-cotta and biscuit clay, preindustrial elements that speak to of concrete art on the part of experimental artists seeking to reimagine 194448, ICAA Documents Project Working Papers, No. 3, November 2013, pp. 313. Avail-
able online at http://icaadocs.mfah.org/icaadocs/Portals/0/WorkingPapers/13.296%20
long-standing Islamic material traditions. In works such as Big Red art by erasing the line between it and everyday life. Tanakas Work (Yellow ICAA%20Working%20Papers3.rd4.pdf (accessed July 2016).
(1964), the African American painter Daniel LaRue Johnson created Cloth) (1955; plate 236) consists of a monochrome painting made of 11 Many South American avant-garde manifestations feature what I have identified else-
compositions of squares within squares that merge painting with frag- yellow cloth; it shows no traces of the human hand but exists as a self-con- where as a constructive will. These include the vital structures of Joaquin Torres-Garca,
exemplified by his toys and wood constructions of the 1920s and 30s; the cutout frame and
ments of objects from everyday life. tained object. In a similar vein, color becomes a concrete entity in Alu- flexible sculptures proposed by the Buenos Airesbased Grupo Mad in the mid-1940s; and,
sio Carvos Cubocor (1960; plate 209), made of oil and pigment applied finally, the most radical works of Neoconcrete artists Lygia Clark and Hlio Oiticica. See my
Vital Structures: The Constructive Nexus in South America, in Ramrez and Olea, Inverted
to a block of cement. And, after a long process that begins with Hlio
Utopias, pp. 191201.
Oiticicas two-dimensional Metaesquemas (195758; plate 207), it takes 12 On color as a polemical and divisive element of the Brazilian constructive art of the 1950s
BEYOND WHAT IS CONCRETE on a body in his Relevos espaiais (Spatial Reliefs; plate 226), Blides (plate see Ramrez, Between corpus solidum and quase-corpus: Color in Concretismo and Neocon-
cretismo, in Ramrez and Olea, Building on a Construct, pp. 27191.
110), and Parangols.14 It was through such strategies that artists in Rio de
13 The Concretismo movement in Brazil was led by the So Paulobased Grupo ruptura,
Insofar as these artists were unable to ignore the new subject of the Janeiro (though not in So Paulo, where the parameters of concrete art founded in 1952 by Cordeiro, Geraldo de Barros, Lothar Charoux, and Lus Sacilotto. Follow-
postwar era, their proposals were invariably infused with subjectivity. were set more rigorously) sought an antagonist stance against advanc- ing the theoretical principles elaborated by Van Doesburg in 1930 and further developed by
Bill, the Concretos promoted objectivity and mathematical and geometrical logic as the de-
This tense contradiction had a deep impact on the theory and practice es in physics and mechanics that widened the horizons of objective
terminants of the final aesthetic form. Neoconcretismo came together in March 1959, when
of the avant-garde groups under consideration. The most radical man- thought and led those responsible for deepening the artistic revolu- the Manifesto neoconcreto was published in Jornal do Brasil. It was signed by a group of
ifestation of the trend appeared in Brazil, where the almost overnight tion to an ever increasing rationalization of the process and purposes Rio de Janeiro and So Paulo artists that included Clark, Oiticica, Amlcar de Castro, Alusio
Carvo, and Willys de Castro. The group focused on the reincorporation of subjectivity and
shift from a referential, figurative discourse to a self-referential, nonob- of painting.15 In this way they came to restore the vital dimensioni.e.,
the experience of both real time and space in the experience of the viewer-as-participant.
jective plastic one went hand in hand with the articulation of a kind of the subjective, expressive, and phenomenological dimensionthat had As Olea has argued, the term Neoconcreto is a misnomer that does not capture the true
participative viewerthe subject of the emerging social order. Whether been dismissed, according to the Neoconcrete Manifesto, by the conse- objectives of the group, which was trying to abandon Concretismo altogether. See Olea,
Waldemar Cordeiro: From Visible Ideas to the Invisible Work, in Olea and Ramrez, eds.,
grounded in a Marxist model of productionas in early Constructive art cration of the objectivity of science and the precision of mechanics. Building on a Construct, p. 136.
trends and later in Concretismoor supported by the type of existential The exaltation of concreteness certainly pushed these proposals beyond 14 See Ramrez, The Embodiment of Color: From the Inside Out, in Hlio Oiticica: The Body
humanism (tempered with a dose of phnomnologie de la perception and the dangerous rationalist extreme, opening the way for a radically new of Color, exh. cat. (Houston: The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, 2007), pp. 6468.
15 Ferreira Gullar, Clark, Lygia Pape, et al., Neoconcrete Manifesto, Eng. trans. in Olea,
Gestalttheorie) shown later by Neoconcretismo, both tendencies ultimately artistic subjectivity.16 Versions, Inversions, Subversions, document 50, pp. 49697.
sought the projection of subjectivity, first through the values of pure 16 Ibid.
192
499
194
195
Carmen Herrera Gyula Kosice
Iberia No. 25 Variation in Blue
1948 1945
acrylic on burlap oil on canvas
Lisson Gallery Gyula Kosice, Buenos Aires
501
Anthony Caro
Capital
1960
steel, painted orange
Barford Sculptures Ltd., London
196
198
197
505
199
200
507
201 202
Lygia Clark
Lygia Clark Planos em superfcie modulada no. 1
Casulo (Cocoon) (Planes on a Modulated Surface No. 1)
1959 1957
automotive paint on metal Industrial paint on wood
Private Collection, Rio de Janeiro The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston
509
204
203
205
511
206 207
513
209
210
208
515
211
212
517
213
Ellsworth Kelly
Red Yellow Blue White
1952
dyed cotton
Philadelphia Museum of Art
519
214 215
521
217
216
523
Sand Dari
Sin Ttulo (Estructura Transformable)
(Untitled [Transformable Structure])
c. 1950s
oil on wood elements, dimensions variable approximately
Courtesy David Zwirner, New York/London
218
219 220
527
Julije Knifer
Meander in the Corner
1961
oil on canvas
Museum of Contemporary Art, Zagreb
221
222
Ivan Picelj Aleksandar Srnec
Composition XL-1 Construction 53
195256 1953
oil on canvas brass wire
Museum of Contemporary Art, Zagreb Marinko Sudac Collection, Zagreb
223
224
Enrico Castellani Enrico Castellani
Superficie angolare nera (Black Corner Surface) Superficie angolare bianca (White Corner Surface)
1961 1961
acrylic on shaped canvas acrylic on canvas with reliefs and hollows
Fondazione Prada, Milan HEART Herning Museum of Contemporary Art, Herning
225
227
226
Hlio Oiticica Rasheed Araeen
Relevos espacial My First Sculpture
1960 1959 (1975)
painting on cut-out wood steel
The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston Aicon Gallery, New York
535
228
Rasheed Araeen
Burning Bicycle Tyres
1959 (1975)
9 photographic prints on paper
Aicon Gallery, New York
537
Mathias Goeritz
The Serpent
1953
painted wood
Reconstruction authorized by Instituto Nacional
de Bellas Artes y Literatura, Mexico City
229
539
231
230
541
232
233
Wifredo Arcay Albert Newall
Proposition III Helmet Head
1962 1956
relief painting on wood oil on board
The Mayor Gallery, London Private Collection
543
234
235
236
Tanaka Atsuko
Work (Yellow Cloth)
1955
commercially dyed cotton
Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York
547
Sadamasa Motonaga
Work (Water)
1956
installation
Motonaga Archive Research Institution Ltd
237
549
238
551
Lygia Pape
Livro da Arquitetura (exhibition copy)
195960
tempera on cardboard
Projeto Lygia Pape, Rio de Janeiro
240
553
241
Erhabor Emokpae
Struggle Between Life and Death
1963
oil on board
Private Collection
555
6
Section Introduction
Zainab Bahrani
Catherine Grenier
Courtney Martin
Tobias Wofford
Damian Lentini
Plates
COSMOPOLITAN
MODERNISMS
P
art of modernitys allure has been cosmopolitanism, read as
sophistication, worldliness, and openness, the commingling of
cultures, ideas, and populations. But the loss of place for artists
migrating from one culture or national frontier to another casts
a deep shadow on this romantic ideal. Following the massive upheavals
resulting from World War II, the terms of cosmopolitanism shifted radically.
Massive populationsrefugees, stateless people, and diasporaswere mo-
ving between continents, countries, and cities, forming dispersed lines of
displacement, migration, exile, affinities, and settlements. New hybridi-
ties, as some scholars have put it, emerged when citizens of colonies and
former colonies studied in the West, whether formally or informally, or
when refugees fleeing oppression left their homelands to find safe places
COSMOPOLITAN MODERNISMS elsewhere. Postwar artists combined international-style abstraction with
indigenous, traditional, or local imagery, creating new aesthetics. Parti-
cularly widespread was a kind of gestural mark-making that was as much
iconic as it was indexical. That mark-making invoked identity and levels of
meaning through allusion to language and legibility, challenging the uni-
versality of the modern. Artists from the Middle East and South Asia ex-
plored the Arabic letter; Japanese artists looked to traditional calligraphy.
Conversely, Western artists adopted these practices and forms as well. The
cosmopolitan was not always or only oriented toward the West: magazines
such as Black Orpheus reveal a pronounced pan-African and pan-Arabic
field of reference, and routes of travel included the destinations of Mexico
and China, Nigeria and Senegal, as well as Paris, New York, and London.
Introduction 559
M
odernism, the aesthetic of mo- outside a story that the West tells itself about its own uniqueness.
dernity, is the main term used to Most accounts of modernist art involve a similar narrative that defines
describe what have come to be con- it as a purely Western development including a rejection of an earlier,
sidered the most creative and most representational aesthetic regime. Even if this pure modernism looked
advanced arts of the twentieth cen- to objects from other cultures, such as African masks, that move is
tury. As the word is mostly under- seen as a Western discovery of aesthetic value in those objects since
stood, whether in academic or in art itself is described as a Western phenomenon, unknown to the rest
popular thinking, modernism is a of the world. Art historians have pointed out that these accounts have
group of styles or systems of art that, by being avant-garde, make a funda- occluded certain movements even within the corpus of twentieth-
mental break with the past and in some way anticipate the future. Often century Western art, for example feminist art.
obscured in thinking about these definitions, though, is to what extent Modernism depends upon a historical logic that follows a single line
wmodern is a comparative historical term. Modernism too is clearly a or direction over time. According to the rules of this internal logic, both
historical marker, in that it has been understood as the aesthetic manifes- modernity and the modernist paradigm in art must be exclusionary. In
tation of the Western turn toward recent years this notional frame-
modernity, a phase in the histor- work, which is certainly not lim-
ical narrative of the path toward ited to art, has been increasingly
(so-called) advanced civilization.1 questioned. Some of these myths
In these terms the modernist art have been revived in current
movement of the Iraq of 194060 writings on the Middle East, Afri-
may be seen as something of a ca, and Asia; today, the question
contradiction: by definition a sys- of why the West was able to mod-
tem of Western art, modernism ernize while these other places
is not considered an authentic could not or cannot appears in-
exhibit soon after the failed 1941 revolt against British rule, and two in order to find the present.10 The Tahrir Monument, a massive con-
more exhibits followed in 1943 and 1946. In 1950, during the continuing tinuous bronze relief on a white travertine background, thus refers to
struggle to end the British occupation of the country, some of the art- Assyro-Babylonian monumental art and cylinder seals.11 Linear in
ists who had exhibited in that show formed a new group called Ruwad composition, the monument reads from right to left, like a visual ver-
Fig. 2. Jewad Selim. Monument of Freedom. 196061. Bronze relief mural,
Courtesy Dr. Nada Shabout (Pioneers), which expanded on the earlier group and included many of sion of Arabic text that at the same time refers to the Mesopotamian
its members (fig. 1). These artists saw saw themselves as participating past. Selim and the other artists in the Ruwad and Baghdad groups
in a cosmopolitan art world. A second group, Jamaat Baghdad lil Fan consciously set out to formulate an art that would be a political in-
al-Hadith (the Baghdad Group for Modern Art), was formed soon after, tervention both within and beyond Iraq. They underscored a secular
in 1951. Led by Jewad Selim, the Baghdad group went farther in seeking national identity that they sought to define by formulating an artistic
to express a liberating sensibility for the new nation, now freed of both idiom in itself revolutionary. They did so in conversation with, not in
British colonial and Ottoman imperial rule. Selim sought an art form isolation from, the modernism that they had encountered in the West;
that was modern yet based on local heritage. The Baghdad group artists yet the influence of the pastthen emerging in excavations across the
experimented with ancient Mesopotamian and other traditional artis- land and entering the archaeological museum in Baghdad, where sev-
tic genres and styles, combining them with influences from Western eral of them spent long periods working and studyingis resoundingly
Europe and North America, where many of them had studied. 8 clear. Khalid al Rahal, for example, often took the people of Iraq as
of pictorial space, the turning away from figurative art, but of course Theft of History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).
3 See Olu Oguibe, In the Heart of Darkness, Third Text 23 (Summer 1993): 38.
Western European artists did not invent these modes of expression. 4 For the Middle East, this viewpoint is exemplified in the work of Bernard Lewis; see, for ex-
In Islamic art, for example, these criteria would be quite suitable ample, his What Went Wrong? Western Impact and Middle Eastern Response (London: Orion
House, 2002). The recent popular diagnosis of radical Islam as a response to a modernity that
for describing what falls under the traditional. This is why the artists
it cannot tolerate may be seen as falling into this tradition.
of Ruwad and the Baghdad group did not see themselves as imitating 5 See, e.g., Jerry Brotton, The Renaissance Bazaar: From the Silk Road to Michelangelo
Western modernism. Rather, having been exposed to it, they looked to (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002); J. M. Blaut, The Colonizers Model of the World: Geo-
graphical Diffusionism and Eurocentric History (New York: The Guildford Press, 1993); Andre
their own past and found it to be a familiar aesthetic. In Selims words,
Gunder Frank, ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age (Berkeley: University of California
they saw modernism as an explosive continuation of the past. 12 Press, 1998); John M. Hobson, The Eastern Origins of Western Civilization (Cambridge: Cam-
If Western modern art is thought of as emancipating art from bridge University Press, 2004); and Deborah Howard, Venice and the East (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 2000).
representation, in the Middle Eastern context representational art nev-
6 See my Infinite Image: Art, Time and the Aesthetic Dimension in Antiquity (London: Reak-
er achieved the prominence, or the exclusive equation with fine art, that tion, 2014).
it once had in the West. The understanding of modernism as a break 7 Jacques Rancire, The Politics of Aesthetics (London and New York: Continuum Press,
2006), p. 13.
with mimetic representation runs into a kind of contradictory limit
8 See Shabout, Modern Arab Art: Formation of Arab Aesthetics (Gainesville: University Press
here, since abstraction and nonmimetic art forms are conventional of Florida, 2007).
and even conservative aspects of high art in the Islamic tradition. 9 Shabout describes a different and conflicted emergence of modernism in Egypt, for ex-
ample. See ibid., chapter 1.
There, the characteristics of modernism that diverge from representa- 10 See ibid., p. 28.
tion merge with older modes of artistic production. The charac- 11 It is interesting to note that in 2004, after the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq and the overthrow
teristics of an epistemic shift dissolve. If modernist art is seen as an of Saddam Hussein, Coalition Provisional Authority and Interim Iraqi Government members
discussing pulling the Tahrir Monument down, following a widespread policy, both official and
exclusionary Western category of autonomous art, art that occurs unofficial, of removing public art.
elsewhere can only be considered a pale imitation. Yet this kind of 12 Quoted in Bahrani and Shabout, eds., Modernism and Iraq, p. 27.
EXILES, EMIGRS, AND COSMOPOLITANS: Postwar Londons art world was a convex mirror of the citys expe-
rience of rebuilding after the destruction of the war. Most of Londons
LONDONS POSTWAR ART WORLD museums had closed in 1939, just before or immediately after Britain
entered the war, in September 1939. With their closures, their collec-
Courtney J. Martin tions went into storage across the country for safekeeping. During the
first part of the war, many artist migrs, such as Marcel Breuer, Naum
Gabo, Piet Mondrian, and others, had sought refuge in Britainmost
often, though, fairly briefly, in transit to the United States. British artists
had previously looked to Paris as the standard-bearer of modernism, but
once the war entered its deep phase, they could no longer travel to the
Continent or exchange mail back and forth with it. When the collections
returned and the museums reopened, in late 1945 and 1946, most artists
Fig. 1. Frank Bowling with his painting Mirror (1966),
had been without daily contact with art for more than five years. One of c. 1966. Courtesy Frank Bowling Archive
the first major exhibitions to open after the war was a show of works by
Henri Matisse and Pablo Picasso at the Victoria and Albert Museum in The presence of artists from the Commonwealth and from the
1945, reflecting the aesthetic dormancy of the war period and the expec- former Empire in Britain had long been a feature of Londons art world.
tation that artists, collectors, and patrons would return to Paris once the Many artists came as students to attend art school, to obtain certifica-
war was over.2 tion as art teachers for use in their home countries, or to bring their art
Almost immediately after the war, however, artists focus on Paris be- to a larger public. This was the case, for example, with Rasheed Araeen,
gan to wane, replaced by an interest in New York that reflected the broader Frank Bowling, Avinash Chandra, Ben Enwonwu, Ibrahim El Salahi,
national desire for American popular culture. In the decade following the Iqbal Geoffrey, Donald Locke, Althea McNish, David Medalla, Ronald
war, the U.S. government supported major traveling exhibitions of Amer- Moody, Anwar Jalal Shemza, Francis Newton Souza, and Aubrey Williams,
ican art, organized by New Yorks Museum of Modern Art and filled with all of whom came to London between the end of the war and the early
the collections of a new patronage class of Americans who almost exclu- 1960s. Most of the Commonwealth artists who came to Britain were
sively acquired abstract painting. Modern Art in the United States: A Selection male and middle and upper class. A good number of these artists inte-
from the Collections of the Museum of Modern Art, New York traveled to the grated into British life, though not necessarily into its art world, which
Tate Gallery in January 1956 and was followed a few years later by The New in the 1950s and 60swas largely defined by a few galleries in Mayfair
6. Chapter
Cosmopolitan
2 Form
Modernisms
Matters Courtney J. Martin 571
offering modern European and British art to a small number of British abstraction binary and inserting himself into a wider market for abstract Along with the Indica Gallery (active 196567), Signals (active
patrons. Most British artists got by on teaching or public commissions, painting.7 It seems reasonable to suggest that there was a politicized link 196466) incubated an avant-garde arts scene in London. The mix of
rather than gallery sales or patronage, but the incoming artists were between the reception of abstraction in Britain, the strong New York art artists, musicians, actors, and social activists who frequented it turned
rarely hired as permanent staff in art schools or offered public funding. market, American imperialism, and the limited possibilities for non- the gallery into an international social space as much as an exhibition
Stuart Hall categorized the wave of artists who came to Britain between white abstract artists in Britain in the mid-twentieth century. space. The American expatriate and kinetic artist Liliane Lijn, for exam-
1945 and 1970 as creating a problem space that challenged the insecure For those who stayed in London, Britains transition from an empire ple, moved from Paris to London at the gallerys invitation.11 The Greek
4
British art world and its nationalist art history. to a consolidated nation bankrupted by World War II constantly inter- kinetic artist Takis (Panagiotis Vassilakis), Lijns ex-husband and a mem-
Immigrant artists often found themselves in the cultural spaces rupted their practices. The loss of the countrys colonies from 1947 into ber of the Guerrilla Art Action Group (gaag), a more radical arm of New
of their home nations. Opened in Earls Court in 1955, the West Indian the mid-1960s only added to its uphill battle to rebuild its cities in the Yorks Art Workers Coalition, showed in the gallery. Brazilian Neocon-
Students Centre was intended as a social center for West Indian stu- decades following the Blitz. Araeen, from Karachi, is often linked to oth- crete artists Hlio Oiticica and Lygia Clark exhibited important works at
dents (primarily those affiliated with the West Indian Students Union) er artists from the subcontinent who found their way to London after Signals before having major exhibitions elsewhere.12 The Brazilian artist
in London. In due course it became a gathering place and event venue the war, such as Chandra, Geoffrey, Shemza, and Souza, and all are often Sergio Camargo showed there and worked on the gallerys bulletin. The
for West Indians in all sectors. As such, it was one of the main meeting folded into the terminal loss (of family, country, religion, self, class, sta- Venezuelan artist Alejandro Otero had his first European retrospective
sites for the Caribbean Artists Movement (cam), a cultural and liter- tus, civility) narrative of the exile. 8 But Araeen was only an acquaintance at Signals, and the Chinese artist Li Yuan-Chia showed there as well. As a
ary movement primarily composed of Caribbean writers resident in of these artists, and of the predicament attached to their practices in major port for artists seeking refuge from other places, the gallery allowed
5
Britain. Its founders were Ed- London.9 At some point between them to fold into the wave of immigration that swept Britain after the
ward Kamau Braithwaite, John leaving Karachi and settling in war. Signals was unself-consciously multiracial at a time when most
La Rose, and Andrew Salkey. London, he associated himself London galleries would not have represented nonwhite and non-Euro-
Textile artist McNish, sculptor with concerns of race, class, and pean artists.
Moody, and painter Williams imperialism that aligned him If these artists were misplaced in the rhetoric of exile, how then do
were active members. Like film- closely with Pan-Africanism, we describe the internationalism born of immigration that produced the
maker Horace Ov, Bowling, black (American) nationalism, cosmopolitan atmosphere of Londons art world? Perhaps one way is to
originally from British Guiana, and the Non-Aligned Move- acknowledge that in our efforts to move beyond the East/West binary,
was friendly with the group, ment, which, in turn, brought we often overlook the fact that there was never a singular West. By the 1 On postwar British emigration see Kathleen Paul, Whitewashing Britain: Race and Citizen-
ship in the Postwar Era (Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press, 1997).
but was not a member, though him into regular contact with same token, why do we assume that the postwar, a term that points 2 In the exhibition at the Victoria and Albert, Henri Matisse showed paintings completed
he is often described with- artists who considered them- directly to the period after World War II, was a period of sameness? between 1896 and 1944 while Pablo Picasso showed only works made during the war.
in the discourse of Caribbean selves avant-garde and with the The London art world at mid-century was in a kind of limbo between 3 This account follows British painter Patrick Herons description of American arts influence
on the British in his essay The Ascendancy of London in the Sixties, Studio International 172,
cultural practices in Britain. predominantly African-Caribbe- its old attachments (Paris) and its new entanglements (New York), not no. 884 (December 1966): 28081. Heron later called the presence of American art in Britain
Bowlings relationships centered an antiracist activists who were completely divorced from or settled into one or the other. The arrival of cultural imperialism: see A Kind of Cultural Imperialism?, Studio International 175, no. 897
around artists from the Regent responding to the restrictive pol- new artists from its former empire further destabilized it. If, as histori- (February 1968): 6264. In both essays he adopted language used to describe the U.S. re-
lationship to the third world, and specifically Vietnam, to define American arts hegemonic
Street Polytechnic and later the Fig. 2. Installation view of The Achievements of Jsus-Rafael Soto 1950-1965: icies doled out to African and ans have already made clear, the postwar period was not economically, relationship to British art and artists.
15 years of Vibrations. A Retrospective Exhibition at the Signals Gallery, London, 1965.
Royal College of Art and the Courtesy England & Co, London Asian immigrants in Britain. intellectually or politically resolved well into the twentieth century, 4 Stuart Hall, Black Diaspora Artists in Britain: Three Moments in Post-war History, History
6 Workshop Journal 61, no. 1 (2006): 1. By the close of the 1980s Rasheed Araeen would gather all of
Slade School. From his school That Araeen found himself be- neither was its art history.
these artists for the exhibition The Other Story: Afro-Asian Artists in Post-war Britain (London: South
years he was considered alongside those figurative painters, such as tween these two groups, who did not have organic connections to each Bank Centre, 1989), on view at the Hayward Gallery from November 29, 1989, to February 4, 1990.
Bacon, Frank Auerbach, Lucian Freud, and Leon Kossoff, whom R. B. other, speaks to his cosmopolitan status in London as both an artist and 5 Frank Bowlings participation in cam is cited in, e.g., a letter from Edward Braithwaite to Colin
Rickards, February 6, 1967. George Padmore Institute, London.
Kitaj would anoint the School of London. Paintings such as Swan I and an activist.
6 Bowling was in residence at the Regent Street Polytechnic in 195759, before that art
Swan II (both 1964; plates 264, 265) show that Bowlings figuration was In the 1960s, Araeen and Medalla became involved in artists school merged with Chelsea Polytechnic in 1964 to form the Chelsea School of Art.
heavily guided by a nationally influenced Pop art and mid-century design groups that employed performance, rather than objects, as protest, 7 On Bowlings activities in New York see Kellie Jones, Its Not Enough to Say Black is Beau-
tiful: Abstraction at the Whitney 19691974, in Kobena Mercer, ed., Discrepant Abstraction
aesthetic, because British monarchs can claim ownership of all un- while both became leading practitioners of Conceptual art. Araeen
(London: Institute of International Visual Arts, and Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2006),
marked and unclaimed mute swans in open water in England and Wales. met Medalla in the fall of 1965 at Jsus-Rafael Sotos first solo show at and Courtney J. Martin, Theyve All Got Painting: Frank Bowlings Modernity and the Post-1960
After the dominance of American art became accepted, a good the Signals Gallery (fig. 2). 10 The gallery began in 1964 as the Centre Atlantic, Afro Modern: Journeys through the Black Atlantic, exh. cat. (Liverpool: Tate Liverpool,
2010), pp. 4857.
number of artists who might have journeyed to Britain for schooling, or for Advanced Creative Study, a collaborative avant-garde space run by
8 Edward Said, Reflections on Exile, in Reflections on Exile and Other Essays (Cambridge,
to be a part of a larger art community, chose New York instead. Souza, Medalla, writer Guy Brett, Paul Keeler, Marcello Salvadori, and Ger- Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2000), p. 173.
for example, showed with Gallery One in London beginning in 1955, but man migr Gustav Metzger, the author of the Auto-Destructive Art 9 Acquaintance is a fair word to describe Araeens personal and professional relationships
with each of these artists. Unlike him, the others came to London unquestionably acknowledged
by the 1960s had moved to New York. Similarly, Chandra, whose work Manifesto (1960). Signals had a companion publication that, in addi- as artists or art students.
vacillated between semiabstract and fully nonrepresentational painting tion to reporting on events at the gallery, featured free-form art pro- 10 The Achievements of Jsus-Rafael Soto 19501965: 15 Years of Vibrations. A Retrospective
while in London, moved to New York in 1965. By the mid-1960s, Bowling jects and writing about international art, a task enhanced by Medallas Exhibition was organized by Paul Keeler for the Signals Gallery, London, October 28December
24, 1965.
too moved to New York, to paint abstractly and to write about art from contacts in the United States and his frequent travel to Asia, Europe, 11 Liliane Lijn, National Life Story Archive (F7815F7825), British Library.
a politicized perspective, removing himself from the British figuration/ and South America. 12 See Guy Brett and Luciano Figueiredo, Oiticica in London, exh. cat. (London: Tate, 2007).
Arguably the first major solo show of an African artist in the United
States took place in 1950, when the director of the Harmon Foundation, exhibition in the United States. Enwonwu also undertook a well-received
Mary B. Brady, began to consider the possibility of exhibiting the work of lecture tour and was celebrated in New York with an elaborate reception
the Nigerian modernist Ben Enwonwu. It was not a coincidence that the sponsored by the Harmon Foundation and hosted by African American
American debut of contemporary African art was facilitated by the Har- artists Richard Barth, Ellis Wilson, Jacob Lawrence, and Elton Fax.
mon Foundation: established in 1922, the foundation was best known for Spurred by the success of Enwonwus exhibition, the Harmon
its large-scale patronage and sponsorship of African American artists. Foundation continued its support of African artists, organizing artist
Further, not only did the foundation facilitate the exhibiting of work by visits and using its vast network of contacts with exhibition venues to
black artists in the United States but its grants and awards helped Afri- facilitate shows of contemporary African works. Venues like the Merton
can American artists to travel to artistic capitals like Paris. In this sense Simpson Gallery in New York and the Howard University Museum be-
the foundation was also a major patron of the black internationalism of came important spaces of encounter between African artists and Amer-
the interwar period. ican audiences. Over the remaining seventeen years of its existence, the
in the U.S., Kofi created a bronze cast of his work Awakening Africa (1959 and Power he pointed to the many complexities and contradictions in-
60; fig. 1) and exhibited in New York and in historically black colleges and herent in the international network that the congress represented.10 For American Negro travelling today must either not care about Negroes or future president of Senegal, Lopold Senghor, went so far as to deliver a
universities (HBCUs) in the American South.6 one, the question of black culture (the meetings unifying premise) was say what the State Department wishes him to say. 11 paper identifying the African elements of Wrights poetry. Yet as Baldwin
All of these contemporary African artists lived cosmopolitan lives, already a point of debate. But even political unity was tenuous for this Throughout Baldwins observations of the congress, one perceives observed, In so handsomely presenting Wright with his African herit-
training in Europe and engaging in a mix of modernist styles and various diverse and international group, because, while the attendees seemed the precarious position of the cultural worker attempting to mediate age, Senghor rather seemed to be taking away his identity. 12
traditional methods and imagery. Yet American curators and critics to agree on the need to end the racism and colonialism facing people of this tangled and shifting cultural and political terrain. For Baldwin, the Wrights dilemma was not unique. As much as the Congresses of
most often saw their work as representing an authentic access to Africa. African descent, they were not unanimous on the political strategies by American writer Richard Wright exemplified this dilemma. Like Baldwin, Negro Writers and Artists sought to bring artists together under the
The New York Times offered an enduring but limited interpretation of which to gain this end. This was clear at the beginning of the proceed- Wright lived in Paris as an expatriate in order to escape American racism. umbrella of a shared global African culture, they also highlighted the
Boghossians work: An Ethiopian artist industriously paints scenes and ings when a letter from W. E. B. Dubois was read aloud, informing the He participated in the congress, and, like others, found himself ambiv- varied political affiliations and cultural differences of their attendees.
figures from his native country. 7 In the American context, contempo- conference that he had been denied a passport to leave the United States alently situated between his national affiliation and the international Overall, the meetings underlined the ambivalent intersectionality of
rary African artists and their works were variously absorbed into the and insinuating that the members of the American delegation were little network the congress had created. Both the American delegation and the cosmopolitan artist.
discourses of racial and cultural difference that formed the underlying more than agents of American imperialism. Dubois asserted, Any the African organizers claimed him as their spokesman. The poet and
THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF 5 The exhibition included a broad range of contemporary art from Africa and was held at
the Phelps-Stokes Fund, New York, December 28, 1961January 19, 1962. See Harmon
AFRICAN CULTURE Foundation, Art from Africa of Our Time (New York: Harmon Foundation, 1961).
6 See ibid., p. 29, and Chika Okeke-Agulu, Postcolonial Modernism: Art and Decolonization
in Twentieth Century Nigeria (Durham: Duke University Press, 2015), pp. 15960.
The 1956 congress concluded with the formation of the Socit Africaine
7 This Week around the Galleries, New York Times, March 4, 1962.
de Culture (SAC), headed by Alioune Diop, the Senegal-born editor of 8 See James Baldwin, Princes and Powers, Encounter 8, no. 1 (January 1957): 52.
the journal Prsence Africaine. Inspired by the undertaking, the Amer- 9 Modern Culture and Our Destiny, in The First International Conference of Negro Writers
and Artists, Proceedings, Prsence Africaine, special issue, JuneNovember 1956, p. 3.
ican delegation to the congress, headed by John A. Davis, established
10 Baldwin, Princes and Powers, pp. 5260.
the American Society of African Culture (AMSAC) with the mission 11 W. E. B. Dubois, quoted in ibid, pp. 5253.
of broadening knowledge of the cultural contributions of Africans and Fig. 5. Ben Enwonwu and Jacob Lawrence, presumably at the Mbari Artists
12 Baldwin, Princes and Powers, p. 58.
13 American Society of African Culture (AMSAC), pamphlet, n.d. Southern Historical Collection
people of African descent.13 Beginning in 1957, AMSAC organized con- and Writers Club, Ibadan, 1962
#4340, Allard Kenneth Lowenstein Collection, Manuscripts Department at the Wilson Library,
ferences, sponsored publications, offered financial support to SAC, and University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Available online at through Jstor at www.aluka.
in 1961, expanded its operations with offices in Nigeria. Duboiss warn- First World Festival of Negro Arts, in Dakar, Senegal, in 1966, a number org/stable/10.5555/al.sff.document.low139_42_01 (accessed May 2016).
14 See Hugh Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer: How the CIA Played America (Cambridge, Mass.:
ing to the 1956 congress about the American delegation were at least half of observers considered the delegations curatorial choices with suspi-
Harvard University Press, 2008).
right, however: much of the funding that made AMSACs productivity cion. In memoirs of his African travels, Hoyt Fuller, the American ed- 15 See Okeke-Agulu, Postcolonial Modernism, p. 228.
possible were funneled to the society by the American Central Intelli- itor of Negro Digest, accused AMSAC of actively attempting to restrict 16 See Brown, Africas Contemporary Art and Artists, p. 29.
17 See Carroll Greene, oral history interview with Jacob Lawrence, October 26, 1968. Ar-
gence Agencya fact that was likely known to AMSACs leadership.14 exchange between black radicals in the United States and African in- chives of American Art, Smithsonian Institution. Available online at www.aaa.si.edu/collec-
Still, AMSACs activities in Nigeria were hugely important in foster- dependence movements.19 The CIAs financial support of AMSAC was tions/interviews/oral-history-interview-jacob-lawrence-11490 (accessed May 2016).
ing direct connection between African American artists and African art eventually made public in a New York Times report in 1967.20 The society, 18 Okeke-Agulu, Postcolonial Modernism, p. 172.
19 Hoyt W. Fuller, Journey to Africa (Chicago: Third World Press, 1971), p. 92.
networks. The society granted a number of important African American which had already closed its Lagos offices a year earlier, now became 20 Neil Sheehan, 5 New Groups Tied to C.I.A. Conduits, New York Times, February 17, 1967, p. 1.
artists their first exposure to the African continent, and in the 1960s, much less active, until it eventually suspended activities in 1969. 21 21 Wilford, The Mighty Wurlitzer, p. 222.
COSMOPOLITAN CONTAMINATIONS:
ARTISTS, OBJECTS, MEDIA
Damian Lentini
Fig. 1. Paul Keeler and David Medalla installing the work of Lygia Clark at
the Signals Gallery, London, 1965. Courtesy England & Co, London
exhibitions and schools have shaped discourses on modern art. It also Not only were these contaminations an intrinsic component of
provides a way of transcending the nationalist frameworks vocifer- postwar artistic networks, they also produced a plurality of modernisms,
ously championed by critics writing in the shadow of the Cold War, including those that would initially appear removed from this discourse.
arguments concealing the fact that the wide history of human cul- Edward Saids idea of contrapuntal reading helps to explain the im-
ture is a story of movements and meetingsof routes rather than portance of even supposedly counter-discourses within a cosmopolitan
roots, as James Clifford has pointed outwith identities consist- reading of exhibitions and exchanges. In the counterpoint of Western
ently shifting and modifying one another at the point of their mutual classical music, Said notes, various themes play off one another, with
I
is just as prevalent as that of those from the Soviet Union, as is clear shaped by artists and writers living abroad, 47 whose experiences of sites of cosmopolitan exchange can thus destabilize hitherto rigid catego-
from the exhibition of works by the likes of Renato Guttuso and An- n other parts of the world, cosmopolitan contaminations involved travel and migration informed identities at odds with the claim of the rizations of culture and identity, demonstrating instead how artists
33
dr Fougeron, and from the many trips and exchanges made by David not only the circulation of people but movement through oth- nation-state to be the primary basis of collective belonging. 48 After the networks are in fact worldly, productive sites of crossing: complex, unfin-
Alfaro Siqueiros during this period. er forms of media. Among other things, the postwar period was hostilities ended, many of the French colonial countries to the south of ished paths between local and global attachments.54
defined by a rapid growth in the circulation of art, ranging from the the Saharan divide united around the idea of a pan-African identity, a
Uche Okeke
Francis Newton Souza
Ana Mmuo (Land of the Dead)
1961 Degenerates
oil on board 1957
National Museum of African Art, oil on board
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Aicon Gallery, New York
591
244
245
593
Susanne Wenger
Yemoja
1958
batik
Neue Galerie Graz
246
595
248
247
597
249
250
599
251
252
601
Evgeny Mikhnov-Voitenko
Composition (on a White Background)
Late 1950s
oil on canvas
The State Russian Museum, Saint Petersburg
253
603
254
255
605
257
256
607
258
259
609
260
261
Charles Hossein Zenderoudi Ramss Younan
The Sun and the Lion Arabesques
1960 1961
ink, watercolor and gold paint on paper mounted on board oil on board
Grey Art Gallery. New York May and Adel Youssry Khedr Collection, Cairo
611
262
263
Sadequain Sadequain
Seascape with Three Boats Cactus
20th century 1960
oil on wood oil on canvas
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Mr. Taimur Hassan c/o Grosvenor Gallery, London
613
Frank Bowling Frank Bowling
Swan 1 Swan II
1964 1964
oil on canvas oil on canvas
Private Collection Collection of the Artist, London
264 265
615
266 267
617
Gustav Metzger
Drawings
194559/60
different materials on paper
Collection of the Artist
268
619
270
269
621
7
Section Introduction
Galia Bar Or
Atreyee Gupta
Chika Okeke-Agulu
Plates
NATIONS SEEKING
FORM
N
ationalism was a word in constant motion during the
postwar period. Artists in the United States and Europe
often declined to align themselves with their national
governments, which had proven corrupt and militaristic.
Nationalism had a different valence, though, for artists in countries that had
newly struggled for and won independencesuch as China, Cuba, India and
Pakistan, Indonesia, Iraq, Israel, Nigeria, the Philippines, Senegal, South
Africa, and Thailandand these artists sought cultural forms to shape
new national identities. Nigerian artists, for example, played institutional
roles, acting on their commitment to the importance of culture in esta-
blishing identity. There was a struggle to define what was truly national in
regional identities, apparent, for example, in the debate between advoca-
NATIONS SEEKING FORM tes of discarding cultural tradition, in the effort to become both indepen-
dent and modern, and artists who saw indigenous identity as central to a
new nationhood. In many countries the choice would be described as one
of East versus West, with the West representing Europe, the future, educa-
tion, and technological progress and the East representing indigenous
knowledge, non-Western identity, the past, and tradition. How, then, to sup-
port locally distinctive cultural self-confidence? Artists in the Progressive
Artists Group that flourished in India in the years after independence in 1947
found different solutions, including international exhibitions and local institu-
tion-building. In the United States, on the other hand, artists involved with
the civil rights movement challenged racially biased notions of American
identity, although their work could also take on a nationalist coloration.
Introduction 625
A
t first glance Naftali Bezems drawing Untitled antinomy between the articles title and its subject: In the first place we
of 1952 (fig. 1) looks like a placard promoting don't like to be called refugees. She added later, The less we are free to
the New Man. Its compositional structure decide who we are or to live as we like, the more we try to put up a front, to
recalls the Communist symbol, except that hide the facts, and to play roles.1 My choice of this drawing was determined
neither a hammer nor a sickle but a pickaxe is by the gaze that it casts on the problematic present moment of 2016, in
clasped like a vise by the figures hand, while Israel, in the Middle East, and in the world as a whole. This picture of a past
his bare arm is tattooed with a number, send- seems to gleam into the picture of the present, giving it a new context, at
ing us to a reversal of this compact drawings the center of which is the incompatibility that Arendt posited behind the
apparent gestalt and to a different context for its urgency. The work- charged connection between memory-building and society-building.
ers pose frames a singular face, whose bushy eyebrows, wide-open, The portrait, as noted, was drawn in 1952four years after the cre-
inward-gazing eyes, a long gash along the cheek at the corner of the ation of the State of Israel, established in part as a solution to the refugee
mouth, and swollen under-eye bags signify a traumatic time concurrent crisis created by World War II. A decade earlier, with the triad of state,
with the time of the New Man. This is a refugee, a survivora multifac- territory, and nationality offering no solution to wartime refugees, most
eted portrait in the role of a worker, strained, desperate, yet resolute and of the democratic countries had closed their gates, abandoning outsid-
self-conscious. Bezem, born in 1924 in Essen, Germany, had arrived in ers to concentration camps and to deathand signifying the collapse, at
Palestine at the age of fifteen. His parents and family had been murdered a time of urgent need, of the French Revolutions legacy of human rights.
in Auschwitz. In Bezems drawing, beneath his role as a worker in a new society, the
This essay thus opens with a first-person-plural statement of the refugee/survivor component asserts an inviolable ethical obligation that
political (we refugees), a move that Hannah Arendt followed precisely challenges the representational space of the sovereign state.
in her own seminal article We Refugees, written in 1943, and that she The time period reflected in the drawing is that of the worldwide refu-
acutely problematized in her own opening sentence by emphasizing an gee experience following World War II, particularly the displaced-persons
AFTER BANDUNG: TRANSACTING THE the former Yugoslavia in 1961 and subsequently of parts of Latin Ameri-
ca significantly expanded the horizon of political affinities that had been
I called my wife and when she came into the living room I said to her:
Look here, twenty-nine nations of Asia and Africa are meeting in a
place called Bandung.
Why are they meeting?
Read this, I said, giving her the newspaper.
Why, thats the human race!
Exactly. And that is why I want to go.3
have had as a political philosophy, struggle for civil rights. Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983), p. 113.
5 On developmental nationalism and its cultural effects in developing economies see Sumit
it nevertheless laid the ground- In the United States, Sarkar, Nationalism and Poverty: Discourses of Development and Culture in 20th-century
work for the global emergence of a the end of World War II had not India, Third World Quarterly 29, no. 3 (2008): 42945. Eric Hobsbawm too argues for a
distinction between civic and ethnic nationalisms in the European context; see Hobsbawm,
critical, postcolonial, antiimperial, been accompanied by the de-
Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
intellectual ethic. Wrights interest mise of Jim Crow laws, as many versity Press, 1990).
in Bandung can be explicated with- had hoped. In the 1960s, several 6 Serge Guilbaut, How New York Stole the Idea of Modern Art: Abstract Expressionism, Free-
dom, and the Cold War (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1983), p. 175.
in this framework. In retrospect, it artistsincluding Jack Whitten,
7 Katy Siegel, Since 45: America and the Making of Contemporary Art (London: Reaktion
would appear that Husain too was Fig. 3. Jack Whitten. Hide and Seek. 1964. Acrylic on canvas, 71.560.7 cm.
whose work incorporated mate- Books, 2011), p. 12.
responding to this imperative in In- Courtesy Jack Whitten Studio rial composites of the civil rights 8 Gyan Prakash, Another Reason: Science and the Imagination of Modern India (New Delhi:
Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 202.
dia, as was his contemporary Gaz- movementwould address the
9 Yashodhara Dalmia, The Making of Modern Indian Art: The Progressives (New Delhi: Oxford
bia Sirry in Egypt. nation-states selective endowment of civil liberties. Although articu- University Press, 2001), p. 105.
Like Husains, Sirrys early career coincided with the nations lated as a form of nationalism, the African American question never- 10 Maqbool Fida Husain, quoted in Ila Pal, Beyond the Canvas: An Unfinished Portrait of M.F.
Husain (New Delhi: Indus, 1994), p. 92.
coming to sovereignty under a modernist political leader, in Egypts theless came under the purview of the House Un-American Activities
11 Ibid.
case Nasser. Sirry was a member of the Group of Modern Art, which Committee, in part owing to perceived links with a range of transna- 12 Wright, The Color Curtain, p. 14.
sought to articulate a modernist form in dialogue with the priorities of tional arrangements.16 These included the Non-Aligned Movement, 13 Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (London: Verso,
2012), p. 148.
postrevolutionary Egypt. Thus, in keeping with Nassers international- whose intellectual armature connected the African American move- 14 See Liliane Karnouk, Modern Egyptian Art: 19102003 (Cairo: The American University of
ist civilizational aspirations, her early works combined the visual lan- ment with analogous struggles in Asia and Africa. Yet the right to dis- Cairo Press, 2005), pp. 8588.
guage of the Paris avant-garde with Arabic forms and the art of ancient sent was under siege in several parts of the nonaligned world, including 15 Chika Okeke-Agulu, Politics by Other Means: Two Egyptian Artists, Gazbia Sirry and Ghada
Amer, Meridians: Feminism, Race, Transnationalism 6, no. 2 (2006): 11749, 133.
Egypt, ciphering the nations pharaonic, Arabic, African, and colonial Egypt. Through iconography, the Egyptian artist then enunciated an 16 See Brenda Gayle Plummer, In Search of Power: African Americans in the Era of Decoloni-
14
legacies into the nation-states present. The brutal machinations of explicitly transnational politics of equality against all odds. zation, 19561974 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013), p. 222.
FANON, NATIONAL CULTURE, tle for decolonization was not also won on the terrain of culture and cul-
tural production. In other words, for Fanon, culture was both instrument
AND THE POLITICS OF FORM and object of the struggle for independence. His critique of the literature
and ideology of Negritude and his argument for a national culture reso-
IN POSTWAR AFRICA nated with postwar African artists whose work grappled both rigorously
and passionately with problems of art and culture, the nation, and political
Chika Okeke-Agulu sovereignty. Fanons national culture, I want to argue, in its broader sense
Fig. 1. Cover of the first edition of Frantz Fanon's Les Damns de la Terre
encompassed the postcolonial modernism of postwar African artists. (The Wretched of the Earth), 1961
Fanon argued that the new African intellectual and cultural elite
had to do three things: first, build on and transcend the important race- literary modernists who were engaged in the politics of form.4 Moreover,
based ideological work of the Negritude and pan-Africanism of the pre- his insistence on the instrumentality of national culturethat it must
vious generation; second, shift the terrain of critical engagement from primarily serve as a catalyst for mass political action, utopian as such
the racial to the national, for every culture is first and foremost nation- claims can be for the expressive artsinvolved a misunderstanding of
al; 3 and third, develop a truly national culture the legitimacy of which the significant work of writers and artists who, like him, were convinced
would depend on the extent to which it catalyzed and participated in of art and cultures ideological imperative but unlike him knew that
the liberation struggle. What is clear from the work of young postwar popular action is only a part of a broader process of demolishing the
African modernists is that while they were for the most part in agree- knowledge infrastructure upon which colonialism depended. That
ment with Fanons first two propositions, they all but sidestepped his is, the politics of form in which postwar African artists were engaged
instrumentalist understanding of national culture, and this is primarily extended the discursive horizon of Fanons theory of decolonized and
because, in various ways, they were simultaneously sympathetic to the decolonizing national culture, although in ways that he himself might
legacies of the modernist avant-garde yet, because of their experiences not have appreciated at the time.
of colonialism, engaged in the politics of form. As a result, my account I do not suggest that Fanons writing on national culture influenced
of the work of exemplary artists of this period will both demonstrate the the work of all of the young, ambitious African artists of the independence
timeliness of Fanons intervention at the Rome congress and testify to generation. Rather, these artists, like Fanon, contemporaneously recog-
the limitations of his understanding of progressive arts formal, concep- nized the momentousness of the national independence and liberation
tual, and ideological possibilities in the era of African decolonization. movements and thus sought to imagine the role of art and culture in
While Fanons analysis of national culture focuses on literature, and the process of attaining political sovereigntybut also, and this is cru-
while his familiarity with modern African art is suspect, his argument cial, how political sovereignty could catalyze the development of artistic
and other Sudanese craftwork (fig. 3). effective revolutionary content. The artists, on the other hand, believed 2 Apart from Wretched of the Earth, other works of Fanons based on the Algerian experience
include Toward the African Revolution (New York: Grove Press, 1964) and A Dying Colonialism
In Morocco, young artists led by Farid Belkahia trained in French that form itselfas languagewas a legitimate site of a decolonizing pol- (New York: Grove Press, 1965).
art academies only to return home set on upending the orientalist cur- itics, and a ground for postcolonial aesthetics and ethics without which 3 Frantz Fanon, On National Culture, p. 216.
4 The Nigerian novelist Chinua Achebe often told of a formative encounter with his English
riculum of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Casablanca, which to them had be- it would be impossible to imagine or participate fully in the political and
teacher at University College, Ibadan, who first asserted that Achebes writing lacked form, then
come an anachronistic vestige of French cultural colonialism. Drawing discursive reinvention of national cultures after empire. Nevertheless, in later, without explanation, disavowed that assessment. This experience convinced Achebe that
on avant-garde sensibilities acquired in Europe, Belkahia, in his own acknowledging what he described as scattered, valiant attempts to re- form and ideology are intimately connected. His first novel, Things Fall Apart, was his way of
engaging in the politics of literary form. See Christa Clarke, Uche Okeke and Chinua Achebe:
work and in the curriculum he established as the new director of the animate the cultural dynamic, and to give fresh impulses to its themes,
Artist and Author in Conversation, Critical Interventions: Journal of African Art History and Visual
Ecole des Beaux-Arts, pressed for a new national art and expressive its forms, and its tonalities,12 Fanon came close to recognizing the sig- Culture 1 (July 2007): 14758.
culture derived from imagery and techniques inspired by traditional nificance of what was then a growing, continent-wide effort by postwar 5 See Chika Okeke-Agulu, Postcolonial Modernism: Art and Decolonization in Twentieth-
Century Nigeria (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2015), for a comprehensive account of
Moroccan crafts, Amazigh tifinagh scripts and occult signs, and Arabic artists, motivated by the rhetoric and spirit of national independence, to
the work and ideas associated with Okeke and the Art Society in the 1950s and 60s.
calligraphy. Similarly, Ahmed Cherkaoui, another leading modernist decolonize the colonial cultural infrastructure and the imperial mod- 6 For a fuller account of the Art Society see ibid., chapter 3.
who died shortly after returning to Morocco from France, developed ernisms associated with it. 7 Uche Okeke, Growth of an Idea, in Art in Development: A Nigerian Perspective (Nimo, Nigeria:
Documentation Centre, Asele Institute, and Minneapolis: African American Cultural Center, 1982), p. 1.
his own form of semantic abstraction that depended on his translation of 8 Okeke, Natural Synthesis, in ibid., p. 2.
Amazigh imagery through pictorial protocols he learned from studying 9 In his study of the work of the playwright Wole Soyinka, the literary scholar Biodun Jeyifo
the work of the European painters Paul Klee and Roger Bisire. calls these two apparently contradictory aspects freedom (the writers identification with his
postcolonial community) and complexity (the unflinching commitment to formal experimen-
I had suggested earlier an apparent disjunction between Fanons tation). See Jeyifo, Introduction, in Jeyifo, ed., Perspectives on Wole Soyinka: Freedom and
theory of national culturethat is, of culture as a weapon for revolu- Complexity (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2001), pp. 922.
tionary action in the context of decolonizationand the work of post- 10 See Sylvester Okwunodu Ogbechie, Ben Enwonwu: The Making of an African Modernist
(Rochester, N.Y.: University of Rochester Press, 2008).
war artists who, like him, advocated a new national art and culture yet 11 Fanon, On National Culture, p. 233.12. Ibid., p. 237.
were unwilling to surrender their individual, ardently modernist artistic 12 Ibid., p. 237.
Thomas Bayrle Daniel LaRue Johnson Larry Rivers Jacques (Mah de la) Villegl
Melvin Edwards Krishen Khanna Ruth Schloss Andy Warhol
Inji Efflatoun Norman Lewis Ismail Shammout Jack Whitten
Ben Enwonwu Mawalan Marika Yohanan Simon Yosef Zaritsky
Raymond Hains Iba N'Diaye Mitchell Siporin
Robert Indiana Malangatana Valente Ngwenya Sindoedarsono Sudjojono
Jasper Johns Uche Okeke Emilio Vedova
271
272
Emilio Vedova
Europa 1950
Jasper Johns
194950 Flags
oil on canvas 1965
Fondazione Musei Civici di Venezia, oil on canvas with raised canvas
Galleria Internazionale d'Arte Moderna di Ca'Pesaro, Venice Collection of the Artist
647
273
274
649
275
276
651
Andy Warhol
Mustard Race Riot
1963
acrylic and silkscreen ink on canvas
Udo und Anette Brandhorst Collection, Munich
277
653
278
279
655
280 281
657
Yosef Zaritsky
Yehiam (Life on the Kibbutz)
1951
oil on burlap mounted on canvas
Tel Aviv Museum of Art
282
659
284
283
661
286
285
287
663
Iba Ndiaye
Tabaski, Sacrifice du Mouton (Tabaski, Sacrifice of the Sheep)
1963
oil on canvas
Collection Rpublique du Sngal
288
665
289
Ben Enwonwu
Going
1961
oil on canvas
University of Lagos
667
291
292
290
669
293
Malangatana Valente Ngwenya
Untitled
1961
oil on canvas
Iwalewahaus, Universitt Bayreuth
671
294
295
Sindoedarsono Sudjojono
Pertemuan di Tjikampek yang Bersedjarah
Krishen Khanna (Historic Meeting in Tjikampek)
News of Gandhiji's Death 1964
1948 oil on canvas
oil on canvas Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art in
Collection of Rathika Chopra & Rajan Anandan, New Delhi Nusantara (Museum MACAN), Jakarta
673
296
Mawalan Marika
Sydney from the Air
1963
natural pigments on bark
The National Museum of Australia, Canberra
675
Thomas Bayrle
Kennedy in Berlin
1964
lithograph on cardboard
Deutsche Bank Collection, Frankfurt am Main
297
677
299
298
679
8
Section Introduction
Jea Denegri
Walter Grasskamp
Anne Massey
Pamela M. Lee and Fred Turner
Plates
Introduction 683
B
etween 1961 and 1973, a series of five interna which, he said, the line is more important than the painting.2 Manzoni
tional exhibitions were held in Zagreb, in what also voiced apprehension about Mavignier as the creator of the exhibi
was then Yugoslavia and is now Croatia, under tion concepta well-founded worry since Mavignier, in charge of choos
the title Nove Tendencije (New Tendencies). The ing the works for the 1961 show, accepted and exhibited only the paint
idea was originally suggested by Almir Mavignier, ing. This history was long unknown in professional circles, but today it
a German artist born in Brazil, and the shows is clear that this decision of Mavigniers had a far-reaching influence not
were organized by Zagrebs contemporary- just on the thematic physiognomy of the first Nove Tendencije exhibition
art museum, the Galerija suvremene umjet but on the fundamental orientation of this international art movement
nosti. With theoretical elaboration by the critics Matko Metrovi and in all its aspects.
Radoslav Putar, the 1961 exhibition featured members of the international During both the first Nove Tendencije exhibition in 1961 and the
artists groups ZERO, GRAV (Groupe de Recherche d'Art Visuel), Gruppo second in 1963, many personal and conceptual realignments occurred
N, and Azimuth (Enrico Castellani and Piero Manzoni); a number of among the participating artists. Metrovi writes, In quite a short time,
individual artists from outside Yugoslavia; and two local artists, Julije the new movement showed an extraordinary speed in its formal execu
1
Knifer and Ivan Picelj. Nove tendencije 2 followed in 1963, Nova tendencija tion, but also a split in its ideology.3 On the Italian art scene one symp
3 in 1965, Tendencije 4 in 196869, and Tendencije 5 in 1973, with dozens of tom of this split was the exhibition Arte programmata (Programmed
artists participating from Europe Art), organized in Milan in 1962
and farther afield. by Bruno Munari, under the pa
Both artists and organizers tronage of the Olivetti company,
felt the need for a wide international and with a catalogue essay by
network that would connect not Umberto Eco. Displacing the ro
MASS COMMUNICATION:
leftist orientation that positioned Enzo Mari, were often designers
them against the domination of by trade. Mari would be invited to
the art market. It is important to conceptualize the third exhibition
NEW TENDENCIES note that on the political stage
the establishment of these exhibi
in Zagreb, now with a title in the
singular, Nova Tendencija 3 (New
Jea Denegri
tionsand especially of the first, Tendencies 3), in 1965. His concept
in 1961coincided with the emer revolved around the topic of the
Fig. 1. Pierro Manzoni. Merda dartista n. 68 (Artist's Shit no. 68). 1961.
gence of the Non-Aligned Move Tin can and printed paper, 4.866 cm. Fondazione Piero Manzoni, Milan divulgation of research samples.
ment, a global group of developing At the same time, the Paris GRAV
nations with Yugoslavia as one of the founders. This is not to say that the group also changed its basic orientation, moving to advocate art as
Nove Tendencije exhibitions fell under the patronage of any official state spectacle, viewer engagement, instability, and programming.4
politics. On the contrary, the exhibitions artists and organizers shared The absence of some participants in the first exhibition from the
a fundamental belief in international collaboration based on advanced show of 1965, and the large number of newcomers in that year, were signs
political positions and the use of new technologies, at the same time of organizational, operative, and ideological crises within the movement
respecting the ethical integrity of each participant. Indeed Nova that the exhibitions showcased. (These crises would be surmounted by
Tendencija 3, in 1965, organized in Yugoslavia while the country was a the new thematic foci of Tendencije 4 and Tendencije 5.) In the same year
member of the Non-Aligned Movement, included artists from both the as the third exhibition, The Museum of Modern Art, New York, organized
Soviet Union (Moscows Dvizheniye group) and the United States (the an exhibition titled The Responsive Eye, curated by William Seitz, which
Anonima group, from Cleveland)the first time such artists exhibited received a mixed response from the participants in the Nove Tendencije
together on the international art scene. shows. While Mavignier wrote that during the opening and the grand
An article of Metrovis from 2010 unveils some previously un exhibition in New York, which can be called historical, he thought with
known facts about the concept and organization of the Nove Tendencije gratitude of Zagrebs contribution to it,5 Manfredo Massironi, a mem
exhibition of 1961. In a letter to the author that year, Manzoni wrote that ber of Gruppo N from Padua, saw in the show the unacceptable influence
he had sent three works to the exhibition: a tin can (Merda dartista, 1961; of the U.S.-dominated institutional and market system and pronounced
fig. 1), a scroll from the Linee (Lines) series, and an Achrome painting, of it a Pyrrhic victory and a first-class funeral procession.6
were aware that they were continuing a regional tradition in culture 4 Luciano Caramel, GRAV: Groupe de recherche dart visuel 19601968 (Milan: Electa
Editrice, 1975), n.p.
and art, a distinct Other line in ideological opposition to the pre 5 Mavignier, Nove tendencije 1slucaj koji iznenaduje, in Tendencije 4 (Zagreb: Galerija
vailing moderate modernism. That line ran from the historical avant- suvremene umjetnosti, 196869), n.p.
Fig. 2. Josip Vanita. Silver Line 1965 III 2. 1965. Oil on canvas, 140180 cm.
6 See Massironi, Appunti critici sugli apporti teorici allinterno della Nuova tendenza dal
Marinko Sudac Collection, Zagreb gardes of the 1920s, including Zenitism and Dadaism, through EXAT-51
1959 al 1964, Nova tendencija 3 (Zagreb: Galerija suvremene umjetnosti, 1965), pp. 2331,
and Gorgona to Nove Tendencije. The fourth exhibition, in 196869, and Ricerche visuali, Situazioni dellarte contemporanea (Rome: Edizioni Librarte, 1976), pp.
Earlier on, in the 1920s, Zagreb had been the city of the Zenitism an extensive publication, A Little-Known Story about a Movement, a and the fifth, in 1973 opened up new topics, such as the use of com 5063.
7 Metrovic also wrote the key theoretical texts Nove spoznaje u likovnoj umjetnosti
movement and of Ljubomir Micis Zenit magazine, whose pages were Magazine, and the Computers Arrival in Art: New Tendencies and Bit puters,11 visual and concrete poetry, and Conceptual art.12 In doing
(1962), Ideologija Novih tendencija (1963), Metodologija i utopija (1963), Scijentifikacija
graced by texts and reproductions of works by Vasily Kandinsky, Lajos International, 19611973.9 so they fulfilled a far-reaching vision of the creators of the first Nove kao uvjet humanizacije (1963), and Razlozi i mogucnosti povijesnog osvjecivanja (1965).
Kassk, El Lissitsky, Kazimir Malevich, Aleksandr Rodchenko, Vladimir Bit International was a magazine published by the Galerija su Tendencije. (Someone particularly to be noted here is Boo Bek, the Gorgona members also organized exhibitions by two participants in the first Nove Tendencije
exhibition at Studio G in Zagreb: Morellet in 1962 and Dorazio in 1963.
Tatlin, Lszl Mholy-Ngy, and Karel Teige, as well as by local artists vremene umjetnosti between 1968 and 1972. It produced a number of director of the Galerija suvremene umjetnosti at the time.) That vi
8 See Die Neuen Tendenzen. Eine europische Knstlerbewegung 19611973, ed. Tobias
such as Josip Seissel/Jo Klek. There were also the magazines Dada Tank topical issues: Theory of Information and the New Aesthetics, with sion was to build an organizational and presentational platform in plat Hoffman and Rasmus Kleine (Ingolstadt: Museum fr Konkrete Kunst, 2006)
and Dada Jazz, published by Dragan Aleksi and featuring contributions texts by Max Bense and Abraham Moles; Computers and Visual form in the local context, although also international and with biennial 9 A Little-Known Story about a Movement, a Magazine, and the Computers Arrival in Art:
New Tendencies and Bit International, 19611973, ed. Margit Rosen in collaboration with
by Richard Huelsenbeck, Kurt Schwitters, and Tristan Tzara. Research, with texts by Herbert W. Franke, Karl Gerstner, Leslie Mezei, continuity, and gathering innovative artists and directions from succes
Peter Weibel, Darko Fritz, and Marija Gattin (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2011).
The exhibitions, then, were part of the very complex artistic at Frieder Nake, Georg Nees, Michael A. Noll, Ji Valoch, and others; sive generations. Indeed these exhibitions became significant events in 10 Kleine, Die Utopie der Neuen Tendenzen, Die Neuen Tendenzen, ed. Hoffman and
mosphere of postwar Yugoslavia, following the denunciation of the Design, with texts by Gui Bonsiepe, Tomas Maldonado, and others; Europe, as were the retrospective shows examining them in Ingolstadt Kleine, pp. 3846.
11 Tendencije 5 had a Computers and Visual Research section, including the artists
then-reigning ideology of Socialist Realism and paving the way for a The Word Image: Posie Concrte, edited by Vera Horvat Pintari and and Karlsruhe. Vladimir Bonacic, Waldemar Cordeiro, Herbert Franke, Miljenko Horvat, Auro Lecci, Manfred
unique form called Socialist Modernism. Working in the same vein as others; and Television, with texts by Eco, Renato Barilli, Gillo Dorfles, Mohr, Georg Nees, John Whitney, Edward Zajec, Vilko iljak, and others.
the EXAT-51 and Gorgona groups, the local Nove Tendencije artists created Martin Krampen, Pierre Schaeffer, and others. Especially significant Translated from the Croatian by Dorotea Fotivec. 12 Tendencije 5s Conceptual Art section included Giovanni Anselmo, John Baldessari,
Daniel Buren, Radomir Damnjanovic-Damnjan, Braco Dimitrijevic, Douglas Huebler, Jannis
a complex of artistic phenomena whose radicalism makes it stand out were the magazines international colloquiums, seminars, symposiums, Kounellis, On Kawara, Sol LeWitt, Giulio Paolini, Giuseppe Penone, Blint Szombathy, Ilija
strongly from the mostly moderate local version of Socialist Modernism. work meetings, and less formal gatherings, arranged to discuss current okic, Goran Trbuljak, and others.
THE CYBERNETIC VISION systems shaped artistic production across multiple media. Its trust
in communicationrather than forceas a means of social control
IN POSTWAR ART opened a bridge between the worlds of art and international relations. Its
vision of the world as a system of information networks helped to legiti
Pamela M. Lee and Fred Turner mize global networks of artistic production and circulation.
The faith that pattern and order were one, across all systems, also
allowed artists, scientists, and politicians to imagine themselves
engaged in a single collective project. Alongside the rise of information
theory and the global diffusion of television, cybernetics shaped the
aesthetics and circulation of Abstract Expressionism, drove a global fas
cination with multimedia, and, by the 1960s, even drew artists toward
the neoliberal networks of communication and circulation that we
Fig. 1. Portrait of Norbert Wiener in a classroom at
inhabit today. MIT, Cambridge, Massachusets, May 1949
I
Shannon carefully distinguished between form and content in his defi
n the 1940s, cybernetics appealed in large part because it seemed nition of information. In fact, for Shannon, content as we might under
to embody democratic ideals. As World War II developed, many stand it colloquially meant little. He observed, Frequently the messages
Americans ascribed the rise of Adolf Hitler to the power of have meaning; that is they refer to or are correlated according to some
the mass media. Radio, newspapers, and movies all seemed to system with certain physical or conceptual entities. These semantic as
require audiences to enter into something like the top-down, one- pects of communication are irrelevant to the engineering problem.5
to-many authority structure of fascism. Married to Nazi propa What does it mean to eschew semantics in the communication of
ganda, such systems were thought to turn ordinary Germans into a message? Heralding the inception of the digital age, Shannons highly
unthinking monsters. 4 technical reading was preoccupied with the engineering problem of the
8. Networks,
ChapterMedia
2 Form
& Communication
Matters Pamela M. Lee and Fred Turner 697
potential for messages to be quantified as data, and thus easily transmis THE ART OF THINKING TOGETHER
sible as mathematical pattern. The media of such communications, there
fore, would assume primary importance over what those messages might In the early 1950s, policy-makers and artists alike turned to commu
actually mean. Information, as Weaver put it, must not be confused nication as a way to model and manage the tensions that seemed to
with meaning.6 threaten the globe. At the United Nations, at UNESCO, and perhaps,
Even as Weaver and Shannon were redefining information, artists, most famously, at the Bandung Conference of nonaligned nations in
art historians, and critics were elaborating a similar approach to ques 1955, diplomats gathered in the hope that conversation itself might dif
tions of form and medium. This was a time, after all, in which the meth fuse potential international conflicts. Military and political leaders in the
odological investments of formalism, and the nascent art-historical West turned to operations research, a new science of decision-making,
interests of semiotics, were debated by the most advanced thinkers and first associated with the British war effort, that brought together ex
critics on art. The language of Abstract Expressionism, famously linked perts from diverse disciplines to address increasingly complex military
to Jackson Pollocks innovations of 1947, could wordlessly telegraph the questions unanswerable by any one specialization.9 During the Cold War,
tragic and the sublime without being reduced to stable narrative or lit such interdisciplinary initiatives found a new home in the institutions that
eral content. Pollocks skeins and drips of poured paint might well index would come to be known as think tanks. Although today principally
the artists desire to communicate, but they could simultaneously be associated with public policy and market issues, the think tank was his
interpreted as a comment on the medium of painting itself as a field of torically grounded in Cold War defense questions, ranging from the en
gestural inscription. gineering of spacecraft to second-strike capability, from game theory to
The language of medium specificity, bedrock to postwar art criti the early Internet.10 Its various members, hailing from mathematics, logic,
cism, would increasingly converge with other questions of communi engineering, anthropology, psychology, and history, spoke the language
cation in the ensuing decades. In Avant-Garde and Kitsch, the critic of operations research, cybernetics, and information and systems theory.
Clement Greenberg could write, Content is to be dissolved so com This language enabled Cold War think tanks to pioneer the devel
pletely into form that the work of art or literature cannot be reduced in opment of interdisciplinary platforms and collaborative forms of knowl
whole or in part to anything not itself.7 Written in 1939, the statement edge production, and to become the home of what historian of science
bears decisively on the politics of aesthetic autonomy and stakes a claim Sharon Ghamari-Tabrizi has called the cold war avant-garde.11 Think
for modernisms resistance to both commodification and the recruit tanks such as the RAND Corporation and the Hudson Institute occa
ment of art as propaganda. But by the 1950s and 60s, a particular notion sionally partnered with artists in exploring issues around communica
of Greenbergian formalism, and abstract art by extension, had hardened tion, media technology, and control.12 Artists themselves generalized
into a period style. In the language of information theory, we could call it the rhetoric of such institutions in the coming decades, redirecting their
a code that was itself a message. ideological interests to more progressive, sometimes radical ends, and
In the 1950s, Abstract Expressionism would indeed assume a con continuing to mine the humanizing dimensions of cybernetics, as for
troversial ambassadorial function as a weapon of the cold war. 8 Its mulated in the previous decade.13 As if miming the logic of think tanks,
power in that role depended less on any literal messages about the Unit many artists groups confronted questions of media, technology, inter
ed States the work seemed to send than on the power of American artists action, and spectacle as a collective and interdisciplinary enterprise. In
to express themselves, coded in the terms of communication. By 1952, keeping with the expansive nature of such pursuits, these networks were
when New Yorks Museum of Modern Art established its Internation often transnational in their reach. The Signals Group, a loose-knit move
al Program of Circulating Exhibitions, for example, many agreed with ment founded in 1964 by David Medalla, Paul Keeler, and Guy Brett,
Weaver that the pictorial arts belonged alongside written and oral speech would include artists and critics from Brazil, the Philippines, Venezue
as humane modes of communication. The Museums program made la, Greece, England, and Colombia. Based in London, they were known
visible the notion that art could transparently communicate in ever wid for their postwar experiments in kinetic art, as well as for a newsletter
ening spheres of transnational influence: art itself became a node ani broadcasting their engagement with new developments in science and
Fig. 2. Claude Shannon at the Bell Telephone Laboratories with an electric mouse that can learn its
mating a network. Its express purpose was to circulate modern art as a technology. The name of the group itself flagged an abiding interest in way round a maze after a single training run, May 1952
new kind of communications medium, however opaque the language of communication over time and space.14
its inaugural idiom, Abstract Expressionism, might be. In this regard, Signals followed on the example of Britains Inde
pendent Group, which some at the time actually called a think tank.
Founded in 1952, the group coalesced around Londons Institute of
Contemporary Art.15 Its members met to analyze, study, and debate
questions of technology, mass media, communications, and the built
environment in the wake of Britains postwar reconstruction and the
Marshall Plan. They mounted a host of experimental exhibitions drawing
698 8. Networks, Media & Communication Pamela M. Lee and Fred Turner 699
on the visual languages of media and advanced design culture. Con The notion that the world itself might be a medium of commu
sisting of critics (Alloway, Reyner Banham), architects (Alison and Pe nication arrived on the New York art scene in 1957 with the musician
ter Smithson), and artists (Eduardo Paolozzi, Richard Hamilton), this John Cage. Since World War II, Cage had worked to dismantle the hi
loose-knit organization also produced works of art based on the raw erarchies of sound that he believed characterized mainstream Europe
material they studied. They coined the notion of Pop art well before their an music and to replace them with events that could reveal the sounds
American colleagues. And they took an approach to the technologies made by the world itself to attentive listeners. Most famously, he had
and media of popular culture that echoed the humanism of Wieners staged 433a performance in which a person sat at a piano for four
cybernetics. As the artist John McHale put it, If on the surface we were minutes and thirty-three seconds while the audience listened to what
concerned with technology in many senses, our preoccupations were ever sounds the room around them might generate. In 1957 and 1958,
with the social implications of that technology we saw that technology Cage taught courses in experimental music composition at the New
expanded the human range.16 School to figures such as Allan Kaprow and Dick Higgins. Cages stu
McHales collage work is exemplary in this regard. In 1956 he would dents built on his aesthetic to create what came to be called Happen
leave London to study art at Yale University with Josef Albers. Histories of ings around the city. In 1959, for instance, Kaprow staged a series of
the Independent Group narrate this transatlantic sojourn as one in which six events, separated by the ringing of a bell, at the Reuben Gallery. The
McHale immersed himself in American media culture in all its postwar action took place in three rooms simultaneously and featured patterns
excess. Like an ethnographer collecting field samples, he returned to of movement, sound, and silence occurring seemingly at random.
London with a trunk overflowing with glossy magazines, newspapers, As a mode of performance, Happenings broke down the tradi
and advertisements, the material of which would find its way into his later tional divisions between theater and stage, audience and actor, in ways
collages. But even before this trip, McHale was making work that attend that many at the time read as radical. Their formal preoccupations also
ed to the most fundamental conditions of media communication. In his echoed Cages and Wieners fascination with patterns of communi
Transistor series (1954; plate 335) he attempted to visualize the logic of cation. Much as Cage encouraged his listeners to hear every sound as
this new invention by pasting geometric scraps of newsprint or maga beautiful, Kaprow urged his audiences to see every movement around
zines in stuttering, broken lines, recalling both avant-garde collage and them as art. At a Happening as in Wieners cybernetics, everything
informatics diagrams like Shannons. Transistor technology, introduced belonged to a system of overlapping patterns of signification. 18
in 1948, ushered in new possibilities for quicker, more portable and expe Yet for all their formal innovation, Happenings in fact discarded
dient communication across different media platforms: television, radio, the political ambitions of earlier decades. In the 1940s, to imagine the
andmost criticallycomputers. McHales series gave abstract form world as a system of interlocking information patterns was to imagine
to these modes of communication, suggesting how raw data might be global equality and an America without prejudice. In the Happen
organized by a human or mechanical brain into discrete messages.17 ings of the 1960s, that political vision melted away and old patterns
of misogyny and racism reappeared. Except for figures like Carolee
Schneeman, most all of the leading protagonists in the Happenings
were young white men. At the same time, naked or near-naked women
THE COMMUNICATION OF POLITICS IN became a standard feature in them. Despite the rise of the civil rights
movement, Happenings rarely dealt with race. On the contrary, as a
THE 1960SOR NOT
B
wave of countercultural rebellion began to rise across America in the
y the early 1960s the Independent Group had disbanded, late 1960s, Kaprow asserted that local causes, such as civil rights and
with Alloway and McHale departing for the United States. peace movements and things like that are not essential philosophical
Artistic engagement with their critical preoccupations, problems.19
however, was only intensifying. Performance, painting, Such a view would likely have revolted Wiener. And it may well have
sculpture, and multimedia construction all internalized new cultures angered artists in other countries at the same timeparticularly those
of management and organization and spoke to a new range of geopolit outside the European and American centers of political and military
ical circumstances. In the United States, the cybernetic logic of com power. Consider the work of Ferrari, who lived and worked under dicta
munication, in which form was content, helped give rise to Marshall torships in both Argentina and Brazil.20 Ferraris practice engaged art as a
McLuhans famous dictum The medium is the message. Along the form of revolutionary communication but implicitly asked: to what end?
way, and particularly in the United States, the political ambitions of In the early 1960s, he produced a series of remarkable ink drawings
the 1940s often melted away. In the global south, however, the reverse sometimes in collaboration with writersexploring the relationship be
Fig. 3. Lon Ferrari. Carta a un general (Letter to a General). 1963. Pen and ink on was often true. There, artists such as the Argentine Len Ferrari en tween word and image. Fields of densely written script, both calligraphic
paper, 48.131.1 cm. Courtesy Fundacin Augusto y Lon Ferrari
twined a celebration of communication networks with a sharp critique and abstract, could take on the force of a singular image, if withholding
of American foreign policy. anything like content or meaning. In the series Carta a un general (Letter
700 8. Networks, Media & Communication Pamela M. Lee and Fred Turner 701
to a General, 1963), for example, we encounter a field of graphic inscrip aesthetic possibilities. Can we turn away from our embrace of com
tion, at once elegant and obscure, that demands to be read (fig. 3). munication systems? From the engineering sensibility of Shannon and
However, as Andrea Giunta notes in speaking to the works oscillations Weaver that underlies them? And what will we make when we do?
between legibility and abstraction, Although we cannot read what the Perhaps Ferraris work offers us one way out. As it suggests, we
1 Norbert Wiener, The Human Use of Human Beings: Cybernetics and Society (New York:
letters say, they refer to a complex social and individual impossibility.21 might still be able to turn away from the fantasy of easy global intercon Da Capo Press, 1988), p. 16.
That Ferraris drawings are addressed to an imaginary general nection, a fantasy born and promoted in the United States across the 2 Ibid., p. 18.
prompts questions about the military, censorship, and the transparency Cold War and a fantasy that now travels on the back of American com 3 Geoffrey C. Bowker, How to Be Universal: Some Cybernetic Strategies, 19431970,
Social Studies of Science 23 (1993): 108.
of communication in the context of postwar Latin America; for his munication technologies that first sprang into being within the Cold War 4 See Fred Turner, The Democratic Surround: Multimedia & American Liberalism from World War
part he referred to the work as a hidden letter (my emphasis).22 In his defense establishment. Perhaps now more than ever, we might be able to II to the Psychedelic Sixties (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2013), pp. 1516.
best-known piece, however, the artist was plainspoken about his polit remember that fighter-bombers are more than patterns of information. 5 Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver, The Mathematical Theory of Communication (Urba-
na: University of Illinois Press, 1949), p. 31.
ical engagements. In 1965, invited to produce an installation for one of And their victims are too. 6 Weaver, Recent Contributions to the Mathematical Theory of Communication, in The
Buenos Airess most vanguard arts institutions, the Instituto di Tella, Mathematical Theory of Communication, p. 8
7 Clement Greenberg, Avant-garde and Kitsch, 1939, repr. in Art and Culture (Boston:
he created La civilizacin occidental y cristiana (The Western Christian
Beacon Press, 1961), p. 6.
Civilization; plate 322), a store-bought figurine of the crucified Jesus, 8 See Eva Cockcroft, Abstract Expressionism: Weapon of the Cold War, in Francis Frasci-
mounted on a model of a U.S. fighter jet. One of several works in the na, ed., Pollock and After: The Critical Debate (London and New York: Routledge, 2000),
pp. 14755. See also the other essays in Part 2 of this book, on revisionist approaches to
show blasting the imperial ambitions of the United States in Vietnam,
Abstract Expressionism and the Cold War.
this grotesque crucifix, updated for the Vietnam era, was taken down 9 On operations research see Paul Edwards, The Closed World: Computers and the Politics
before it even had its official public airing. Ferraris gesture was a blocked of Discourse in Cold War America (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1997).
10 The most famous think tank was the RAND Corporation, first conceived in 1945 as
message, serving notice to the dream of communication that systems
Project RAND. Project RAND was a collaboration forged between Douglas Aircraft and the
discourse had envisioned in the immediate postwar era. U.S. Army Air Forces under General Henry (Hap) H. Arnold, who, near the end of the war,
recognized the need for the military to partner with industry. By 1949, however, the think
tank was an independent, incorporated research center that could bring together prominent
scholars from across the sciences, social sciences and even humanistic disciplines. General
histories of RAND include Alex Abella, Soldiers of Reason (New York: Harcourt, 2008).
IF THE SYSTEM ISNT THE MESSAGE, For specific histories of the think tank and art, see Pamela M. Lee, Aesthetic Strategist:
Albert Wohlstetter, the Cold War and a Theory of Mid-Century Modernism, October 138
WHAT THEN? (Fall 2011): 1536.
I
11 Sharon Ghamari-Tabrizi, The Worlds of Herman Kahn: The Intuitive Science of Thermonu-
n the contrast between Kaprows attitudes towards civil rights and clear War (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2005).
12 On the infamous partnership between RAND and the Art and Technology Program at the
peace movements and the Vietnam-driven work of figures such Los Angeles County Museum of Art, see Lee, Eros and Technics and Civilization in Chrono-
as Ferrari's we can glimpse a tension in the relationship between phobia: On Time in the Art of the 1960s (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2000), pp. 534.
art and communication that continues to haunt us today. On one Also see Ghamari-Tabrizi on the Cold War Avant-Garde at RAND, pp. 4061.
13 In the 1960s, both Fluxus and the Raindance Corporation would poach the language of
hand, the form of the Happenings reflected the legacy of Wieners egal the think tank in terms of their collaborative and media-centric dimensions (Raindance was a
itarianism. There as in Wieners cybernetics, hierarchies crumbled and pun on RAND).
14 On the Signals Group see Lee, Study for an End of the World, in Chronophobia, pp.
everything seemed to mean. On the other, their embrace of patterned
12528.
action as the source of meaning also marked the end of the political 15 On the Independent Group as a cultural think tank see John Walker and Sarah Chaplin,
ambitions of the 1940s and the emergence of a new mode of social con Visual Culture: An Introduction (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997), p. 45. See
also William Wilson, The Young Boy Network that Went Pop: Postwar Britain and the Aes-
trol. Audiences at Happenings may have believed that they could pay
thetics of Plenty, at the Temporary Contemporary profiles Pop Beginnings, November 6,
attention to whatever they liked, and so could imagine themselves as 1990, Los Angeles Times, available online at http://articles.latimes.com/1990-11-06/enter-
free individuals, but the scenes that surrounded them had been care tainment/ca-4108_1_fine-arts (accessed June 2016).
16 John McHale, quoted in David Robbins, ed., The Independent Group: Postwar Britain and
fully choreographed and the actions selected for them.
the Aesthetics of Plenty, exh. cat. (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 1980), p. 87.
In the decades since, as computer networks have made real the vi 17 Robbins, John McHale, in ibid., p. 87.
sion of a single communication system that can interlink the globe, we 18 See Richard Kostelanetz, The Theatre of Mixed Means: An Introduction to Happenings,
Kinetic Environments, and Other Mixed-Means Performances (New York: Dial Press, 1968);
have come to inhabit ever more numerous and more carefully curated
Mariellen R. Sandford, Happenings and Other Acts (London and New York: Routledge, 1995);
semiotic environments. Like viewers at a Happening, we may imagine and Judith F. Rodenbeck, Radical Prototypes: Allan Kaprow and the Invention of Happenings
that we are newly free to participate in events around us. Yet the terms (Cambridge, Mass.: The MIT Press, 2011).
19 Allan Kaprow, quoted in Kostelanetz, The Theatre of Mixed Means, pp. 13031.
of our participation have been carefully set, and not by us alone. From 20 Lon Ferrari was forced into exile from Argentina in 1976; his son Ariel, who remained
personal branding of social media to the networked interactions of behind in Buenos Aires, was disappeared in 1977. See Andrea Giunta, Leon Ferrari: A Lan-
relational aesthetics, artists and audiences alike live and work within guage Rhapsody, in Luis Prez-Oramas, Tangled Alphabets: Len Ferrari and Mira Schendel,
exh. cat. (New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 2009), pp. 4657.
systems of communication designed and built by invisible others. In 21 Ibid., p. 50.
such a world, we need to ask how art can communicate new social or 22 Ferrari, quoted in ibid., p. 50.
702 8. Networks, Media & Communication Pamela M. Lee and Fred Turner 703
NETWORKS, MEDIA & COMMUNICATION
Plates
707
Joaquim Rodrigo
Kultur 1962
1962
tempera on canvas
Museu Nacional de Arte Contempornea
Museu do Chiado, Lisboa
302
709
Takamatsu Jiro
Strings in Bottles
1963 (reproduction 1985)
mixed media
The Estate of Jiro Takamatsu
303
711
304
Robert Rauschenberg
Axle
1964
oil and screen print on canvas
Museum Ludwig, Cologne
713
305
306
Sigmar Polke
Rasterzeichnung (Portrt Lee Harvey Oswald)
Andy Warhol
(Raster Drawing [Portrait of Lee Harvey Oswald]) Thirty-Five Jackies (Multiplied Jackies)
1963 1964
posterpaint and pencil on paper silkscreen and acrylic on canvas
Private Collection MMK Museum fr Moderne Kunst Frankfurt am Main
715
Herv Tlmaque
My Darling Clementine
1963
oil on canvas, collages, painted wooden box,
rubber doll, Plexiglas
Centre Pompidou, Paris, Muse national d'art
moderne Centre de cration industrielle
307
717
309
308
Derek Boshier Uzo Egonu
Man Playing Snooker and Thinking of Other Things Man Stealing a Shoe for His Wife
1961 1965
oil on canvas collage, cuttings from magazines, and guoache on paper
Museu Coleo Berardo, Lisbon Egonu Estate c/o Grosvenor Gallery, London
719
310 313
Eduardo Paolozzi Eduardo Paolozzi Eduardo Paolozzi Eduardo Paolozzi Eduardo Paolozzi
Lessons of Last Time It's a Psychological Fact Pleasure Helps your Disposition I was a Rich Man's Plaything Windtunnel Test Yours Till the Boys Come Home
1947 1948 1947 1950 1951
printed papers on card printed papers on card printed papers on card printed papers on card printed papers on card
TATE, London TATE, London TATE, London TATE, London TATE, London
721
316
315
723
317
Jacques (Mah de la) Villegl
Rue Jacob, 5 dcembre 1961
1961
ripped posters mounted on canvas
Private Collection
725
319
320
318
Dieter Roth
Literaturwurst (Martin Walser: Halbzeit)
Dieter Roth
(Literature Sausage[Martin Walser: Halftime])
Dieter Roth Klner Divisionen (Cologne Divisions)
1967 Daily Mirror Book 1965
chopped book, pressed into sausage form, 1961 150 pages cut out of the Klner Tageszeitung,
dissected and framed by the Artist 150 pages cut-out of newspapers, adhesive binding adhesive binding, cardboard cover
Dieter Roth Foundation, Hamburg Dieter Roth Foundation, Hamburg Dieter Roth Foundation, Hamburg
727
321
Len Ferrari
Joseph Beuys La civilizacin occidental y cristiana
Fluxusobjekt (The Western Christian Civilization)
1962 1965
mixed media plaster, wood, and oil
Stdtische Galerie im Lenbachhaus, Fundacin Augusto y Len Ferrari.
Loan of Lothar Schirmer, Munich Arte y Acervo, Buenos Aires
322
729
323 324
731
325
326
327 328
735
329
330
Jess Rafael Soto
Sin ttulo (Estructura cintica de elementos geomtricos)
Almir Mavignier
(Untitled [Kinetic Structure of Geometric Elements]) Konvex-Konkav II (Convex-Concave II)
1956 1962
paint on Plexiglas and wood with screws oil on canvas
The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston Collection of the Artist, Hamburg
737
332
331
739
Yuri Zlotnikov
Signal Systems
1957-62
tempera and watercolors on paper
Collection of the Artist, Moscow
333
741
335
336
743
337
338
339
340
747
341
343
342
Wolf Vostell
Sun in Your Head
Bruce Conner Jikken Ko-bo-
1963 A MOVIE Ginrin (Silver Wheel)
16 mm black-and-white film, transferred to video (U-Matic) 1958 (digitally restored 2016) 1955
in 1967; restored and digitalized on DVD in 2006, 5' 30'' 16mm black-and-white film, 12' 35mm film transferred to DVD, 11' 57''
The Wolf Vostell Estate, Bad Nauheim Conner Family Trust and Kohn Gallery, Los Angeles Tokuma Shoten Publishing Co., Ltd, Tokyo
749
344
346
345 347
Yoko Ono
Cut Piece
Stan VanDerBeek 1965
Breathdeath black-and-white film at Carnegie Recital Hall in New York
Karl Otto Gtz Guy Debord
1964 City in March 1965 Density 10:2:2:1 Hurlements en faveur de Sade (Howling for Sade)
16mm black-and-white film, 15' 8 1962-63 1952
The Estate of Stan VanDerBeek Collection of Yoko Ono Yoko Ono 8mm black-and-white film, 5' 54'' 35mm black-and-white film, 64'
751
348
Wolf Vostell
You are Leaving the American Sector
1964-65
Spray paint on silk, screen print on canvas
Museum Folkwang, Essen
753
350
349
755
351
yvind Fahlstrm
Dr. Schweitzers Last Mission
196466
variable polyptych, tempera on panel, metal, plastic
Moderna Museet, Stockholm
757
SELECTED DOCUMENTS
Compiled by Daniel Milnes and Megan Hines
1 Arturo [journal]
no.1, Summer 1944, Buenos Aires, Argentina 6 Fourteen Americans [exhibition catalogue]
Museum of Modern Art, New York,
3 1945: Revista mensual hecha por pintores, grabadores, September 11-December 8, 1946, USA
escritores, dibujantes, fotografos en defensa del progreso
social de Mxico (1945: Monthly review for Painters,
Engravers, Writers, Drawers, Photographers in defense 8 Luciano Fontana
of social progress in Mexico) [journal] Manifesto Blanco. 1946, Buenos Aires, Argentina
no. 2, December 1945, Mexico City, Mexico
2 Angry Penguins [journal]
Max Harris and John Reed (eds.). December 1945,
Melbourne, Australia
7 Arte Concreto Invencin [journal]
no. 1, August 1946, Buenos Aires, Argentina
10 Willi Baumeister
5 Mundo Literrio (Literary World) [journal] Das Unbekannte in der Kunst (The Unknown in Art). 1947,
no. 24, October 19, 1946, Lisbon, Portugal Stuttgart: Curt E. Schwab Verlagsgesellschaft, Germany
761
18 Progressive Art Group [revised manifesto and brochure for first group exhibition]
Baroda/Mumbai, 1949, India
763
24 Hushang Irani
The Nightingales Butcher Manifesto in:
Khorous Jangi (Fighting Cock) [journal]. Tehran, May 6, 1951, Iran 29 Vrtice [journal] 30 Michel Tapi. Un art autre (Art of Another Kind)
no. 7, July 1952, Coimbra, Portugal 1952, Paris: Gabriel-Giraud et fils, France
31 Realismo [journal]
No.1, June 1952, Milan, Italy
765
40 Premire Biennale de la Mditerrane
(First Biennial for the Arts of Mediterranean Countries)
36 Aim Azar [exhibition catalogue]
35 Marg [journal] Les inquiets [publication]. 1954, Cairo: Imprim- Alexandria Museum of Fine Arts, Alexandria, July 26-Sep-
vol. 8, no.1, 1954, Mumbai, India erie Franaise, Egypt tember 15, 1955, Egypt
42 Yoshihara Jiro
Gutai Manifesto in: Geijutsu Shincho . vol. 7, no. 12 (December 1956), Japan
38 1st Gutai Art Exhibition[invitation card]
Ohara Kaikan, Tokyo, October 19-28, 1955, Japan
37 Gutai [journal]
Yoshihara Jiro and Shozo Shimamoto (eds.).
no. 1, January 1955. Nishinomiya, Japan
43 Quadrum [journal]
no. 1, May 1956, Brussels, Belgium
39 Lahore Art Circle Group Exhibition 44 The Baghdad Exhibition of Painting and
[exhibition catalogue] Sculpture [exhibition catalogue] 45 Semina [journal] no. 2, December 1957,
Lahore, 1955, Pakistan Al-Mansur Club, Baghdad, February, 1957, Iraq San Francisco, CA, USA
767
47 The First Tehran Biennial [exhibition catalogue]
Abyaz Palace Building within the Golestan Palace Complex, Tehran, April 1958,
Iran
46 a.
no. 2, March 1957, Buenos Aires, Argentina 51 Allan Kaprow: 18 Happenings in 6 Parts
[cast and instructions]
Reuben Gallery, New York, October 4, 6-10, 1959, USA
52 Ferreira Gullar, Lygia Clark, Lygia Pape, Amlcar de Castro, Cludio Mello e Souza, Frank Weissmann,
Reynaldo Jardim, Theon Spandis
Manifesto neoconcreto (Neo-concrete manifesto) in: Jornal do Brasil [journal]. Rio de Janeiro,
March 22 1959, Brazil
49 Noigandres
no. 4, 1958, So Paulo, Brazil
49 Noigandres [journal]
no. 4, 1958, So Paulo, Brazil 55 Ulli Beier
Art in Nigeria. 1960, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, United Kingdom
769
57 Nove tendencije (New Tendencies) [exhibition poster]
Galerija suvremene umjetnosti, Zagreb, August 3-September 14, 1961, Yugoslavia
56 Arte Normativo Espaol [exhibition poster] 62 Exhibitions to be held on the occasion of the First International
Ateneo de Valencia, Valencia, March 12-26, 1960, Spain Congress of African Culture [exhibition catalogue]
ed. Frank McEwen. National Gallery, Salisbury, August 1-September
30, 1962, Southern Rhodesia
58 Gorgona [anti-magazine]
no.1, 1961, Zagreb, Yugoslavia
771
66 Lantern. Journal of Knowledge and Culture
[journal]
vol. 12, no. 3, March 1963, Pretoria: Association
for the Advancement of Knowledge and Culture,
South Africa
71 Yoko Ono
Grapefruit. 1964, Tokyo: Wunternaum Press, Japan
773
74 Erste Bienniale der Ostseelnder
(First Biennial of the Baltic Sea Countries)
[exhibition catalogue]
Museum der Stadt Rostock, Rostock,
July 4-August 8, 1965, German Democratic Republic
76 David Medalla
mmmmm. Manifesto in: Signals Newsbulletin, vol.1, no.8,
June-July, 1965, United Kingdom
78 Shomei Tomatsu
11:02 Nagasaki. 1966, Tokyo: Shashindojin-sha, Japan
A Erol Akyavas
Born 1932 in Istanbul, Turkey
Died 1999 in Istanbul, Turkey
Carl Andre
Born 1935 in Quincy, MA, USA
Lives and works in New York, NY, USA
no artistic education, but was trained and
worked as a civil engineer in Karachi. Be-
fore his migration he had already produced
works of art such as ink paintings, sketch-
Shafic Abboud Erol Akyavas began his painting career in Carl Andre studied at the Phillips Academy es, photographs, and Minimalist-inspired
Born 1926 in Bikfaya, Lebanon the early 1950s when he studied under boarding school in Andover, Massachusetts, sculptures. In those early works, like his
Died 2004 in Paris, France Bedri Rahmi Eyboglu (19111975) at the from 1951 to 1953 and afterward traveled Hula Hoop series (195961), he showed
Gzel Sanatlar Akademisi (Academy of Fine to France and England, returning deeply im- an interest in wavelike movement and
Shafic Abboud studied at the Acadmie Arts), Istanbul. He then studied at the Ac- pressed by the site of Stonehenge. In 1956 curved forms. Soon after his arrival in Lon-
Libanaise des Beaux-Arts (ALBA) (Leba- cademia di Belle Arti di Firenze (Academy he moved to New York, where he lived and don he started to produce his well-known
nese Academy of Fine Arts) under Csar of Fine Arts in Florence) and at the studios worked closely with his former classmates geometric sculptures. These modular units
Gemayel (18981958) before he went of Andr Lhote (18851962) and Fernand Frank Stella (b. 1936) and Hollis Frampton consisted of open display structures cre-
to Paris in 1947. There he studied at the Lger (18811955) in Paris. From 1954 to (19361984). During this time Andre was ated from colored wood in which vertical
cole nationale suprieure des Beaux- 1960 Akyavas studied architecture with introduced to the writing of Ezra Pound and horizontal lines are held together by
Arts (National School of Fine Arts) and Mies van der Rohe (18861969) at the Illi and developed an increasing interest in the a network of diagonals. Since the 1970s
frequented the studios of Jean Metzinger nois Institute of Technology, Chicago, be- work of Constantin Brncusi (18761957). Araeens work has become politically en-
(18831956), Fernand Lger (18811955), fore moving to New York in 1967. Akyavass Andre is mostly known for his early assem- gaged with the recognition of black and
and Andr Lhote (18851962). He returned paintings during nearly fifty years reflect his bled wood sculptures and his Equivalents Asian artists within the British postwar art
to Lebanon in 1949 and held his first solo shifts in approach and emphasis. He was seriesflat, rug-like arrangements of grid- scene. He joined the British Black Panther
show of figurative paintings in Beirut in particularly interested in the cultural heri ded metal elements first displayed at his movement in 1972 and founded three art
1950. The following year he resettled in tage and traditions of his homeland, which one-man show in 1965 at Tibor de Nagy journals: Black Phoenix (1978), Third Text
Paris. During the first half of the 1950s he expressed through modern Western Gallery in New York. Aside from sculpt- (1987), and Third Text Asia (2008). He
Abboud developed an admiration for the styles. His large-scale paintings addressed ing Andre wrote more than 1000 poems, also curated two famous exhibitions: The
art of Pierre Bonnard (18671947), Roger such universal issues as space, time, and which follow the construction principles of Essential Black Art in 1988 at the Chisen-
Bissire (18861964), and Nicolas de Stal causation, often expressed in dualities. serialism. From 1960 to 1964 he worked hale Gallery and The Other Story at the Hay-
(19141955). With the support of the art Akyavas experimented with geometrical for the Pennsylvania Railroad, which later ward Gallery in 1989.
critic Roger van Gindertael (18991982), abstraction, employed the Arabic letter- influenced his art and personal comport-
Abboud had his first Parisian exhibition form as calligraphic abstraction, and in- ment. In 1969 Andre joined the Art Workers
of abstract works in 1955. He was invited cluded iconic Ottoman symbols or motifs, Coalition, a group of artists pushing for po- Wifredo Arcay
to the Salon des ralits nouvelles (Salon along with such visual elements as walls, litical and museum reform. He was included Born 1925 in Havana, Cuba
of New Realities) in Paris and was the only architectural forms, and even human im- in the Minimalist group exhibition Primary Died 1997 in Paris, France
Arab artist included in the first Paris Bien- prints. In 1961 he became the first Turkish Structures at New Yorks Jewish Museum in
nale in 1959. As a painter Abboud is re- artist to be represented in the collection of 1966 and received a 1970 retrospective at Wifredo Arcay studied at the Academia
nowned for the subtle incorporation of his the Museum of Modern Art, New York, with the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, also Nacional de Bellas Artes San Alejandro
Lebanese roots, namely his childhood mem- his work The Glory of the Kings (1959). in New York. (National Academy of Fine Arts of Saint
ories and the landscape of Mount Lebanon, Alexander) in Havana, then moved to Paris
into his masterfully balanced compositions, on a grant in 1949. There he studied at the
as well as for his balanced use of color. He Fateh Al-Moudarres Karel Appel Acadmie de la Grande Chaumire from
traveled often and consistently returned to Born 1922 in Aleppo, Syria Born 1921 in Amsterdam, Netherlands 1949 to 1950 and frequented the Atelier
ARTISTS BIOGRAPHIES
his homeland, where he played a major role Died 1999 in Aleppo, Syria Died 2006 in Zurich, Switzerland dArt Abstrait, becoming a part of the
in Beiruts cultural and artistic life. post-Cubist geometric abstraction move-
Fateh Al-Moudarres is recognized as a lead- Karel Appel studied at the Rijksakademie ment. Arcay set up his first studio at the
ing figure in the development of modernism van Beeldende Kunsten (State Academy villa of Andr Bloc (18961966) in Meudon
Affandi in Syria. His early, realist painting drew in- of Fine Arts) in Amsterdam during the early in 1951, where he met artists like Theo
Born 1907 in Cirebon, Java spiration from sources within Syria, such 1940s. He co-founded the Nederlandse van Doesburg (18831931) and Fernand
Died 1990 in Yogyakarta, Indonesia as Christian and Muslim iconography and Experimentele Groep (Dutch Experimental Lger (18811955). In 1953 he introduced
Assyrian antiquities. During his studies at Group) in 1948, which merged later that serigraphy to France and realized Matres
Affandi was a self-taught artist who is re- the Accademia di Belle Arti (Academy of year with artists in Copenhagen and Brus- dAujourdhui (Todays Masters), an edition
garded as a leading figure within the modern Fine Arts) in Rome, from 1954 to 1960, sels to form the avant-garde collective of twelve silkscreen prints honoring the
art movement in Indonesia. He is known for Moudarres was influenced by modern art CoBrA. Influenced by folk, childrens, and prewar aesthetics of abstraction, followed
his expressionistic painting style from the movements, particularly Surrealism. He modern art, Appel created a controversial by a second edition (Jeunes Peintres dAu-
1950s, with colorful swirling lines of thick began to incorporate abstraction into his mural called Vragende Kinderen (Question- jourdhui [Todays Young Painters], 1954)
impasto directly applied on the canvas with painting at this time, blending the traditions ing Children) in 1949 for Amsterdams city dedicated to a younger generation of ab-
the tube or his fingers. However, his early of Syrian art with Western techniques and hall; it was covered up for ten years. Appel stract artists. In the late 1950s and early
works from the 1930s and 40s drew on a stylistic developments. When he returned settled in Paris in 1950, and after two years 1960s Arcays practice evolved from easel
more impressionistic style. Affandis sub- to Syria, Moudarress painting became in- detached himself from CoBrA. He then be- painting into reliefs designed for architec-
jects were always grounded in reality. In his creasingly political. From 1967 he turned came part of an artistic movement centered tural space. He joined the Constructivist
early years he depicted his family and sur- from non-objective painting to social around the critic Michel Tapi (19091987) Groupe Espace in 1953, and from 1959 to
roundings at home, while he focused on his themes, critiquing the upheaval to Syrian known as art informel (or art autre). Appel is 1961 he was a member of the Cuban group
journeys throughout Indonesia and around families and social relationships wrought best known for his expressive and colorful Los Diez Pintores Concretos (Ten Concrete
the world. In the 1930s Affandi was involved by modern life. He was acutely concerned paintings depicting fabulous creatures and Painters). Although Arcay spent two-thirds
in the Lima Bandung artist group. At the about the damage to Syrias rural population masks, but he also experimented fruitful- of his life in France he regularly sent works
time of Indonesias independent movement due to the agricultural crisisa situation ly in other mediums and artistic fields. He to Cuba and represented his home country
in the 1940s Affandi took part in several which forced the artist himself to move to was awarded solo shows at the Palais des in exhibitions abroad, such as the 1955
artists associations, including the Pelukis Damascus in the 1960s. He continued his Beaux-Arts (Palace of Fine Arts), Brus- Bienal de So Paulo.
Rakyat (Peoples Painters) and Asosiasi studies at the cole nationale suprieure sels, in 1953 and at Martha Jackson Gal-
Pelukis Indonesia (Indonesian Painters As- des Beaux-Arts (National School of Fine lery, New York, in 1954. He received the
sociation), and encouraged the fight against Arts) in Paris for three years in the 1970s. UNESCO Prize at the 1954 Venice Biennale Siah Armajani
the Dutch occupation. Affandi gained inter- Moudarres subsequently became an influ- and the Guggenheim International Award in Born 1939 in Tehran, Iran
national recognition when he represented -
ential teacher at Jamiatu Dimashq (Univer- 1960. His later work included a collabora- Lives and works in Minneapolis, MN, USA
Indonesia at the Venice Biennale in 1954 sity of Damascus). Through his use of rich tion with Beat poet Allen Ginsberg (1926
(where he won a prize) and the Bienal de color coupled with thick, roughened paint, 1997) in the 1980s. Siah Armajani migrated to the United
So Paulo in 1956. Later he was honored Moudarres depicted everyday people and States in 1960. He studied philosophy
with notable prizes and teaching appoint- their ordinary problems with an air of loss and mathematics at Macalester College in
ments in the United States and Indonesia. and mourning. Rasheed Araeen Minneapolis; at the same time he started
Born 1935 in Karachi, Pakistan making artworks. He had early success
Lives and works in London, UK with his painting Prayer (1962), which was
exhibited and purchased by the Walker Art
Rasheed Araeen left his homeland of Pakis Center. This piece, like his other works of
tan in 1964 and moved to the United King- that time, shows a dense, abstract structure
dom. Before this decisive step he underwent composed of excerpts of poems from the
776 777
thirteenth and fourteenth centuries (includ- along with artists such as Graham Sutherland were confiscated by the public prosecutor tal in establishing the Studio Museum in In the mid-1950s Berni turned to as- became concerned with depicting matriar- Lee Bontecou the war he studied printmaking in Prague
ing the Sufi writers Rumi and Hafez), which (19031980). His breakthrough came in for infringement of public morality. In 1969 Harlem in 1968 and Cinque Gallery in 1969. semblage, using found trash materials chal systems (opposed to European patriar- Born 1931 in Providence, RI, USA from 1945 to 1949 and subsequently
Armajani transcribed by hand onto the can- 1944 with the triptych Three Studies for Fig- Baselitz created his first upside-down paint- During the 1960s Bearden came to favor and industrial waste. Beginning in 1958 chy) and quilt-like geometry. Lives and works in Orbisonia, PA, USA evolved into an influential figure in Czech
vas using black ink. From the late 1960s ures at the Base of a Crucifixion, widely con- ing (Der Wald auf dem Kopf [The Forest on collage as a technique for political art. He Berni embarked on a series of prints and postwar art. From the late 1940s to the
Armajani developed an interest in American sidered his first mature work. Bacon would Its Head]); in the 1970s, he developed his exhibited Prevalence of Ritual, one of his assemblages detailing the plights of fic- Lee Bontecou trained at the Art Students late 1950s he became a pioneer of hap-
vernacular building techniques, which led to go on to paint distorted human figures and finger-painting technique. Besides painting best-known collage series, in a 1971 solo tional stock characters of Juanito Laguna Max Bill League in New York from 1952 to 1955. In penings, and in the 1960s he created work
the creation of his first model bridges. Those scenes that evoke alienation, violence, and he also worked in sculpture and printmaking. show at the Museum of Modern Art. He re- (a disadvantaged youngster) and Ramona Born 1908 in Winterthur, Switzerland 1954 she attended the Skowhegan School that involved the participation of psychiat-
early attempts were followed by freestand- suffering. Throughout his career Bacon Baselitz taught at the Staatliche Akademie ceived many honors, including the National Montiel (a prostitute). Berni represented Ar- Died 1994 in Berlin, Germany for Painting and Sculpture in Maine and ric patients. He became the founder and
ing sculptures and bigger architectural worked in sequences and created variations der Bildenden Knste (State Academy of Medal of Arts in 1987. gentina at the 1962 Venice Biennale, where learned to weld. During her stay in Italy from major representative of Explosionism and
efforts such as reading rooms, bridges on motifs. He drew on both Christian and Fine Arts) Karlsruhe and at the Universitt der he received the Grand Prix for printmaking. Max Bill was one of the most avid propo- 1957 to 1958 on a Fulbright scholarship formulated the movements principles in a
and poetry gardens. His focus on public mythological themes and found inspiration Knste (University of the Arts) Berlin. He was nents of the principle of order and sought she used soot in her drawings for the first number of manifestos. During the 1950s
art was inspired by his belief in demo- in the works of other artists, such as Diego included in Documenta, Kassel (1972) and Mieczysaw Berman to align almost all of his designs within time. Upon her return to New York in 1958 and 60s he invented experimental print-
cratic ideals put forward by thinkers like Velzquez (15991660) and photographer showed at Galerie Heiner Friedrich in Munich, Born 1903 in Warsaw, Poland Joseph Beuys what he termed mathematical thinking, she started to experiment with small-scale ing techniques inspired by his experiences
Ralph Waldo Emerson (18031882). His Eadweard Muybridge (18301904). His first Cologne, and New York throughout the 1970s. Died 1975 in Warsaw, Poland Born 1921 in Krefeld, Germany which he considered the basis of human wall-mounted sculptural assemblages, soon working in different factories during and
early exhibitions included Art by Tele- major retrospective was held at Tate Gallery, Died 1986 in Dsseldorf, Federal Republic experience. He first trained as a silversmith developing her signature style and tech- after the war. For his active prints, which
phone at the Museum of Contemporary London, in 1962. While studying graphic design and ty of Germany in Switzerland before studying at the Bau- nique. These constructions, made by fas- he began in 1954, he treated Duralumin
Art Chicago in 1969, Information at the Thomas Bayrle pography at the Szkoy sztuki dekoracyjnej haus in Dessau, Germany (192729). In tening fabric to steel fragments that are sheets with industrial tools and materials
Museum of Modern Art, New York in 1970, Born 1937 in Berlin, Germany w Warszawie (School of Decorative Arts) in Joseph Beuys was one of the most influen- the 1930s he was influenced by the ideas arranged in swirling forms with dark cen (such as nails, pieces of metal, or blades
and Documenta, Kassel (1972; 1982; 1987). Enrico Baj Lives and works in Frankfurt am Main, Warsaw, Mieczysaw Berman became inter- tial and controversial artists of postwar Ger- of De Stijl movement (191731; also known tral voids, evoke technological, mechanical, of lathes), or burned them with oxyacety-
Born 1924 in Milan, Italy Germany ested in Russian Constructivism. Bermans many. He began his artistic training in 1947 as Neoplasticism), especially as put forth geological, and biological motifs. Bontecou lene. His structural prints (begun in 1959)
Died 2003 in Vergiate, Italy Constructivist collages, begun in 1927, at the Kunstakademie (Art Academy) Ds- in its manifesto, The Basis of Concrete Art had her first solo show in 1960 at Castelli were created through the fixation of mate-
Frank Auerbach Thomas Bayrle was a weavers apprentice also show the influence of Dadaists such seldorf. In 1953, the year of his graduation, (1930), by the Dutch artist Theo van Does- Gallery in New York. The following year she rials like sand, pieces of fabric, and emery
Born 1931 in Berlin, Germany Enrico Baj was a central figure of the Italian from 1957 to 1959, and afterward studied at as Lszl Moholy-Nagy (18951946), Kurt he held his first solo exhibitions in Krane- burg (18831931). Using this essay as a was included in The Art of Assemblage at paper to the plate. With these innovations
Lives and works in London, UK neo-avant-garde. He was associated with the Werkkunstschule (Art College) in Offen- Schwitters (18871948), and Hannah Hch burg and at the Von der Heydt Museum in basis for his own investigations into con- the Museum of Modern Art, New York. Her Boudnk realized powerful compositions
Dada, Surrealism, art informel, CoBrA, and bach until 1961. While he first concentrated (18891978). Berman often initiated his Wuppertal. In 1958 he used the materials crete forms, Bill later organized the seminal early success led to her withdrawal from the that he produced in different colors and
Frank Auerbach was sent to England by his Arte Nuclearea movement he co-founded on commercial art his focus soon shifted to- photomontages, which would become his fat and felt for the first time. Beuys, who had exhibition Konkrete Kunst (Concrete Art) at public art sphere in the 1970s. She taught limited numbers. He befriended the author
parents in 1939 to escape Nazi persecution with Sergio Dangelo (b. 1932). Baj was a ward different printing techniques, such as primary medium, from personal experience. been a Luftwaffe volunteer during World the Kunsthalle Basel in 1944. at Brooklyn College from 1971 to 1991 and Bohumil Hrabal (19141997) while they
of Jewish people in Germany. His parents critic of Italian fascism, fleeing to Geneva lithography and etching. With Bernhard Jger In 1930 Berman discovered the overtly po- War II, built his artistic practice around the In 1953 Bill co-founded the Hochschule worked on a new series of artworkslarge worked together at an ironworks and appears
died in a concentration camp. From 1947 in 1944 to avoid conscription in the Italian (b. 1937) he founded Gulliver-Presse in 1962 litical photomontages by John Heartfield myth of him being rescued by nomadic Tartar fr Gestaltung (College of Design) in Ulm, mobile-like sculptures hanging from the ceil- as a character in several of Hrabals novels.
to 1953 he attended the evening painting army under Mussolini. After World War II, and quickly acquired renown as a printer and (18911968) in the magazine Arbeiter-Illus- tribesmen, who wrapped his cold and in- where he both designed the building and ing. Together with earlier vacuum-formed
class of David Bomberg (18901957) at Baj returned to Milan, studying at both the publisher of artists books. In Bayrles artistic trierte-Zeitung (Workers Illustrated News- jured body in animal fat and felt, after his developed its Bauhaus-based curriculum, plastic sculptures of plants and marine or-
Borough Polytechnic in London, where he Accademia di Belle Arti di Brera (Brera practice his preference for graphics and print- paper). As a result of Heartfields influence, plane crash in 1944. In his actions and which later integrated science and art. Bill ganisms, these galaxies made of wire and Frank Bowling
met Leon Kossoff (b. 1926). He first studied Academy of Fine Arts), where he had begun ing merged with his fascination for machines Berman moved away from Constructivism installations, such as Wie man dem toten exhibited extensively in the postwar period. ceramics mark a completely new approach Born 1936 in Bartica, British Guyana
at Londons St Martins School of Art from his studies in 1938), and the law department and a critical approach toward mechanization to use the medium of photomontage poli Hasen die Bilder erklrt (How to Explain His sculpture Dreiteilige Einheit (Tripartite within her oeuvre. Lives in New York, NY, USA, and London,
1948 to 1952, and afterward at the Royal at the Universit degli Studi di Milano (Uni- and mass culture. Serial repetition within grid tically. With Franciszek Bartosek Berman Pictures to a Dead Hare; 1965) he often Unity; 1950), which won first prize at the UK
College of Art until 1955. Auerbach taught versity of Milan). At Brera, Baj was exposed structures became the guiding principle of co-founded the Warsaw Artists Group (also included evocative objects and materials Bienal de So Paulo in 1951, influenced the
at several institutions, including secondary to Abstract Expressionism. By 1955 Baj his works, which were related to American known as Phrygian Cap)an organization, associated with his rescue and drew upon emergence of Concrete art in Latin Amer- Derek Boshier Frank Bowling migrated to London in 1950.
schools and the Slade School of Fine Art in had begun to create collages, using ribbons, Pop art. He created images (Superform) active from 1934 to 1938, that was affiliated elements of shamanism. As a professor at ica. Bills work has been exhibited exten- Born 1937 in Portsmouth, UK In 1959 he received a scholarship to the
London. He lived and worked most of his life patterned fabrics and wallpapers, army out of repeated small logos, figures, or pic- with the Polish Communist Party. The group Kunstakademie Dsseldorf from 1961 to sively, including the first three Documenta, Lives and works in Los Angeles, CA, USA Royal College of Art and graduated three
in Camden Town, London, and repeatedly re- decorations, and furniture scraps to create tograms, evoking the mechanics of global organized two exhibitions in Warsaw (1936) 1972, Beuys fought for free admission to Kassel (1955; 1959; 1964); and retrospec- years later with the silver medal in painting
turned to the people and urban landscapes kitsch satire. His best-known found-object capitalist production. Bayrle sometimes also and Krakow (1937). Berman received the art education for everyone and pursued tives at the Kunsthaus Zrich (196869); Derek Boshier gained attention for his (David Hockney [b. 1937] won the gold).
near his studio. Auerbachs paintings were series was his sharply critical Generals. included controversial political personages gold medal for poster design at the 1937 his holistic approach to art in society and the Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New paintings while studying at the Royal Col- Associated at the time with Pop art, Bowl-
never entirely abstract but were always In 1960 Bajs work had its New York debut in his works and real machines like en- Exposition internationale des Arts et des politics. He participated in every Docu- York; the Los Angeles County Museum of lege of Art in London from 1959 to 1962. ing mounted his first solo showImage in
grounded in his close reality. He is known in the exhibition Surrealist Intrusion in the gines (e.g , Kennedy in Berlin and Mao und Techniques appliqus la Vie moderne menta from 1964 to 1989. The Moderna Art (1974); and the Solomon R. Guggen- With fellow students like David Hockney Revoltat Londons Grabowski Gallery in
for his thick impasto technique, as well as Enchanters Domain at DArcy Galleries, die Gymnasiasten [Mao and the Athletes]; (International Exposition of Art and Tech- Museet in Stockholm organized his first heim Museum, New York City (1988). (b. 1937) and Allen Jones (b. 1937), he 1962. A travel scholarship then enabled him
for his painstaking attempts to achieve the curated by Marcel Duchamp (18871968) both 1964). From the late 1970s he worked nology in Modern Life) in Paris. He spent international exhibition in 1971. His first was one of the pioneers of British Pop to visit South America and the Caribbean.
image he wants. He sometimes scraped his and Andr Breton (18961966). Baj again with film and later became a pioneer of com- World War II in the Soviet Union, where he retrospective was held at the Solomon R. art. Influenced by the writings of Marshall Bowling quickly abandoned figurative,
canvases dozens of times before realizing collaborated with Duchamp on Homage puter-generated and animated art. He taught contributed to the Polish-language Soviet Guggenheim Museum, New York, in 1979. Alexander Boghossian McLuhan, Vance Packard, and John postcolonial art for abstraction. In 1966 he
a finished work. Auerbach is considered to Marcel Duchamp, a reimagining of the at the Stdelschule in Frankfurt am Main from occupation newspaper Red Banner. After Born 1937 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Kenneth Galbraith, Boshier drew on the moved to New York, where, bolstered by the
a central figure of the so-called School of Mona Lisa with the artists face, in 1965. In 1975 to 2007 and was repeatedly featured the war he published satirical drawings and Died 2003 in Washington, DC, USA iconography of British and American mass African American community, he developed
London alongside artists such as Francis 1961 Baj was included in The Art of Assem- in the Venice Biennale (2003; 2009) and photomontages in magazines like Szpilki John Biggers culture and made references to current his Map Paintings (combining Color Field
Bacon (19091992) and Lucian Freud blage at the Museum of Modern Art, New Documenta, Kassel (1964; 1977; 2012). (Pins) and illustrated writings by Stanisaw Born 1924 in Gastonia, NC, USA The Armenian-Ethiopian artist Alexander political events and issues during the early techniques and stenciled images of South
(19222011). In 1986 he represented Brit- York, and in 1964, he was featured in the Jerzy Lec (19091966). Died 2001 in Houston, TX, USA Boghossian (also known as Skunder) first 1960s, with a critical rather than celebra- America, Australia, and Africa). Bowling
ain at the Venice Biennale and was award- Venice Biennale. studied art formally in Europe after he was tory attitude. Boshier was included in Ken received Guggenheim fellowships in 1967
ed, with Sigmar Polke (19412010), the Romare Bearden John Biggers began his studies in 1941 at awarded a scholarship by the Ethiopian gov- Russells 1962 documentary Pop Goes the and 1973 and was a contributing editor to
Golden Lion prize. Born 1911 in Charlotte, NC, USA Antonio Berni Hampton Institute in Virginia, where he met ernment in 1955. He studied for two years in Easel. Later that year, Boshier went to India Arts Magazine from 1969 to 1972. In 1971
Georg Baselitz (born Hans-Georg Died 1988 in New York, NY, USA Born 1905 in Rosario, Argentina his early mentor Viktor Lowenfeld (1903 London at St Martins School, Central School, on a one-year scholarship and experiment- he received a solo show at the Whitney
Kern) Died 1981 in Buenos Aires, Argentina 1869) and studied with artists Charles and the Slade School of Fine Art. He then ed with the narrative strategies of Hindu Museum and befriended critic Clement
Born 1938 in Deutschbaselitz, Germany Influenced by his New York upbringing White (19181979) and Elizabeth Catlett spent nine years in Paris, where he studied symbolism. Back in England he changed Greenberg (19091994), who encouraged
B
Lives and works in Munich, Germany during the 1920s Harlem Renaissance, Antonio Berni received a scholarship to (19152012). After serving in the navy he and taught at the Acadmie de la Grande his style repeatedly: he turned to hard- his abstract direction. Bowlings later series
Romare Beardens art reflects the diverse study in Europe in 1925. He first traveled followed Lowenfeld to Pennsylvania State Chaumire. He returned to Ethiopia from edge and geometric abstraction, produced include his Poured Paintings and reliefs
Georg Baselitz began his artistic training in cultural heritage of African American life. to Spain and afterward settled in Pa r University in 1946, where he received his 1966 to 1969 and then emigrated to the Unit- politically radical Conceptual art, created built up with Styrofoam. Bowling splits his
1956 at the Hochschule fr bildende und Bearden originally studied education and is, where he attended the workshops of doctorate in art education in 1954. Big- ed States in 1970, where he taught at the his- elemental shaped sculptures in a Minimalist time between studios in London and New
angewandte Kunst (College of Fine and held positions as a social worker. During Andr Lhote (18851962) and Othon gers is best known for his murals on the torically black Howard University from 1972 to manner, and returned to painting with com- York. In 2005 Bowling became the first
Francis Bacon Applied Arts) in East Berlin. After he was the mid-1930s, Bearden worked a car- Friesz (18791949) at the Acadmie de human condition. An early one (Dying Sol- 2001. Boghossian was involved in the Ngri- ical figures. Boshier took up different medi- black artist to be elected a member of En
Born 1909 in Dublin, Ireland expelled in 1957 he continued his studies at toonist for the Baltimore Afro-American la Grande Chaumire. After a brief return dier, 1943) was shown at the Young Negro tude movement (an extension of Pan-African- ums like drawing, printmaking, collage, film, glands Royal Academy of Art.
Died 1992 in Madrid, Spain the Hochschule fr bildende Knste (College and took evening classes at the Art Stu- to Argentina, Berni lived in Paris again Art exhibition organized by Lowenfeld in ism), and his art brought together European books, sculpture, installation and photogra-
of Fine Arts) in West Berlin, from which he dents League with German Dada artist from 1927 to 1930. During this time he 1943 at the Museum of Modern Art, New techniques with materials like bark and animal phy. His collaboration with music groups like
Francis Bacon, a self-taught artist, became a graduated in 1962. From 1960 onward he George Grosz (18931959). While his created Surrealist works and stu died York. Biggers moved to Houston in 1949, skins. His colorful paintings were inspired by The Clash, and David Bowie (19472016) Alberto Burri
leading figurative painter of the postwar era. created challenging, often provocative works earliest works recalled the social realism Marxist politics. Back in Argentina in the where he established the art department Surrealism, as well as Coptic and West African introduced his work to a broader audience. Born 1915 in Citt di Castello, Italy
In 1927 he visited Berlin and Paris, where in a figura tive style later categorized as of Mexican mural painting, Bearden soon early 1930s, the dire political and social si at Texas Southern University. He taught at art. Boghossian depicted prismatic abstract He represented Britain in the 1963 Paris Died 1995 in Nice, France
he was inspired by the work of Nicolas Neoexpressionism. His crude, emotionally incorporated references to Abstract Ex- tuation caused a significant shift in Bernis this institution for more than thirty years. In color compositions or dreamlike worlds, of- Biennale and held teaching positions in
Poussin (15941665) and Pablo Picasso charged painting style reflected his interest in pressionism, Japanese woodcarving and artistic approach. He established the Nue- 1957 Biggers received a UNESCO grant, ten including mythical creatures. He became London and Texas. Trained as a physician, Alberto Burri began
(18811973). He created his first artworks reviving the tradition and sources of German African tribal cultures. After serving in the vo Realismo group in 1933 and began his which enabled him to become one of the the first contemporary African artist whose to paint while he was a prisoner of war in
that year, attending the free European Expressionist painting, such as non-West- U.S. Army from 1942 to 1945, Bearden lifelong involvement with political art, ques- first African American artists to travel to work was purchased by the Muse d'art Hereford, Texas, during World War II. Upon
Academies in Paris. Late in 1928 or early in ern art and art brut, for the postwar era. His studied in 1950 at the Sorbonne in Paris. tioning social injustice and inequity. That Africa. He visited Ghana, Togo, Benin, and moderne de la ville de Paris (in 1963) and the Vladimr Boudnk his release and return to Rome in 1946 he
1929 Bacon settled in London and started first solo exhibition in 1963 at Galerie Wer- Upon his return to New York, he became same year Berni collaborated with David Nigeria. After his sojourn Biggers created Museum of Modern Art, New York (in 1965). Born 1924 in Prague, Czechoslovak Republic quit his former career and set up a studio.
a short career as an interior decorator and ner & Katz in West Berlin caused a scandal, more involved in social activism. In 1963 Alfaro Siqueiros (18961974) on a mu- the richly illustrated book Ananse: The Web Died 1968 in Prague, Czechoslovakia Burri had his first solo exhibition in 1947
furniture designer. Nearly a decade later he when his works Die groe Nacht im Eimer Bearden co-founded Spiral, a group of Af- ral (Plastic Exercise). Bernis social realist of Life in Africa, published in 1961, and de- at the Galleria La Margherita in Rome,
was included in the 1937 exhibition Young (The Big Night in the Bucket; 1962/63) and rican American artists who discussed the style was characterized by its large scale, veloped a system of visual icons inspired by Vladimr Boudnk was sent to a forced labor showing paintings of landscapes and still
British Painters at Thomas Agnew & Sons, Der nackte Mann (The Naked Man; 1962) civil rights struggle. He was also instrumen- narrative qualities and realistic rendering. African motifs and symbolism. His later work camp in Germany during World War II. After lifes. He traveled to Paris shortly thereafter,
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where he was influenced by the work of Rhythm, 1958); and Cromticas (Chro- of Chicago and Black Mountain College During the early 1960s he abandoned fig- de Janeiro (Museum of Modern Art in Rio Soon after, he began the Popcretos se- became evident in his kinetic sculpture by the Museum of Modern Art, New York,
Joan Mir (18931983) and Jean Dubuffet matic; 195760), a series of paintings in North Carolina. In 1961, Chamberlains urative painting and realized his distinct de Janeiro). That same year she moved to ries together with Augusto de Campos series Estructuras transformables (Change- traveled to five cities.
(19011985). Burri started to experiment without frames. In 1959, Carvo signed the unique approach led to his inclusion in The artistic language, painting large canvases Paris, where from 1972, she spent several (b. 1931). In 1968 Cordeiro began to ex- able Structures), first exhibited in 1956. La
with unusual pigments and resins in the Neoconcrete Manifesto, along with such Art of Assemblage at the Museum of Mod- with abstract yet symbolically rich forms in years teaching at the Sorbonne and devel- plore computer art and in 1971 he organized ter he explored movement, light, and sound in
early 1950s, creating sculptural canvases artists as Lygia Clark (19201988) and ern Art. During the late 1960s, Chamber- vibrant colors and with highly textured sur- oping therapeutic methods of engagement Artenica in Brazila pioneering exhibition films and theater. Pedro de Ora
and assemblages blurring the line between Lygia Pape (19272004). In his neo-con- lain expanded his sculptural vocabulary to faces. Throughout his career Cherkaoui trav- with objects. In 1976, Clark retuned to and conference on art and technology. Born 1931 in Havana, Cuba
painting and relief sculpture, such as his crete period, Carvo explored color as mat- urethane foam, galvanized steel, aluminum eled frequently between Europe and North Brazil. For about a decade she abandoned Lives and works in Havana, Cuba
Gobbi (hunchbanks). Burri mostly utilized ter. During this period he participated in the foil, and brown paper bags. Even his pho- Africa and participated in exhibitions such art completely for therapeutic techniques. Guy Debord
materials which were associated with his group shows Ausstellung Brasilianischer tographic experiments, which he began in as the 1962 Salon de Mai and 20 Peintres Clarks greatest legacy lies in stretching Magda Cordell Born 1931 in Paris, France Pedro de Ora created his own visual vocab-
experience at the camp in Texas, like burlap, Knstler (Exhibition of Brasilian Artists) at 1977, retained his instinctive, motion-driven trangers (20 Foreign Painters) at the Muse the potential of art toward a bodily and Born 1921 in Hungary Died 1994 near Bellevue-la-Montagne, ulary that combines elements of hard-edge
wood, tar, and sheet metal. His most famous Haus der Kunst, Munich, in 1959, and Konk- approach. Moving the camera in sharp dArt Moderne (Modern Art Museum) Paris mindful experience. Died 2008 in Sloan, NY, USA France and organic abstraction in a limited palette,
series are his Sacchi (sacks)cut, torn rete Kunst (Concrete Art) in Zurich, in 1960, gestures across the room, Chamberlain in 1963. Following his death in 1967 an ex- primarily black, white, red, and purple. He
and stitched burlap pieces in monochrome and was a visiting professor at the Hoch- generated the illusion of bending space, hibition titled Hommage Cherkaoui (Hom- Hungarian artist Magda Cordell (lat- Guy Debord, a French Marxist intellectual, briefly trained at the Academia de Bellas
colors. Burri was the subject of a midcareer schule fr Gestaltung (College of Design) cross-referencing his sculptural achieve- age to Cherakoui) was mounted at the Paris Bruce Conner er McHale) fled to Egypt and Palestine was a co-founder of the revolutionary Sit- Artes San Alejandro (Academy of Fine Arts
retrospective in 1957 at the Carnegie Mu- in lm, Germany. After returning to Brazil in ments. Since his inclusion in the biennials Biennale and the Salon of Sacred Arts at Born 1933 in McPherson, KS, USA as a refugee during World War II. There uationist International (SI), in 1957, in Alba, Saint Alexander) in his youth but had to quit
seum of Art in Pittsburgh. He was awarded 1963, he was active as a teacher and graphic of So Paulo (1961) and Venice (1964), the Muse dArt Moderne. Died 2008 in San Francisco, CA, USA she worked as a translator and met her Italy. The other founders were his wife, for financial reasons. During the 1950s,
the UNESCO Prize at the 1959 Bienal de designer. During the 1960s and 70s he pro- Chamberlain has received major solo ex- first husband, the composer Frank Cor- the novelist and critic Michle Bernstein when he worked in abstraction, he published
So Paulo and the Critics Prize for his solo duced kinetic works incorporating everyday hibitions at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Bruce Conner studied art at Wichita Uni- dell (19181980), with whom she set- (b. 1932) and the author and artist Asger El Instante Cernido (Sifting Instantly; 1952
show at the 1960 Venice Biennale. materials, such as bottle caps, nails, and Museum in New York (1971 and 2012), Saloua Raouda Choucair versity and the University of Nebraska, re- tled in London in the early 1950s. The Jorn (19141973). Because SI condemned 53), his first book of poems. After de Ora
string. He returned to canvas painting in the theMuseum of Contemporary Art Los An- Born 1916 in Beirut, Lebanon ceiving a BFA in 1956. He also attended couple shared their studio with Magdas the theory of industrial, mass-produced met Lol Soldevilla (19011971), they trav-
late 1970s; his pictures of the 1990s ref- geles (1986) and the Stedelijk Museum in Lives and works in Beirut, Lebanon the Brooklyn Museum Art School and the later husband, the artist John McHale art and the related obsession with com- eled to Venezuela for his first solo exhibition
C
erence the pure geometry of graffiti and Amsterdam (1996). University of Colorado on a scholarship. (19221978). They contributed to founding modities, the art of SI sympathizers was at Galera-Librera Sardio, Caracas (1957).
other objects. Saloua Raouda Choucair began her art From 1957 onward he lived and worked in the Independent Group (IG), a British art redirected from the creation of specific That same year, the couple founded Galera
studies in Beirut in the mid-1930s, fre- San Francisco, where he quickly became collective that anticipated Pop art, in 1952. objects and instead toward a general cri- de Arte Color-Luz in Havana, which became
Avinash Chandra quenting the studio of Moustafa Farroukh affiliated with the countercultural Beat Cordell was heavily involved in organi tique of capitalist culture. Debords book a meeting place for Diez Pintores Concretos
Enrico Castellani Born 1931 in Simla, British India (19011975). Later she trained under Omar Generation. Conner is known for his use of zing the IG exhibition This Is Tomorrow at La Socit du spectacle (The Society of the (Ten Concrete Painters), a group of artists
Anthony Caro Born 1930 in Castelmassa, Italy Died 1991 in London, UK Onsi (19011969) and developed an en- found-object assemblage in collage, sculp- Londons Whitechapel Gallery in 1956. All Spectacle) (1967) detailed how the con- working in geometric abstraction (195861).
Born 1924 in New Malden, UK Lives and works in Celleno, Italy thusiasm for Islamic art and architecture ture, painting, photography, printmaking, her life Cordell considered herself a pain sumption of images had replaced authentic De Ora became the groups archivist and
Died 2013 in London, UK Avinash Chandra graduated from Delhi while traveling in Egypt in 1943. Her 1947 performance, and film. A pioneer of Amer- ter above all, although her most productive human interaction, arguing that the result- documented the Cuban local art scene. He
Enrico Castellani received his diploma from Polytechnic Art School in 1952 and taught show at the Arab Cultural Gallery in Beirut ican experimental cinema and rhythmic phase as an artist was during the 1950s. ing spectacle culture was the hallmark of represented Cuba in various exhibitions
Anthony Caro studied engineering at the Accademia di Belle Arti diBrera (Brera at the institution from 1953 to 1956. In was one of the first abstract exhibitions in editing, Conner wove together decontex- Cordells paintings show distorted female late capitalism. Many consider this book to abroad, and from 1961 onward played a vital
Christs College in Cambridge. During Art Academy) in Milan in 1952. Afterward he 1954, he was awarded first prize in the First the region. In 1948 she moved to Paris, tualized fragments of found footage and figures and were often compared to works be a key manifesto of the Paris Uprisings role in national cultural organizations, includ-
vacations he took art classes and worked studied both art (at the Acadmie Royale des National Exhibition of Art, New Delhi, and where she took life drawing classes at the cinematic marginalia, such as newsreels, of Jean Dubuffet (19011985) and art brut. that took place in May 1968 because many ing the Unin Nacional de Escritores y Arti-
in sculptor Charles Wheelers (18921974) Beaux-Arts [Royal Academy of Fine Arts] his painting Trees (1954) was acquired by cole des Beaux-Arts (School of Fine Arts) B-movies, stock footage, educational and Lawrence Alloway (19261990) also read of the protesters used slogans from this stas de Cuba (National Union of Writers and
studio. After serving in the Royal Navy from and architecture (at the cole Nationale the citys newly founded National Gallery and trained in the studio of Fernand Lger industrial films. A Movie (1958) was his atomic influences and a relationship to Abs text. After SI was dissolved in 1972, Debord Artists) and the Consejo Nacional de Cultura
1944 to 1946, Caro pursued sculpture in Suprieure des Arts Visuels de La Cambre of Modern Art. During the early 1950s he (18811955). In 1950 her inclination toward breakthrough work in this genre. He was tract Expressionism in her work. When she focused on filmmaking (including a film ver- (National Council of Culture). De Ora re-
London at Regent Street Polytechnic and [National School of Visual Arts of the Cam- was also a member of the progressive art- geometric shapes and Arabic letters led her also noted for his innovative structural em- and McHale moved to the United States in sion of La Socit du spectacle, 1973) and ceived the National Designer Award from the
the Royal Academy. In the early 1950s Caro bre] in Brussels. Castellani resettled in Milan ists movement Delhi Silpi Chakra. In 1956 to organize LAtelier de lArt Abstrait (Stu- ployment of music (Cosmic Ray, 1961) and 1961, he worked with Buckminster Fuller writing, including the sequel Comments Cuban Book Institute (2011) and the Cuban
assisted Henry Moore (18981986) and in 1956, where he met contemporary artists Chandra moved with his artist wife, Prem dio of Abstract Art) with other avant-garde his critical approach to mainstream media (18951983) at Southern Illinois University. on the Society of the Spectacle in 1988. National Visual Arts Award (2015).
began teaching at St Martins School of Art. such as Piero Manzoni (19331963) and Lata, to London, where he had his first artists. During this time Choucair created and various themes of postwar American The McHales started to pursue an academ- Suffering from the effects of a lifetime of
Caros early sculptures were expressive and Lucio Fontana (18991968). In 1959 Cas- British solo show in 1957 at the Imperial her first non-objective works, showing early society, like the assassination of John F. ic career in futurology, and established the excessive drinking, Debord committed sui-
figurative. In 1959 he met the critic Clement tellani and Manzoni founded the critical jour- Institute. Chandras art reached other parts experimentation with repeated forms. She Kennedy (Report, 1967) or the threat of Center for Integrative Studies at the State cide at his property in Champot, near Bel- Niki de Saint Phalle
Greenberg (19091994), who encouraged nal Azimuth and the Galleria Azimut, where of Europe in the early 1960s, and he re- returned to Beirut in 1951. Choucair worked nuclear war (Crossroads, 1976). The re- University of New York Binghamton in levue-la-Montagne, on November 30, 1994. Born 1930 in Neuilly-sur-Seine, France
his use of industrial materials. On Caros Castellani held his first solo show in 1960. ceived the 1962 Prix Europen (European in different mediums and materials but be- nowned Ferus Gallery in Los Angeles gave 1968. Later she taught futurology and art Died 2002 in San Diego, CA, USA
first trip to the United States in 1959 he Castellanis non-referential, self-reflexive art Prize). He was the first Indian artist to be came especially noted for her wood and Conner a solo show in 1962. Conner was in Houston, Texas, and Buffalo, New York.
met sculptor David Smith (19061965), practice treated the canvas as an object. He exhibited both in Documenta, Kassel (1964) stone sculptures, such as her Poems se- also included in the 1967 exhibition Funk Willem de Kooning Niki de Saint Phalle was a self-taught art-
as well as several Color Field painters. The showed his first relief monochromes, Super- and at Tate Britain (1965). While his early ries, realized as modular systems or forms Art, featuring figurative work from the Born 1904 in Rotterdam, the Netherlands ist who spent most of her childhood in New
D
following year he made his first abstract ficie nera (Black Surface in Relief), in 1959, paintings were townscapes and landscapes comprised of similar units. Despite her early Bay Area, at the University Art Museum in Died 1997 in East Hampton, NY, USA York. In 1950 she made her first paintings
steel sculptures, and in 1961 he created for which he created depressions on the rendered in mostly intense colors, often success in Paris, where in the early 1950s Berkeley, California. and two years later moved to Paris, where
his first polychrome work. Caros break- canvas with a nail gun. He would continue to accompanied by swirling suns and moons, she showed in the Salon des ralits nou- Willem de Kooning attended night class- she studied acting. After an emotional
through came in 1963 with a solo exhibi- use methods like puncturing and embossing he slowly moved toward a more sexually velles and had a solo exhibition at Galerie es at the Academie voor Schone Kunsten collapse in 1953 she turned to art, which
tion at Whitechapel Gallery in London. His to create rhythmic spatial reliefs. Castellani explicit style with layered, rounded forms Colette Allendy, Choucairs work was not Waldemar Cordeiro Sand Dari en technieken (Academy of Fine Arts had a therapeutic effect. In 1955 Saint
brightly painted, sprawling abstract sculp- further explored perceptual effects in his and bodies in the 1960s and 70s. After re- widely recognized outside Lebanon until her Born 1925 in Rome, Italy Born 1908 in Roman, Romania and Techniques) in Rotterdam while he Phalle moved to Spain where she was in-
tures were displayed without pedestals, Angolare (Angular) series (196065), com- ceiving a John D. Rockefeller scholarship in 2013 retrospective at Tate Modern in London. Died 1973 in So Paulo, Brazil Died1991 in Havana, Cuba worked as an apprentice at a design and spired by Antonio Gauds work, especially
prompting a new relationship between art prised of corner-shaped canvases deformed 1965, Chandra moved to New York in 1966. decoration firm from the age of twelve. He his Park Gell in Barcelona. Back in Paris
and spectator. He was included in Primary by concave and convex shapes. In 1967 he He returned to London in 1973. A leading digital artist in Brazil, Waldemar Sand Dari first encountered Surrealist migrated to the United States in 1926, ar- she met her future husband, Jean Tinguely
Structures at the Jewish Museum in New produced Ambiente bianco (White Environ- Lygia Clark Cordeiro spent the first twenty years of his artists and writers while studying law in Par- riving in New York City the following year. (19251991), with whom she shared an ar-
York in 1966 and the 1969 Bienal de So ment), his first room-sized installation. In the Born 1920 in Belo Horizonte, Brazil life in Italy, where he studied art in Rome is from 1926 to 1932. During the 1930s he De Kooning soon befriended modernists tistic and emotional relationship from 1960
Paulo. Caro also worked with bronze, silver, early 1960s he became associated with the Ahmed Cherkaoui Died 1988 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil and started to work as a newspaper cari- worked as an art critic and caricaturist for Ro- such as Arshile Gorky (19041948) and onward. She first attracted attention as an
lead, stone, wood, and paper. In the 1970s German artist group ZERO and was included Born 1934 in Boujad, Morocco caturist in 1943. Living in Brazil from 1946 manian and French publications. In 1941 he Stuart Davis (18921964). During the Great artist in the early 1960s with her shooting
he abandoned color in his work, and later in several ZERO exhibitions. He represented Died 1967 in Casablanca, Morocco Lygia Clark began studying art in 1947 with to 1948, he painted in a figurative, Expres- migrated to Cuba where, in the late 1940s, he Depression he joined the artists Artists Un- paintingsrelief-like assemblages of plas-
returned to figuration. Italy in the Venice Biennale in 1964, 1966, architect Roberto Burle Marx. Her early sionist style and worked as a journalist and committed himself to art. His early lyrical ab- ion (1934) and designed murals for the Fed- ter and concealed paint containers, which
1984 and 2003. Ahmed Cherkaoui trained under a callig- paintings are aligned with the mid century art critic for the newspaper Folha da Manh. stractions, called Composiciones (Compo- eral Art Project (1935). In the late 1940s and she shot from a distance. Those pieces
rapher in Casablanca before he moved to Brazilian Constructivist tendencies. Clarks He returned to Italy in 1948, finally settling sitions) were exhibited in solo shows in 1949 early 1950s, he became a leading artist of introduced elements of chance, specta-
Alusio Carvo Paris in 1956, shortly following Moroccos understanding of form and its sensuous in So Paulo the following year. Cordeiro at the Lyceum in Havana and Carlebach the highly influential movement alternately cle, and performance. Subsequently Saint
Born 1920 in, Belm, Par, Brazil John Chamberlain independence. There he studied at the cole qualities intensified when she studied with created his first abstract paintings in 1948 Gallery in New York. That same year Dari labeled as action painting, Abstract Ex- Phalle made women and eros her primary
Died 2001 in Poos de Caldas, Minas Born 1927 in Rochester, IN, USA des Mtiers dArt (School of Art Trades) un- Fernand Lger (18811955) in Paris from and took part in the inaugural exhibition began a nine-year correspondence with the pressionism, or the New York School. This subject matter. In 1965 she created her
Gerais, Brazil Died 2011 in New York, NY, USA til 1959, then continued his studies at the 1950 to 1952. Upon her return to Brazil, she Do Figurativismo ao Abstracionismo (From Buenos Aires-based artist Gyula Kosice (b. new mode of entirely abstract painting was first Nanasrounded, colorfully patterned
cole nationale suprieure des Beaux-Arts became part of Rios avant-garde Concre- Figurative Art to Abstraction; 1949) at the 1924), which led to Daris participation in based on emotion, bodily involvement, and archetypal female figures. Saint Phalles
Brazilian artist Alusio Carvo began his ca- John Chamberlain is renowned for as- (National School of Fine Arts) for another tist Grupo Frente in 1954. She co-founded Museu de Arte Moderna de So Paulo (So Mad exhibitions and his contribution to the gesture. His first solo exhibition was held at notable commissions include Hon (1966), a
reer as an illustrator and figurative painter. sembling automobile parts into abstract year. In 1961 Cherkaoui spent a year at the the Neoconcrete movement in 1959, be- Paulo Modern Art Museum; MAM/SP). He magazine Arte Mad. From 1950 onward Dari Charles Egan Gallery in New York in 1948. building-sized reclining Nana for the Mod-
After receiving a government scholarship constructions of vivid shapes and color. Akademia Sztuk Pieknych (Academy of Fine coming a leading figure with Hlio Oiticica. founded the Ruptura Group in 1952 and became a leading representative and pro- The critically acclaimed show included his erna Museet Stockholm. She also collabo-
for art teachers, he moved to Rio de Janeiro Although this makes him an acclaimed rep- Arts) in Warsaw, where he increasingly exper- At that time she shifted her focus from the emerged as its leader, writing a Concrete moter of abstract art and Concretism in now-famous black-and-white paintings. De- rated on large-scale projects with Tinguely,
in 1949. There he attended free classes resentative of Junk Art, his spontaneous, imented with burlap (collages) and mixed art object toward art as a participatory pro- art manifesto and mounting the groups Cuba. He co-founded the magazine Noticias spite his early success with abstraction, de like the Stravinsky Fountain (1982) in Paris.
with the geometric abstractionist Ivan Serpa gestural work with industrially fabricated media. Upon his return to Morocco and later cess. With her aluminum hinged Critters first exhibition that year at MAM/SP. From de Arte (Art News) in 1952 and became a Kooning continued to explore new styles, Her ambitious Tarot Garden in Tuscany, a
at the Museum of Modern Art of Rio de material has earned him associations with that year to France, his interest in Moroccan (1960) series, which won the sculpture 1951 he participated in several editions of member of the group Diez Pintores Con- methods and mediums, such as drawing, twenty-year effort, was unveiled in 1998.
Janeiro. Under Serpas influence, Carvo Abstract Expressionism, Pop art, and Mini- forms (Amazighi symbols, Islamic calligra- prize at the 1961 Bienal de So Paulo, she the Bienal de So Paulo. In 1953 Cordeiro cretos (Ten Concrete Painters) from 1958 sculpture and lithography. Inspired by ges-
joined the avant-garde Grupo Frente in the malism. Chamberlain began what would be- phy, tattoos, and handicrafts like pottery began to invite the spectator to actively en- established Jardins de Vanguarda, a land- to 1961. Dari exhibited in the 1952 Venice tural abstraction and Cubism yet attracted
1950s, producing rigorous works such as come his distinctive body of work in the late and jewelry) grew along with his European gage with her work. In 1968 she conceived scape design company. He traveled to Biennale and three editions of the Bienal de by figurative painting, de Kooning embarked
the black-and-white linear spiral Ritmo Cen- 1950s, when he moved to New York upon influences (Roger Bissire [18861964], her penetrable installation The House Is the Europe in 1964 and was introduced to So Paulo (1953; 1955; 1957). His interest on his groundbreaking Woman series in
trpeto-Centrifugal (Centripetal-Centrifugal completing his studies at the Art Institute Paul Klee [18791940], and Surrealism). Body for the Museu de Arte Moderna do Rio American Pop art at the Venice Biennale. in movement and spectator involvement 1950. His 1968 retrospective, organized
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E
Beauford Delaney Efflatoun was a young child, she was raised scholarship to study at the Slade School of at the Muse dArt Moderne, Paris. In 1954 Space). He also worked as a set designer while in hiding, he completed his Otages Helen Frankenthaler
Born 1901 in Knoxville, TN, USA by her mother, whose determination as a Fine Art, London. After he returned to Khar- he became the youngest member of the and architect. In 1958 Fangor and Stanisaw (Hostages) series, which attracted critical Born 1928 in New York, NY, USA
Died 1979 in Paris, France single working woman proved inspiration- toum in 1957, following Sudans liberation Order of the British Empire in the Common- Zamecznik (19091971) installed their inno- attention. Muse d'art moderne de la ville Died 2011 in Darien, CT, USA
al. Efflatoun was introduced to Marxism from British colonial rule, he began to teach wealth. He was Cultural Advisor to the Fed- vative environment Badania w przestrzeni de Paris hosted a retrospective of Fautriers
A key figure of the Harlem Renaissance, Charles & Ray Eames during her studies at the Lyce Franais at Khartoum Technical Institute. For the eral Government of Nigeria from 1968 to (A Study in Space) at the New Culture Salon, work in 1989. Helen Frankenthaler was an Abstract Ex-
Beauford Delaney apprenticed with painter Born 1907 in Saint Louis, MO, USA / Born du Caire, joining a Communist youth party next three years (195861) he struggled 1971. In 1971 he became the first professor Warsaw. Fangor moved to the United States pressionist painter whose career spanned
Lloyd Branson (18531925) in Knoxville 1912 in Sacramento, CA, USA in 1942. Her art tutor, Kamel al-Tilmisani to discover his own style within the many of fine art in Nigeria at the University of Ife- in 1966 and became the first Polish artist to six decades. After graduating from Ben-
before beginning his art studies in Boston Died 1978 in Saint Louis, MO, USA / Died (19151972), introduced her to the Surre- aesthetic and cultural influences to which Ife (retiring in 1975) and a visiting artist at have a solo show at the Solomon R. Guggen- Len Ferrari nington College in Vermont (1949), she
in 1924. He moved to New York in 1929. 1988 in Saint Louis, MO, USA alist group Art and Liberty. As a feminist he was exposed (Islamic, African, Arab, and Howard University, Washington, DC. heim Museum, New York, in 1970. He later Born 1920 in Buenos Aires, Argentina studied at the Art Students League in New
He participated in the 306 group of Af- activist, Efflatoun co-founded the Rabitat Western). He emerged as a leading artist returned to figurative painting, creating his Died 2013 in Buenos Aires, Argentina York, took art history courses at Columbia
rican American painters led by Charles Charles Eames briefly studied architec- Fatayat at jamia wa al ma ahid (League of of the Khartoum School and associated television paintings, which reflect the visual University, and studied painting with the
Alston (19071977) in Harlem, but as a ture at Washington University in St. Louis, University and Institutes Young Women) with the Mbari Club in Ibadan, Nigeria. Af- effects of this medium. Len Ferrari was a self-taught artist who Abs tract Expressionist Hans Hofmann
F
gay artist, he also maintained a studio and establishing an architecture practice in in 1945, and in the late 1940s, she wrote ter his release from a sudden imprisonment worked in a wide range of mediums. He (18801966). Her first solo show was held
bohemian circle on Greene Street in Green- 1930. Ray Eames (born Bernice Alexandra political pamphlets linking class and gender without trial in Sudan (1975) he moved to began his artistic career in Italy, working as at the Tibor de Nagy Gallery, New York, in
wich Village. He depicted the neighbor- Kaiser) came to New York in 1933, where oppression with imperialism. She stopped Doha, Qatar, and later settled in Oxford, Ismail Fattah a sculptor, in the 1950s. By 1955 he had 1951. Through her friendship with art cri
hood in many paintings in the late 1940s. she trained at the Hans Hofmann School painting from 1946 to 1948. After visit- England, in 1998. Based on his experiences Born 1934 in Basra, Iraq his first solo show in Milan, and that same tic Clement Greenberg (19091994) she
Delaney gained recognition for his portraits and was among the first generation of Abs ing Luxor, Nubia, and the Egyptian oases in prison, El Salahi adopted a graphic black- yvind Fahlstrm Died 2004 in Baghdad, Iraq year he returned to Argentina. He soon ex- met many leading artists of the New York
of prominent African Americans, such as tract Expressionist painters. The couple met Efflatoun began to portray the Egyptian and-white style between the late 1970s and Born 1928 in So Paulo, Brazil panded his artistic production to ceramics, School. Frankenthaler achieved her break-
Duke Ellington. In 1930 some of these at the Cranbrook Academy of Art in Michi- working class, particularly womens strug- mid-1990s. In 2013 he became the first Af- Died 1976 in Stockholm, Sweden Ismail Fattah studied at the Baghdad In- collage, painting, and drawing, working in through with her painting Mountains and
portraits were shown at the Whitney Mu- gan in 1940, where Charles headed the in- gles. She exhibited in the 1952 Venice Bien- rican artist to be honored with a retrospec- stitute of Fine Arts, receiving his degree in plaster, cement, wood, and stainless steel Sea (1952), which featured her new soak-
seum Studio Galleries in New York. During dustrial design department. After their mar- nale and 1953 Bienal de So Paulo. In 1956, tive at Tate Modern, London. The work of yvind Axel Christian painting in 1956 and sculpture in 1958. Fat- wire. Beginning in the early 1960s he stain technique, using thinned oil paint on
his time in New York Delaney established riage in 1941 they moved to Los Angeles. Efflatoun befriended the influential Mexican Fahlstrm drew on Pop art, mass media, tahs early sculpture was traditional and figu- adopted conceptual strategies and his first untreated canvas. While the canvas and
lifelong friendships with the novelists Henry After Charles Eames and Eero Saarinens muralist David Alfaro Siqueiros (18961974). and underground culture. His parents rative. But under the tutelage of Jewad Selim Written Paintings and Written Drawings the paint became one, the color functioned
Miller (18911980) and James Baldwin (19101961) first experiments with molded Efflatoun was imprisoned for her Communist Erhabor Emokpae sent him to live with relatives in Sweden (19191961)a founder of the Iraqi mod- emerged. With these nearly calligraphic as both coloring and drawing, resulting in
(19241987). In 1953 he followed Bald- plywood in 1940winning the Museum of activities in 1959 under the rule of president Born 1934 in Benin City, Nigeria in 1939, where he remained during World ern art movementFattah experimented pieces he explored the boundaries be- abstract, colorful, calligraphic, large-scale
win to Paris, where he lived for the rest of Modern Arts 1940 Organic Design in Home Gamal Abdel Nasser. She began painting Died 1984 in Lagos State, Nigeria War II. In 1948 he became a Swedish cit- with form and media, including plaster. Fol- tween lines and words. Ferrari is mostly paintings. Her painting style proved high-
his life. Delaney suffered mental illness in Furnishings competitionthey received a again in prison, depicting the difficult real- izen and soon began to study art history lowing his studies Fattah moved to Italy, known for his social and political concerns, ly influential in the upcoming Color Field
France but continued to work and exhibit. U.S. Navy commission for plywood stretch- ity of prison life. After her release in 1963 Erhabor Emokpae began working in a ro- and classical studies at the University of where in 1962 he won first prize in sculp- which are reflected in his art. His famous La painting of the 1960s. Frankenthaler was
His art moved from representational pastel ers and leg splints during World War II. With Efflatouns painting style moved from social mantic and ethnographic figurative style, Stockholm. Fahlstrm supported himself ture in a competition for Arab artists. Fattah Civilizacin Occidental y Cristiana (Western also active in sculpting, ceramics, set de-
portraits and street scenes to completely access to new techniques they developed realism to lighter, more textured scenes of and later in abstraction. He is known for his with journalism, poetry, theater, translations, earned further degrees in sculpture from Civilization and Christianity, 1965) was sign, and printmaking (especially wood-
abstract paintings of an Expressionist man- a design vocabulary that was essential for the working class. paintings featuring legendary individuals in and criticism in the 1950s and 60s. At a the Accademia di Belle Arti (Academy of among his first artworks protesting the cuts). In 1958 she married artist Robert
ner. Always using thickly applied paint and their innovative postwar approach. Focus- African history and for his lifelong artistic solo show at Gallery Numero in Florence Fine Arts) and ceramics at the Accademia United States military intervention in Viet- Motherwell (19151991). Her first retro-
bright colors, Delaneys painting style re- ing on a sculptural aesthetic, functionality, focus on the theme of dualism. His earliest (1953), he exhibited his drawing Opera, and di San Giacomo (San Giacomo Academy), nam. In 1976 he left Argentina for political spective was held at the Jewish Museum
called the techniques of the French Fauves affordability, and cutting-edge materials Uzo Egonu artistic influences date back to his child- his Manifesto for Concrete Poetry was pub- both in Rome. In 1965, an exhibition of Fat- reasons and exiled himself in Brazil. There in New York (1960). She taught at several
and van Gogh. Shortly before his death, the like plywood and plastic, the Eameses Born 1931 in Onitsha, Nigeria hood, especially the Benin guild of carvers. lished in 1954. He received scholarships to tahs painting and sculpture at Baghdads he applied the technique of heliography to renowned universities and earned many
Studio Museum in Harlem organized his made significant contributions to modern Died 1996 in London, UK In 1951 he moved to Lagos and attended study in Italy (1958) and France (1960). In National Museum of Modern Art trans- create series of plans, mapping sections prizes and awards, including the National
first retrospective. design and architecture. They constructed the Yaba Technical Institute. He also stud- 1961, on a grant from the Sweden-Amer- formed contemporary Iraqi art. Fattahs of labyrinthine worlds with sarcastic notes. Medal of Arts in 2001.
their famous avant-garde house in 1949 in Uzo Egonu studied painting and won first ied privately with a graphic artist and be- ica Foundation, he moved to New York, work, completed in Rome, moved away from Ferrari also wrote critical essays and in-
Los Angeless Pacific Palisades, as part of prize in a school art competition before he came a commercial artist for the Federal where he rented the studio once occupied regional subjects, representing universal, vented new musical instruments. He was
Aln Divi Arts & Architecture magazines Case Study migrated to England at the age of thirteen. Ministry of Information in 1953. Following by Robert Rauschenberg (19252008); existential themes. That same year, Fattah honored with many awards and prizes and
Born 1900 in Blato u Podebrady, Bohemia,
Austrian Empire
Died 1956 in Prague, Czechoslovakia
House program. From the mid 1950s on-
wards the Eameses also worked as pho-
tographers and filmmakers.
There he studied painting and typography
under L. J. Daniels and Gilbert Spencer at
Camberwell School of Arts and Crafts, Lon-
don (194952). He then traveled to study
Nigerias independence (1960), Emokpae
gained recognition in the emerging mod-
ern Nigerian art scene. His contributions
to cultural policy and his efforts to redefine
Jasper Johns ((b. 1930) was his neighbor.
Fahlstrm is known for his early attempt
to create artworks that were variable (us-
ing magnets) and therefore interactive.
joined the faculty of the Baghdad Institute
of Fine Arts, initially teaching ceramics and,
from 1969, sculpture. Fattah was a mem-
ber in two influential groups: the Baghdad
returned to Argentina in 1991.
Lucio Fontana
G
After decades as a forgotten outsider artist the European masters and classical African public perception of contemporary modern He was concerned with the mechanisms Modern Art Group and the New Vision col- Born 1899 in Rosario di Santa F, Ivo Gattin
embracing moody, symbolic content, painter Melvin Edwards art. In 1953 he settled in Paris, eventually Nigerian art began when he helped organize of economics and politics, including the lective. Fattah is known for his public sculp- Argentina Born 1926 in Split, Yugoslavia
Aln Divi has received sustained critical Born 1937 in Houston, TX visiting Denmark, Finland, and Italy. Upon the Eastern Nigeria Festival of Arts (1956 manipulation of information and data. His ture in Baghdad, the most famous of which Died 1968 in Comabbio, Varese, Italy Died 1978 in Zagreb, Yugoslavia
attention since his death. Born in Bohemia, Lives and works in New York, NY, USA returning to England, Egonu set up a studio 59). During the 1960s and 70s, Emokpae art includes Pop imagery and comic strips, is the Nusb Al-Shahid (Martyrs Monument).
he moved to Paris in 1926 to focus on his in London, and during the 1960s he devel- served as secretary for the newly founded and besides visual, theatrical, and literary Fattahs design was chosen through a com- Lucio Fontana is known as the founder of Ivo Gattin was one of Croatias foremost
work, where he experimented with Cubism Melvin Edwards is best known for his oped his unique synthesis of modern art Society of Nigerian Artists and the Lagos works, he produced films and radio plays. petition in 1981 and completed in 1983. spatialism and for his association with arte practitioners of art informel. He gradua
and Expressionism. With other expatriates, sculpture series Lynch Fragments, based (especially Cubism and Pop art) and African Arts Council. After working as a graphic Fahlstrm represented Sweden at the 33rd povera. His family moved to Italy in 1905, ted from the Akademija likovnih umjetnosti
he formed the House of Czechoslovak Cul- on the civil rights movement, and for his visual languages (Nigerian ornamentation, artist for the advertising agency Lintas, he Venice Biennale (1966) with his installation but he returned to Argentina in 1922 to help (Academy of Fine Arts) in Zagreb in 1953.
ture in 1939 to protest the German occupa- large-scale public art projects. He once circular composition, and birds-eye views), finally decided to become a profession- Dr. Schweitzers Last Mission. Jean Fautrier in his fathers sculpture studio. After setting Gattins approach to painting was antiex-
tion. When France entered World War II, the commented that after he had watched steel blurring the lines between figuration and al painter and muralist. Some of his most Born 1898 in Paris, France up his own studio in 1924 he received sev- pressive, directly addressing materiality. He
groups members were arrested for espio- being welded as a child, he knew he wanted abstraction. Although Egonu briefly visited acclaimed works are for the 1977 Second Died 1964 in Chtenay-Malabry, France eral important public commissions. Fontana used such substances as resin, wax, and
nage. Divi spent six months at the brutal La to be a sculptor. After graduating from the his homeland only once, his compositions in World Festival of Black Arts (FESTAC) and Wojciech Fangor studied at the Accademia di belle arti Brera cement on the surfaces of his early pictorial
Sant Prison, and an additional few years University of Southern California in 1965, painting, collage, and printmaking reveal a the National Arts Theatre building, Lagos. Born 1922 in Warsaw, Poland Jean Fautrier was a painter, printmaker, and in 1928; participated in the Venice Biennale works of 195657, later turning to burning
in concentration and internment camps. he had his first solo exhibition at the Santa lasting bond with African issues, especially Died 2015 in Warsaw, Poland sculptor who is best remembered for his (1930); and had his first solo show at the his canvases and incorporating burlap to
The harsh treatment he endured and the Barbara Museum of Art. He soon began his the 1966 anti-Igbo pogrom and the Nigeri- work in tachisme, a non-geometric abstract Galleria del Milione, Milan (1931). During the create reliefs in irregular shapes. Working
graffiti he witnessed in his solitary-confine- teaching career, which parallels his career an Civil War. In 1964 Egonu had a solo show Ben Enwonwu Wojciech Fangor was a painter, sculptor, and style that emphasizes spontaneous brush- 1930s he experimented with abstracted fig- in Milan from 1963 to 1967, Gattin created
ment cell at La Sant deeply influenced his as a sculptor. In 1967 Edwards moved to at the Woodstock Gallery, London, and he Born 1917 in Onitsha, Nigeria graphic artist. During World War II he stud- work, drips, and scribble-like marks. His fa- ures, geometrical forms, and ceramic sculp- encyclopedia drawings and a manifesto,
work. After his release in 1942, he moved New York, where he became the first Afri- also gained attention in Nigeria for his art. Died 1994 in Lagos, Nigeria ied with Tadeusz Pruszkowski (18881942) ther and grandmother raised Fautrier in Paris ture at Albisola (193539). In 1940 Fontana among other works. Gattin was associated
to New York City. In this period he created can American sculptor honored with a solo His work has been exhibited in Europe and and Felicjan Szczesny Kowarski (1880 until 1908, when he moved to London with moved again to Argentina, and taught at with the radical Conceptual art collective
landscapes and work later termed art brut, exhibition at the Whitney Museum of Amer- Africa and he was honored with several Ben Enwonwu studied at Government Col- 1948), and in 1946 he graduated from the his mother. He began his artistic training at several institutions. His contact with young Gorgona Group, which included Julije Knifer
based on the images scrawled on the walls ican Art, in 1970. His Lynch Fragments medals and prizes. In 1989 his work was in- lege in Ibadan and Umuahia from 1934 Akademia Sztuk Pieknych (Academy of Londons Royal Academy of Arts in 1912, artists inspired him to write the Manifesto (19242004) and Dimitrije Baicevi c (also
of his former prison cell. Divi returned to series comprises small reliefs composed cluded in the landmark exhibition The Other to 1939. From 1941 to 1944 he taught at Fine Arts), Warsaw, where he later taught briefly transferring to the Slade School of bianco (White Manifesto, 1946) and he known as Mangelos) (19211987). The
Prague in 1947 and enjoyed brief suc- of sharp-edged forms and such objects as Story at Hayward Gallery, London. Edo College in Benin City and trained as an (195361). His early paintings showed his Fine Art in search of a less conventional, began to use the phrase concetto spaziale group produced exhibitions, a magazine of
cess with a memoir of his time in La Sant. chains, locks, and toolsall charged with apprentice in the guild of Benin bronze cast- interest in Impressionism, Expressionism, more experimental practice. He then be- (conceptual space) as titles for some works. artist projects, and events in Zagreb from
Following the Communist coup dtat in meaning. The series was born out of his ex- ers. His early artistic success earned him a and Cubism, but he gained wider recogni- gan to paint independently in the galleries Back in Milan in 1947 Fontana joined the 1959 to 1966. The artists tendency toward
1948, however, he had limited opportuni- perience of the civil rights movement in the Ibrahim El Salahi study abroad scholarship in 1944. Within tion after he adopted Socialist Realism. His and museums of London, particularly from spazialismo movement and signed the Man- nihilism and metaphysical irony, according
ties and turned to spiritual themes, such as 1960s, but a second phase dealt with the Born 1930 in Omdurman, Sudan the year he moved to London, where he re- most famous paintings of that time are Dane the work of the romantic landscapist J.M.W. ifesto dello Spazialismo (Spatialist Manifes- to art historian and curator Nena Dimitrijevic,
Christ of the Blacks. His work was finally Vietnam War and later works explore African Lives and works in Oxford, UK ceived a fine arts diploma from the Slade liczbowe (Figures; 1950) and Matka korean- Turner (17751851). He returned to France to). Fontana combined sculpture, fluores- sharply contrasted with the Yugoslavian
rediscovered after the Communists were American identity and his travels in Africa. School in 1947 and a masters degree ski (Korean Mother; 1951). From 1953 to in 1917 to serve in the French Army. Fautrier cent paint, and black lights for his Ambiente state-approved social realism at the time.
ousted in 1989. Ibrahim El Salahi developed a profound in- in anthropology from University College 1961 Fangor worked as a newspaper illus- struggled as an artist in the 1930s, working spaziale a luce nera (Spatial Ambience in
terest in Arabic calligraphy, both as a means London in 1948. Enwonwu emerged as a trator and poster artist, and co-founded the as a ski instructor and running a jazz club in Black Light; 194849), to be viewed in a
Inji Efflatoun of communication and as purely aesthetic successful figurative painter and sculptor in Polska Szkoa plakatu (Polish School of the French Alps between 1934 and 1939, darkened room. Fontana visited New York Gego (Gertrud Louise Goldschmidt)
Born 1924 in Cairo, Egypt form, and engaged with the natural colors, wood and bronze, representing an African Poster Art). In the late 1950s he created during which time he painted very little. Dur- in 1961 for a show of his work at the Martha Born 1912 in Hamburg, Germany
Died 1989 in Cairo, Egypt symbolism, and decorative traditions of his modernist style which combined traditional his first optical paintingsabstractions of ing and after World War II, Fautrier illustrat- Jackson Gallery; he also designed sets and Died 1994 in Caracas, Venezuela
homeland. He studied at the School of De- elements with a classical Western training. blurred, vibrantly colored circles and amoe- ed books by Georges Bataille (18971962) costumes for La Scala, Milan, in 1966.
Inji Efflatoun was a Marxist and feminist sign at Gordon Memorial College in Khar- In 1946 Enwonwu participated in the Exposi- ba-like forms, calling his discovery Pozyt- and Paul luard (18951952). The Gestapo Gego was an artist and sculptor whose
painter. After her parents divorce when toum (194952) and in 1954 received a tion Internationale (International Exhibition) ywne miejsca iluzoryczne (Positive Illusory briefly detained Fautrier in 1943; later, work peaked in the 1960s with geometric
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abstraction and kinetic art. After studying Goeritz settled in Spain, where he began to solarization and photograms. Gtz held his He began to work in abstraction in the late museums trustees. Haacke received an Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina creating interactive works in photography, won a Golden Bear in the 1967 Berlin In-
engineering and architecture at the Hoch- paint. In 1948 co-founded the free-minded first solo show in 1946 at the studio Rasch, 1940s and became part of the first genera- award from the National Endowment for the Sofa (Central National Art Museum of video, film, installation, performance, and ternational Film Festival. In 1971 he was a
schule fr Technik (University of Applied artists association, Escuela de Altamira (Al- Wuppertal. The following year his mono- tion New York School after settling in New Arts in 1978 as well as other notable priz- Queen Sofia), Madrid (2014). Internet-based media. Her work integrates special invitee (along with Pablo Picasso
Sciences) Stuttgart (193238), she fled tamira School). The following year he moved types were exhibited in Paris, catching the York in 1950. In the late 1960s Guston es. In 1993, for example, he represented art with social commentary and technology. {18811973}) to the Bienal de So Paulo.
Germany in 1939 and moved to Venezuela, to Mexico, where Ignacio Daz Morales invit- attention of CoBrA artists. In 1949 Gtz returned to a less abstract, more figurative Germany at the Venice Biennale and won Hershman is also regarded as a strong voice Husain won the national awards Padma Shri
where she worked as an architect and fur- ed him to teach at the Escuela de Arquitectu- became the groups first German member, style, in which he addressed many of the the Golden Lion award, together with Nam Weaver Hawkins within the feminist movement. Questions of (1966), Padma Bhushan (1973), and Padma
niture designer during the 1940s. In 1956, ra of the Universidad de Guadalajara (School turning entirely to abstraction. He co-found- political themes from his earlier work. June Paik. Born 1893 in London, UK (constructed) identity, privacy, surveillance, Vibhushan (1991). However, the artist was
in Caracas, she created her first three-di- of Architecture, University of Guadalajara; ed the Frankfurt Quadriga group three years Died 1977 in Willoughby, Australia and the relationship between real and vir- criticized in India for his satirical representa-
mensional works. Between 1959 and 1967 until 1954). In 1953, in his seminal architec- later and developed his signature squee- tual worlds as well as between humans and tion of religious figures. Death threats and
she visited the United States to participate tural project Museo Experimental El Eco (Eco gee technique (Rakeltechnik), emerging Renato Guttuso Raymond Hains Harold Frederick Weaver Hawkins had machines are constantly addressed in her lawsuits by Hindu extremists led to Husains
in various workshops (Treitel-Gratz metal Experimental Museum), Goeritz presented as a leading German art informel representa Born 1911 in Bagheria, Italy Born 1926 in Saint-Brieuc, France studied to become an art teacher before body of work. She is probably best known permanent departure from India in 2006.
fabricators, New York) and to experiment his Manifiesto de la Arquitectura Emocional tive. His grid paintings (Rasterbilder) Died 1987 in Rome, Italy Died 2005 in Paris, France enlisting in World War I. After sustaining for her series centered on the fictional char-
in lithography and other mediums. Her wa- (Emotional Architecture Manifesto) and La of the early 1960s, as well as his televi- serious injuries to his right arm during the acter Roberta Breitmore (197378). In her
tercolors, spatial installations, engravings, serpiente de El Eco (The Serpent of El Eco, sion art experi ments from World War II Renato Guttuso, who painted monumental The art of Raymond Hains reflected his inter- Battle of the Somme in 1916, he learned to later work she continued to pioneer new
I
and paper weavingswhich use line as the 1953), one of his first large-scale sculp- onward, proved pio neering. Gtz was an paintings of historic and current subjects, est in language, the play of words, and verbal paint and draw with his left hand. To avoid media art: her video Lorna (19791983)
fundamental elementreveal her investi- tures. After moving to Mexico City in 1954 editor of Meta maga zine from 1948 to became a leading figure in Italian Socialist associations. His artistic practice was not the stigmatized label of wounded artist, was the first interactive videodisc and
gations into structure, space, transparency, he concentrated on public abstract sculp- 1953 and an influential professor at the Realism. He was also an illustrator, sce- confined to one style, technique, or medium he briefly created art under the pseudonym she was the first to use touch-activated
and viewer interaction. While her works made tures, which he often executed with other Kunstakademie (Art Academy), Dssel- nic designer, critic, writer, and politician. but spanned an unpredictable range, from Raokin in 1927, but later became known as screens for Deep Contact: The Sexual
between 1957 and 1969 were based on artists and architects, such as Luis Ramiro dorf, from 1959 to 1979. He participated He abandoned his law studies in the early photography to found-object installations, Weaver Hawkins. After traveling widely, he Fantasy Videodisk (198486). Robert Indiana (born Robert Clark)
equidistant, parallel lines, her Reticulreas Barragn Morfn Torres de Satlite (Towers in Documenta, Kassel (1959) and in the 1930s to become an artist in Rome. Be- sculptures, and Web-based collages. He and his family settled in Australia in 1935. Born 1928 in New Castle, IN, USA
(Networks), Troncos (Trunks), and Esferas of Satlite; 1957). In the late 1950s Goeritz Venice Biennale (1958; 1968). cause of military service (19351937) he had enrolled in a sculpture workshop in Hawkinss work explored the consequences Lives and works in Vinalhaven, ME, USA
(Spheres) consist of crossed lines creating initiated his Mensajes dorado (Golden Mes- temporarily relocated to Milan, where he Rennes at the cole rgionale des beaux- of the modern age, from drawings of wor Eva Hesse
net-like structures. From 1976 onward she sages) series of spiritually motivated mono came in contact with such artists and in- arts (Regional School of Fine Arts) in 1945 kers to moralistic works about atomic war Born 1936 in Hamburg, Germany Robert Indiana is a pivotal figure in the de-
abandoned preconceived concepts in her chrmatic, abstract images, in gold leaf on Marcos Grigorian tellectuals as Renato Birolli (19051959), but soon abandoned his studies and moved to spiritual paintings. His style exhibits influ- Died 1970 in New York, NY, USA velopment of assemblage art, hard-edge
series Dibujos sin Papel (Drawings without wood. From 1961 onward Goeritz returned Born 1925 in Kropotkin, Russia Giacomo Manz (19081991), and Lucio to Paris, where he became an appren- ences from such movements as Vorticism, painting, and Pop art. He attended Arse-
Paper) and Bichitos (Small Bugs). From to his former large-scale, collaborative prac- Died 2007 in Yerevan, Armenia Fontana (18991968), who shaped his ar- tice to photographer Emmanuel Sougez Surrealism, and Social Realism. He was a Eva Hesse is best known for using synthetic nal Technical High School in Indianapolis,
1958 to 1977 Gego committed herself to tice and also worked in Jerusalem. tistic and political attitude. In 1937 Guttuso (18891972). Hains began to create his founding member of both the Contemporary materials such as latex, fiberglass, and known for its strong arts curriculum. Af-
teaching. In 1979 she received the Premio Marcos Grigorian and his Armenian family finally settled in Rome, where he execu abstract Hypnagogic Photographs through Art Society of New South Wales, of which he plastics in her post-Minimalist sculptures. In ter graduation in 1946 he joined the U.S.
Nacional de Artes Plsticas de Venezuela. immigrated to Iran from Russia in 1930. He ted his first large-scale realist composition the use of mirrors and by experimenting was president in 1952 and again from 1954 1939 she and her family fled Nazi Germany Army Air Corps (later U.S. Air Force) and
Leon Golub -
studied at the Kam al-al-Molk Art School in commenting on contemporary Italian life, with different photographic techniques. In to 1963, and the Sydney Printmakers group. and moved to New York. She first studi in 1949 began his studies at the School of
Born 1922 in Chicago, IL, USA Tehran from 1948 to 1950. After gradua Volo da Etna (Flight from Etna; 193738), 1949 Hains reconnected with his former He had his first retrospective at the Art Gal- ed art in 1952 at the School of Industrial the Art Institute of Chicago. Before gradu-
Alberto Giacometti Died 2004 in New York, NY, USA ting he moved to Rome, where he received which won the Bergamo award in 1938. classmate at Rennes, the mixed media lery of New South Wales in 1976. Art, then at Brooklyns Pratt Institute. She ating in 1954, Indiana spent time in France
Born 1901 in Borgonovo, Switzerland a degree from the Accademia di Belle Arti That year he also had his first solo show artist Jacques Villegl (b. 1926). For the subsequently studied drawing at the Art and Italy and enrolled at the University of
Died 1966 in Chur, Switzerland American painter Leon Golub first studied (Academy of Fine Arts). Upon his return to at the Galleria Cometa. Guttuso joined the next twelve years the two collaborated to Students League of New York in 1953 Edinburgh, where he wrote poems that he il-
art history at the University of Chicago and Tehran in 1954 he opened the modern art Italian Communist Party in 1940 and com- create dcollages of torn posters from the Carmen Herrera and enrolled at Cooper Union the following lustrated, typeset, and printed at Edinburgh
The sculptor Alberto Giacometti began his earned an MFA degree from the Art Insti- gallery Esthtique and initiated a collec- pleted his masterpiece, Crocifissione (Cru- streets billboards and became known as Born 1915 in Havana, Cuba year. After that, she attended the School of College of Art. Later that year he moved to
formal training in 1919 at the cole des tute of Chicago in 1950. During World War tion of Iranian coffeehouse paintingsa cifixion), in the following year. When he was affichistes, forming an opposition to Ameri Lives in New York, NY, USA Art at Yale University, graduating in 1959, New York. In 1956 he met Ellsworth Kelly
Beaux-Arts (School of Fine Arts) and the II he served as a cartographer in the U.S. folk genre. In 1956 he participated in the forced to leave Rome during World War II can Abstract Expressionism and French art then worked as a textile designer in New (19232015), who helped him establish a
cole des Arts Industriels (School of Indus- Army, mostly stationed in Europe. After the Venice Biennale for the first time, and two in 1943, he committed himself to the anti- informel with their ready-made paintings. Cuban-born painter Carmen Herrera took York. In the early 1960s she mostly pro- studio in an abandoned warehouse at 31
trial Arts), both in Geneva. During the early war he worked as a teacher and received years later returned as an Iranian delegate fascist resistance movement. After the war In 1960 Hains co-founded the Nouveaux private drawing lessons as a child, and as duced drawings, which were first exhibited Coenties Slip. From 1960 onward Indiana
1920s he traveled in Italy and afterward some attention for his early artistic work. and an International Jury member. In 1958 he co-founded the Fronte Nuevo delle Arti Ralistes (New Realists) and participated in a teenager in the 1930s she was sent to in 1961, and had her first solo show, at the produced wall-hung assemblages and free-
moved to Paris, where from 1922 onward, From 1959 to 1964 he lived in Paris and he organized the first Tehran Biennial. With (New Arts Front). In the second half of the the groups first exhibition. Among his many Paris for further studies. After returning to Allan Stone Gallery, New York, in 1963. standing sculptures that he called herms.
he studied sculpture at the Acadmie de la later moved to New York. In 1959 his work his late 1950s mural series The Gates of 1940s Guttuso traveled to Paris and met international exhibitions, Hainss work was Havana around 1935 she studied archi- Hesse lived in Germany in 1964, working By 1961 he had begun his series focused
Grande Chaumire. He established his first was featured in the New Images of Man Auschwitz Gregorian became one of the Pablo Picasso (18811973), with whom he included in The Art of Assemblage (Museum tecture at the Universidad de La Habana for the textile manufacturer Friedrich Arn- on the illusory American dreamthe first of
studio in Paris in 1925 and showed an early exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art, first artists to commemorate the Holocaust. shared a lifelong friendship. of Modern Art, New York, 1961), the Venice (Univeristy of Havana) for about two years. hard Scheidt. During this time she traveled these paintings, The American Dream I, was
interest in the traditional arts of Africa and New York, among such artists as Willem Around the same time he initiated his ac- Biennale (1964) and Documenta, Kassel After marrying English teacher Jesse Loe- in Europe, experimented with materials, and acquired by the Museum of Modern Art. In
Oceania. In the 1930s Giacometti joined the de Kooning (19041997), Francis Bacon claimed Earthworks series, in which he (1968; 1997). wenthal in 1939, the couple moved to New began to work in relief and sculpture. Re- 1962 he had his first New York solo exhi-
Surrealist movement and created his Ob- (19091992), and Jackson Pollock (1912 created textured surfaces by fixing materi York, where she studied at the Art Students turning to New York, Hesse produced her bition at the Stable Gallery. He probably is
H
jects series, tactile sculptures charged with 1956). In response to the Vietnam-era als like sand, earth, and ashes to canvas. League. There she met fellow artists Wifredo first freestanding sculptures in synthetic most famous for incorporating stenciled let-
energy and symbolism. Giacomettis enduring peace movement, Golubs paintings were He lived in the United States from 1962 to Richard Hamilton Lam (19021982) and Barnett Newman materials. In 1968 she gained wider recog- tering in his work. Among his most famous
involvement with the human figure eventual- always engaged with themes of war, hu- 1970 before returning to Iran. In the 1970s Born 1922 in London, UK (19051970). In the late 1940s Herrera nition thanks to her show Chain Polymers works is LOVE (1966).
ly led to his dissociation from the Surrealists man brutality, and power. His large-scale he joined the Faculty of Fine Arts at Tehran Died 2011 in North End, UK relocated to Paris, where she participated at Fischbach Gallery in New York. The fol-
in 1935. He attained his mature style in the paintings depict human figures and their University and founded the Independent Hans Haacke four times in the annual Salon des ralits lowing year she was also included in the ex-
late 1940s, characterized by slim, elongated brutal actions in an expressionistic style. Artists Group. Gregorian established the Born 1936 in Cologne, Germany Richard Hamilton was a painter and collagist nouvelles at the Muse d'art moderne de la hibition Live in Your Head: When Attitudes
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figures, captured in seemingly banal upright He would scrape paint from the canvas to Arshile Gorky Gallery, New York, in 1980 and Lives and works in New York, NY, USA whose early works are considered the first ville de Paris. During those years Herrera Become Form at Kunsthalle Bern.
postures (standing, walking, sitting). In those create a rough, blistered surface. Golub is the Near East Museum of Yerevan in 1993. examples of Pop art. Hamilton first studied encountered many other artists and be-
sculptures he expressed his distinct perspec- also known for his portraits, based on pho- Hans Haacke is a conceptual artist whose at Saint Martins School of Art before World gan to simplify her compositions. First she
tive on spatial relations by isolating the fig- tographs of powerful public figures. In 2000 works often carry distinct political overtones. War II, and later at the Royal Academy and painted compositions of contrasting optical Maqbool Fida Husain
ures from the spectators space, by means of the Dublin Museum of Modern Art honored Philip Guston (born Phillip Goldstein) Haacke studied at the Public Works Aca the Slade School of Fine Art. In the early forms by arranging small, geometric forms Born 1915 in Pandharpur, India Jess (Burgess Franklin Collins)
pedestals or cages. Giacomettis works have him with a major retrospective. Born 1913 in Montreal, Canada demy (Staatliche Werkakademie), Kassel, 1950s he began exhibiting at Londons new in three or more bold colors. She then began Died 2011 in London, UK Born 1923 in Long Beach, CA, USA
been presented in countless exhibitions and Died 1980 in Woodstock, NY, USA from 1956 to 1960 and then worked at Institute of Contemporary Arts (ICA), where to explore the infinite possibilities of formal Died 2004 in San Francisco, CA, USA
he is one of the best-known sculptors of the Atelier 17 in Paris. In 1961 he earned a he also took part in the inaugural meeting simplicity. She also experimented with sym- One of the best-known Indian modernists,
twentieth century. His many honors include Karl Otto Gtz Philip Guston was an artist of the first-gener scholarship to attend the Tyler School of of the Independent Group. After seeing metry and asymmetry in sharp-edged chro- Maqbool Fida (M.F.) Husain drew from In his paintings and collages, which of-
the Grand Prize for Sculpture at the Venice Born 1914 in Aachen, Germany ation New York School whose later paintings Art, Temple University, in Philadelphia, and the proto-Pop art Bunk collage series matic planes and with shaped canvases and different Indian cultural sources to create ten incorporate images from mythology,
Biennale (1962) and the Guggenheim Inter- Lives and works in Niederbreitbach- led the transition to Neoexpressionism. He in 1963 he moved to New York. He has (194752) by Eduardo Paolozzi, Hamilton monochrome sculpture-paintings. In 1954 his narrative paintings. His inspirations in- fables, symbols, chemistry, or alchemy,
national Award for Painting (1964). Wolfenacker, Germany moved with his family from Montreal to Los spent most of his career teaching art at a began to produce promotional pieces for the Herrera finally settled in New York and con- clude Hindu and other religious figures, the Jess created absurd and complex picto-
Angeles at age six. Beginning in 1927 he number of American institutions, except Group; none more influential than Just what tinued painting. In 2016 the Whitney Muse- vibrant color and action of festivals, historical rial worlds. He took the name Jess after
Karl Otto (K.O.) Gtz studied at the Kunst- attended the Manual Arts High School, from 1963 to 1965 and other brief periods is it that makes todays homes so different, um of American Art in New York organized events, dance, and the daily lives of contem- separating from his family in the late 1940s.
Mathias Goeritz gewerbeschule (Arts and Crafts School), where he met his fellow student Jackson when he taught in Germany. For his public so appealing? (1956), a poster he designed her first retrospective. porary Indians. Husain studied calligraphy While studying chemistry at the California
Born 1915 in Danzig, Germany Aachen, from 1932 to 1933. Around that Pollock (19121956). In 1930 Guston projects he has applied investigative and for the exhibition This Is Tomorrow at the in Baroda, but was primarily self-taught. In Institute of Technology, he was drafted into
Died 1990 in Mexico City, Mexico time he created his first abstract paintings, attended the Otis Art Institute on a schol- demonstrative methods in order to uncov- Whitechapel Gallery (1956). This collage is 1935 he began painting billboard advertise- the U.S. Army in 1943 and was assigned to
along with Surrealist works. Despite his arship but left after three months. He was er financial and institutional interrelations widely considered as the beginning of the Lynn Hershman Leeson ments for Bollywood movies. Husain mount- the Army Corps of Engineers and worked
German-born architect, artist, and writer painting and exhibition ban from 1935 to already politically aware by age eight- and interferences within the art market. He Pop art movement. Born 1941 in Cleveland, OH, USA ed his first exhibition in 1947 at the Bombay at the Manhattan Project in Oak Ridge,
Mathias Goeritz studied drawing at the Ku 1945 imposed by the National Socialists, een, and when his mural depicting racial has also shown an interest in physics, for Hamiltons work was featured in major Lives and works in San Francisco, CA, Art Society. After the Partition of India and Tennessee, on the production of plutoni-
nstgewerbe- und Handwerkerschule (Arts his conscription in the German army from injustice for the Marxist-leaning John Reed example in his Condensation Cube (1963). exhibitions at the Tate Gallery, London and New York, NY, USA Pakistan later that year, Husain co-founded um for the atomic bomb, until 1946. After
and Crafts and Artisan School) Berlin-Char- 1936 to 1938, and the destruction of most Club in Los Angeles (1931) was defaced In 1971 his planned solo show at the Solo- (1970; 1992); Documenta, Kassel (1968); the Progressive Artists Group. In the early completing his degree in radiochemistry he
lottenberg while studying philosophy and art of his early works during the Dresden bomb- by police, the incident only escalated his mon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York the Solo m on R. Guggenheim Museum, Artist and filmmaker Lynn Hershman Leeson 1950s Husain traveled to Europe, where he began to study painting and to question his
history at the Friedrich-Wilhelms University ing of 1945, Gtz never stopped producing ideological bent. In the mid-1930s Guston was canceled by museum director Thomas New York (1973); and the Bienal de So studied at Case Western Reserve Uni- had a solo show in Zurich in 1952 and was involvement with nuclear energy. He en-
in Berlin (PhD, 1940). During World War II he art. During the 1930s and 40s he executed painted murals for the U.S. Works Progress Messer because several works in the ex- Paulo (1989). A major posthumous retro versity in Cleveland and at San Francisco deeply influenced by meeting Paul Klee rolled at the California School of Fine Arts
migrated to Spanish Morocco, where he lived splatter paintings and experimented with Administration, as well as in Mexico (The hibition raised critical questions about the spective was organized by the Tate Mod- State University, where she earned her (18791940) and other Cubist masters. Hu- (now San Francisco Art Institute) in 1949,
and taught from 1941 to 1944. After the war, collage and photography techniques like Struggle Against War and Terror, 1935). business and personal connections of the ern, London, in collaboration with the MFA degree. She works cross-media, often sains short film Through the Eyes of a Painter where he studied with Abstract Expressionist
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Clyfford Still (19041980) and figura- Jasper Johns Ellsworth Kelly Information Center, and soon expanded as a writer. Echoing the fractures of his and neon for his Estructuras lumnicasi temporary Art Zagreb acquired his studio
tive painter Elmer Bischoff (19161991), Born 1930 in Augusta, GA, USA Born 1923 in Newburgh, NY, USA his artistic practice beyond painting. In the collage, Kolr s poetry explores themes of series from 1946 onward and was the first collectionmore than 6,000 workswhich
among others, and had his first solo show Lives and works in Sharon, CT, USA, and Died 2015 in Spencertown, NY, USA 1960s Kim began to emphasize the mate- destruction. He published his first collec- to introduce water as key element in his he has reinstalled multiple times. In 2013,
at the Helvie Makela Gallery, San Francisco, Saint Martin riality of painting in a radical way. For his tion, Rodn list (Birth Certificate), in 1941. Hydrosculptures, which he began in 1948. Haus der Kunst mounted Freedom Is a Rare
in 1950. Throughout the 1950s he experi- Tadeusz Kantor Ellsworth Kelly studied art in Brooklyn, artistic deconstructions he often used He was a member of Group 42 during World During the later 1960s Kosices utopian Bird, Koaric s most comprehensive survey
mented with narrative and technique in still Rendering symbols of identity and every- Born 1915 in Wielopole Skrzy nskie, Boston, and Paris from 1941 to 1949, with burned plastics, vinyl, and metal bits along- War II. In 1945, he moved to Prague to work project Ciudad hidroespacial (Hydrospatial exhibition to date outside of Croatia.
lifes, portraits, and landscapes, some of day imagery (such as the American flag, Austria-Hungary an interruption because of military service side oil paint. He incorporated ready-made as an editor. That same year he joined and City) presented models for town-planning
which he likened to creation myths. During body parts, and sequences of letters and Died 1990 in Krakw, Poland during World War II from 1943 to 1945. objects in his painted canvases, created in- withdrew from the Communist Party. Kolr for space. He also created monumental
this period he also began making collages, numbers) with brushy strokes and collaged After completing his studies, he traveled stallation art, and staged performances. He was imprisoned by the Communist govern- sculptures, including Victoria (1988) for the Lee Krasner
which he called paste-ups; works from his elements, Jasper Johnss approach bridges Tadeusz Kantor is best known for his in France, where he met many noted ar played a leading part in several artist collec- ment in the 1950s, and his writings were Olympic Games in Seoul, Korea, and Monu- Born 1908 in Brooklyn, NY, USA
Translation series (begun in 1959) incor- the traditions of appropriation and Expres- achievements as a theater director and for tists such as the sculptor, painter, and poet tives (Painting 68, A.G. Group, The Fourth blacklisted in 1949 and during the 1960s. ment to Democracy (2000) in Buenos Aires. Died 1984 in New York, NY, USA
porated literary texts. sionist art. Johns studied at the University of his groundbreaking plays for Teatr Cricot 2, Jean Arp (18861966) and the sculptor, Group) and brought many firsts to the Ko- He first exhibited abroad in 1963, in Lon- He represented Argentina in the Venice
South Carolina in 1947 and 1948. He moved but he also worked as a stage director, pain painter, and photographer Constantin rean art world. He filmed Koreas first ex- don. Kolr won first prize at the 1969 Bie- Biennale (1964), exhibited his works in Lee (Leonore) Krasner, a noted Abstract Ex-
to New York City later that year, where in ter, set designer, actor, writer, art theoretician, Brncusi (18961957). Kelly had his first perimental movies, Munmyeong, Yeoja, Don nal de So Paulo, and had a retrospective nearly 200 shows; and was honored with pressionist painter, is among the few female
Jia Youfu 1949 he briefly attended Parsons School of and teacher at the Akademia Sztuk Pieknych solo show at the Galerie Arnaud Lefebvre, (Civilization, Woman, Money; 1969); and at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in numerous awards. artists to have received a retrospective at the
Born 1942 in Suning, Hebei province, Design. In 1952, Johns was drafted into the (Academy of Fine Arts) in Krakw. While Paris, in 1951; his first solo exhibition in 1/24 (Cho) ui Uimi (The Meaning of 1/24 New York in 1975. After signing the protest Museum of Modern Art, New York (1984).
China army and stationed in Sendai, Japan. Upon studying painting there from 1934 to 1939, New York was at the Betty Parsons Gallery Second; 1969), staged the nations first docu ment Charter 77, Kolr was banned She first studied at the Womens Art School
Lives and works in Beijing, China his return to New York in 1953, he became Kantor staged his first plays. During World in 1956. He is famous for his geometrical body painting performance, initiated the from the Czech Republic. He moved to Leon Kossoff of The Cooper Union, and then the National
acquainted with his future romantic partner War II he remained committed to theater abstract paintingsarrangements of care- first Korean mail art Maeseu Midieo ui Paris in 1980, returning to Prague after the Born 1926 in London, UK Academy of Design (192832). Beginning
In his paintings, Jia Youfu often combines Robert Rauschenberg (19252008), as and founded his own Teatr niepodlegosci fully composed rectangles of mostly in- Yumul (The Relics of Mass Media, 1969); Velvet Revolution of 1989. Lives and works in London, UK in 1934, during the Great Depression, she
the monumental landscape tradition of well as John Cage (19121992) and Merce (Theatre of Independence) in 1942. After tense colors. Kelly produced multi-panel and was responsible for Koreas first exam- worked for the Works Progress Administra-
the Northern Song period (9601127 AD) Cunningham (19192009). They embarked the war he co-founded the Group of Young paintings and monochrome canvases of ples of land art Chujeog e Hyeonsang Eseo Leon Kossoff, an Expressionist painter of tions Federal Art Project and later entered
with dramatic composition and light and on multidisciplinary collaborations that resis Artists, helped to mount the first exhibition of unusual shapes that intersect both painting (From Phenomenon to Traces; 1970). Geliy Korzhev the so-called School of London, is most Hans Hofmann School of Fine Arts in 1937.
dark contrast. In 1960, Jia Youfu began ted the prevalent tendencies of Abstract modern art at Krakws Art Palace in 1948, and sculpture. He also made freestanding Born 1925 in Moscow, USSR noted for portraits, life drawings, and city- While her early paintings reflected European
his studies at the Central Academy of Fine Expressionism. Considered a Neo-Dadaist, and began working as a stage designer at sculptures from the late 1950s onward. Died 2012 in Moscow, Russia scapes around London. Before serving in modernism, Krasner soon became involved
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Arts (CAFA, or Zhongy - Meish
ang Xuyu) Johns began re-creating imagery such as the Stary Teatr (Old Theatre) in Krakw. He was commissioned to create a number Julije Knifer Italy, Belgium, Holland, and Germany during with the American Abstract Expressionists. In
in Beijing. He later studied under the noted flags, maps and targets. He later worked Kantor became a leading figure in the of notable public artworks, and beginning Born 1924 in Osijek, Kingdom of Serbs, Geliy Korzhev was one of the leading propo- his military service from 1945 to 1948, he 1942 she participated in the exhibition Amer-
landscape painter Li Keran (19071989), at with stenciled numbers and letters, relocat- postwar modern art scene in Poland, seizing with his first retrospective in 1973, his Croats and Slovenes nents of the chiseled severe style of pain took commercial art and drawing classes. ican and French Painting at McMillen, Inc.,
the School of Chinese Painting, where he ing attention from the unique to the stand- Western artistic developments, including art work has been acknowledged in numerous Died 2004 in Paris, France ting, which emerged during a period of So- After the war, he studied at the St Martins in New York. She met fellow artist Jackson
learned the Western technique of contrast. ardized. Johns received his first gallery solo informel, conceptualism, and happenings. retrospective exhibitions. viet ideological reorientation following the School of Art and the Borough Polytechnic Pollock (19121956) there, and they married
As a student, Jia Youfu often traveled to show at New Yorks Leo Castelli Gallery in From 1948 onward he painted distorted Julije Knifer began his career with a se- death of Joseph Stalin in 1953. Between (1949 to 1953). His instructor was the in 1945. The two proved to be highly influen-
paint the Taihang Mountains in his home 1958, from which the Museum of Modern figures and forms in a post-Cubist style. In ries of sketched self-portraits in ink and 1939 and 1944 Korzhev studied at the painter David Bomberg (18901957) and tial for one anothers art. Her Little Images
province of Hebei, a site that remains a Art purchased four paintings, including 1955, after visiting Paris, he executed more Krishen Khanna mixed-media, making them into a kind of Moscow State Art School, continuing his a fellow student was the painter Frank Au- series (194650), in a controlled dripping
source of artistic inspiration. His monumen- Flag (195455) and Target with Four Faces abstract and improvisatory works. He later Born 1925 in Lyallpur, British India diary from 1949 to 1952, during his stu training at the Surikov Institute until 1950. erbach (b. 1931). Kossoff studied at the technique, resulted in thirty-one small-scale
tal ink paintings of the mountains combined (1955). Johns was awarded the Grand Prize began to create his emballagescomposi- Lives and works in Gurgaon, India dies at the Akademija likovnih umjetnosti His first exhibitions took place in 1954 at Royal College of Art until 1956 then joined abstractions reminiscent of calligraphy and
traditional Chinese landscape painting for Painting at the Venice Biennale in 1988 tions of discarded objects, such as umbrellas, (Academy of Fine Arts), Zagreb (195157). the beginning of the so-called Khrushchev Helen Lessores Beaux Arts Gallery in Lon- hieroglyphics. For her collages in the 1950s,
with contemporary innovations, both in his and showed at every Documenta between bags, and envelopes. Krishen Khanna was a largely self-taught While developing his own style, he experi Thaw. Korzhevs early work was dominated don, where his work was featured in six Krasner recycled earlier works, but after
brushstrokes and in his subjects. Jia Youfu 1964 and 1977. artist who attended Imperial Service College mented with abstraction, gradually aban- by history paintings, referencing both World exhibitions. A major solo show was held at Pollocks death in 1956 she began to cre-
graduated from CAFA in 1965. From 1967 in Windsor, England, from 1938 to 1942 doning recognizable imagery. Within two War II and the 1917 Russian Revolution. Al- the Whitechapel Gallery in 1972. Kossoffs ate large-scale abstractions using broad
to 1977, during the Cultural Revolution, he Marwan Kassab-Bachi and the Government College in Lahore years of completing his studies he defined though never an official Communist Party paintings are built of thick layers of paint ap- brushstrokes that required intensive physical
taught theater design at the Zhongy - -
ang Asger Jorn (born Asger Oluf Jrgensen) Born 1934 in Damascus, Syria from 1942 to 1944. He started his career the basic elements of his lifelong artistic member, Korzhev served as chairman of the plied with distinct and broad brushstrokes. gestures. She had her first solo show in 1955
Xj Xuyun (Central Academy of Drama) Born 1914 in Vejrum, Jutland, Denmark Lives in Berlin, Germany as a banker, relocating to Shimla after the approach. He radically reduced his formal Union of Soviet Artists Moscow branch. He His favorite subjects are the areas where he and had a retrospective at the Whitechapel
in Beijing, and in 1977 he began to teach Died 1973 in rhus, Denmark Partition of India and Pakistan in 1947. repertoire to the meander in ever-changing later distanced himself from political topics has lived as well as the people he sees on Gallery, London, in 1965.
traditional landscape painting at CAFA, Kassab-Bachi moved to Berlin in 1957, He eventually moved to Bombay, where he variations through the opposition of black and entered into dialogue with art-histori- the streets. He has often painted the book-
where he remains on the faculty. Asger Jorn, along with Guy Debord (1931 where he studied at the Hochschule associated with the members of the Pro- and white, horizontal and vertical. In 1959 cal themes. The Mutants series from the ing hall at Kilburn Underground. Along with
1994) and Michle Bernstein (b. 1932), was a fr Bildende Knste (College of Fine gressive Artists Group. He was invited to he co-founded the Gorgona Group, and 1980s, which depicted grotesque scenes his career as an artist, Kossoff held teach- Tetsumi Kudo
co-founder of the revolutionary avant-garde Arts) with Hann Trier (19151999). He join them in 1949. His first solo exhibition between 1961 and 1973 he participated in inhabited by men and monsters, combined ing positions at the Regent Street Polytech- Born 1935 in Osaka, Japan
Jikken Kobo Situationist International movement. Jorn began painting portraits while work- in 1955 was held at USIS, Chennai. Khanna four New Tendencies exhibitions at the Gal- references to Renaissance painting with nic, Chelsea School of Art, and St. Martins Died 1990 in Tokyo, Japan
Active 195158 in Tokyo, Japan first studied teaching at the Vinthers ing at a fur factory from 1962 to 1970. became internationally known for his Ex- lery of Contemporary Art, Zagreb. Knifer elements of contemporary Western and School of Art. In 1995 he represented
Seminarium, Silkeborg, before moving to In 1963 he began associating with fu- pressionist brushwork, exuberant lines and explored the meander in different genres, Soviet culture. Following the death of his Britain at the Venice Biennale. Eschewing formal categorization and exis
Jikken Kobo (Experimental Workshop), Paris in 1936 to study painting; first with ture Neue Wilden artists Georg Baselitz energetic colors within figurative paintings. including geometric abstraction, neo-Cons parents in 1986, Korzhevhimself an athe- ting artistic concepts, Tetsumi Kudo created
founded in Tokyo in 1951, was a multimedia Wassily Kandinsky (18661944) and later (b. 1938) and Eugen Schnebeck (b. 1936). His recurrent themes include biblical sub- tructivism, anti-art, and neo-avant-garde, istbegan work on a series of somber bibli- biomorphic sculptures and assemblages that
arts collective whose members included com- with Fernand Lger (18811955) at the Kassab-Bachi describes the 1970s as a jects, the portrayal of musicians, as well as but his work consistently focused on the cal scenes. Korzhevs work received official Ivan Koaric often incorporated grotesque renderings of
posers, visual artists, set and lighting design- Acadmie Contemporaine (Contempo- turning point in his art, when he had a vision the direct and symbolical depiction of Indias element of time. Although Knifer mostly state endorsement, and in 1972 he was Born 1921 in Petrinja, Yugoslavia the human body in combination with man-
-
ers, engineers, and musicians. By combining rary Art Academy). Jorn returned to Den- of a face that morphs into a landscape. He ordinary life and its important moments in exhibited in Croatia, Germany, Italy, and awarded the title of Peoples Artist of the Lives and works in Zagreb, Croatia made items. He first enrolled at the Ato no
various art forms, their goal, in the words of mark in 1937, studying at the Kongelige returned to the motif throughout his career. history. Khanna took part in the biennials France, his works are included in impor- Soviet Union. Asagaya kenkyujo - (Asagaya Institute of
their founder Shuzo Takiguchi (19031979), Danske Kunstakademi (Royal Danish Acad- Kassab-Bachis knowledge of Abstract of Tokyo (1957; 1961), So Paulo (1960), tant international collections, including the Ivan Koaric , is a leading conceptual artist Art) in 1953 and continued his studies at
was to achieve an organic combination that emy of Fine Arts), Copenhagen, before the Expressionism and tachisme can begin to Venice (1962), and Havana (1991). In 1962, Museum of Modern Art, New York, and the of his generation. He creates humorous the Toky- o- bijutsu kunitachidaigaku (To-
could not be realized within the conventions German occupation of Denmark in 1942, be seen in the same decade. His portraits Khanna became the first Indian artist to Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris. He repre Gyula Kosice work in a variety of media, from sculpture to kyo National University of Fine Arts) from
of a gallery exhibition, and to create a new after which he joined the citys Communist are archetypes, individual yet universal. receive a Rockefeller Grant. He traveled sented Croatia at the Venice Biennale in Born 1924 in Koice, Czechoslovakia textual propositions, often rearranging pre- 1954 to 1958. Praised by the French art
style of art with social relevance, closely resistance. The postwar period was Jorns Kassab-Bachi uses color judiciously to Japan that year, then spent the years of 2001, and a major retrospective was pre- Died 2016 in Buenos Aires, Argentina vious works or returning to earlier ideas. Af- critic Michel Tapi (10th Yomiuri Independ-
related to everyday life. Partly inspired by most productive. He was a co-founder of sometimes using only four or five hues 1963 and 1964 in the United States (Wash- sented at the Museum of Contemporary Art, ter completing his studies at the Akademija ent Exhibition, 1958) and labeled anti-art
the Bauhaus and the Surrealistsand con- the avant-garde CoBrA group in Paris in creating his faces through a fluid blending ington, D.C., and New York). He received Zagreb, in 2014. Gyula Kosice (Fernando Fallik) was in the likovnih umjetnosti (Academy of Fine Arts) junk by art critic Yoshiaki Tono (referring to
temporary to the creative experiments at 1948 and was a key figure in the Interna- of paint, emphasizing the paintings flat the Padma Shri in 1990. vanguard of kine tic and luminal art. His in Zagreb in 1947, Koaric focused on the Kudos Proliferating Chain Reaction, 1959),
Black Mountain College in North Carolina tional Movement for an Imaginist Bauhaus, surface. The flattened figures are situated family moved to Argentina when he was age human figure. Osjecaj cjeline (A Feeling of Kudos production performances and visual
Jikken Kobo created performances as com- a CoBrA offshoot. With the French lettrist within unidentifiable settings, isolating them Ji r Kolr four. Although he studied art at the Acade- Wholeness; 195354), marked a turn to the works regularly invited controversy. His
plex, multi-layered installations, with the art- Guy Debord, he helped form the Situation- and emphasizing the paintings surface. Kim Kulim Born 1914 in Protivn, Austro-Hungarian mias Libres (Free Schools), he considered abstract. In 1960, following a short stint in artistic involvement with such themes as ra-
ists participating in the creation of the entire ist International in 1957. Jorns work was Kassab-Bachi was a visiting professor in Born 1936 in Sangju, North Gyeongsang Empire himself mostly self-taught. He co-founded Paris, he joined Gorgona, a loosely orga diation, reproduction, and impotence already
mise-en-scne. Jikken Kobo also pioneered exhibited widely in the 1950s and 60s, in- painting from 1977 to 1979 at the Hoch- Province, Korea Died 2002 in Prague, Czech Republic the magazine Arturo (1944), took part in the nized group with such artists as Dimitrije defined his early works. When he moved to
experiments with new media, entering into cluding major exhibitions at the Kunsthalle schule fr Bildende Kunst (College of Fine Lives and works in Seoul, South Korea first Arte Concreto Invencin (Concrete Art Bai c evi c (Mangelos, 19211987) and Paris on a scholarship in 1963 he gained in-
creative partnerships with Sony, for exam- Basel; the Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam; Arts), where he was appointed full professor A self-taught artist, Jir Kolr began cre- Invention) exhibition (1945), and initiated Josip Vanita (b. 1924). Gorgonas acti stant recognition with his legendary perfor-
ple, and creating collaborative works that and the Louisiana Museum, Denmark. Most in 1980. He taught at the school until 2002. Kim Kulim, known as Koreas first avant- ating collages using text and images the avant-garde Mad movement in 1946, vities included ephemeral actions such as mance Philosophy of Impotence. Throughout
combined technologies, such as cassette famously, he refused the 1964 Guggen- He became the first Arab member of Ger- garde artist, has worked in film, light, per- collected from magazines at age twenty. writing the Mad manifesto and editing eight completing absurd questionnaires, taking his career he held exhibitions in Japan and
recorders and slide projectors, with tradi- heim Prize, responding to the announce- manys Akademie der Knste (Art Academy) formance, and land art, often stretching Collage expressed Kolr s feelings of a issues of its journal, Arte Mad Universal group walks, and creating an anti-maga- Europe, including the Venice Biennale (1976)
tional Japanese forms. Although they pre- ment with a scathing telegram that accused in 1994. the limits of a given medium. Primarily divided Europe before and during World (Universal Madi Art). In 1944 Kosice created zine of artist projects. During the 1960s, and the Bienal de So Paulo (1977). A major
date other groups, such as Gutai, the work of the museum of trying to promote itself by self-taught, he moved to New York after War II. After the war, it provided an outlet Ryi (Roy), his first abstract wood sculpture Koaric created sculptures of negative retrospective at the Walker Art Center, Min-
Jikken Kobo is only recently being celebrat- including an artist against his will. he dropped out of college and became for Kolr s critique of the Czech Republics with flexible joints, followed by other articu- volumes. For the Venice Biennale in 1976, neapolis (20089), introduced Kudos art to
ed outside of Japan, thanks to their inclusion involved with the Art Students League of Soviet-controlled Communist government. lated metal sculptures (Escultura articulada Koaric created Hrpa (Heaps), piling his pre- a wide American audience.
in important exhibitions at the Museum of New York, participating in a number of Kolr innovated new techniques within the [Articulated Sculpture], 1946; Metro, 1950), vious objects carelessly. For Documenta 11
Modern Art, New York (2012), and Tate group exhibitions. Back in Korea, he held medium, including confrontage, froissage, whose form could be manipulated by spec- in 2002, he exhibited the entire contents
Modern, London (2013). his first solo exhibition in 1958 at Daegu and rollage. Kolr is perhaps better known tators. He pioneered the use of Plexiglas of his studio. In 2007, the Museum of Con-
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Yayoi Kusama Daniel LaRue Johnson He emerged as a conceptual artist while his graduate exhibition in 1958 he showed Li Xiushi He received a scholarship to study at the Town, where he joined a group of Trotskyite both traditional geometric elements and
Born 1929 in Matsumoto, Nagano Born 1938 in Los Angeles, CA, USA experimenting in sculpture, painting (with Yeogsawa Sigan (History and Time), a plas- Born 1933 in Jinzhou, Liaoning, China Maryland Institute of Fine and Applied Arts artists. With the encouragement of artist totemic figuration, depicting spiritual and
Prefecture, Japan Lives and works in New York, NY, USA spray paint), video, and film. Latham was ter object wrapped in barbed wire and spat- Lives and works in Beijing, China in 1929, graduating in 1932. In 1936 he Gerard Sekoto, he completed his art stud- everyday narratives. In the late 1950s and
Lives and works in Tokyo, Japan concerned with his own philosophy of time tered with red and bluethe colors of both moved to New York, where he attended a ies at the University of Fort Hare. Mancoba early 1960s he created legendary illustra-
Daniel LaRue Johnson was already active and the critical examination of religious and communism and democracy. Other early Li Xiushi is a Chinese landscape painter workshop by the Mexican muralist David received a scholarship to study at the cole tions of the ancestral Djangkawu song cy-
Yayoi Kusama, known for her happenings in the Los Angeles art scene before he scientific systems of knowledge. In 1958 he works include Glass (1969), a type of inoc- who has managed to integrate oil painting, Alfaro Siqueiros (18961974). During the nationale suprieure des Arts Dcoratifs cle on bark and in carved objects adorned
and the use of dotted patterns, is one of studied at the Chouinard Art Institute in the began to make assemblages and sculptures ulation for a tree, and Jong-i Namu (Paper a traditionally Western medium, with tradi- Great Depression he worked in the Easel (National School of Decorative Arts) in Paris with feathers and ceremonial body designs.
the foremost contemporary artists of Japan. first half of the 1960s. Even as a student using books that had been torn, partially Tree; 1970), an installation of shredded pa- tional Chinese ink painting in the painterly Division of the Federal Art Project in 1938. There he met Danish artist Sonja Beyond his artistic success, Marika pas-
She first studied traditional nihonga painting he received noteworthy awards (Whitney burnt, painted over, or otherwise demolished. per hanging from branches. His works have mogu (boneless) style and contemporary (193940) then returned to Baltimore in Ferlov, whom he married in 1942. During the sionately advocated for indigenous rights.
in Japan, where she had her first solo show Fellowship, 1963) and had a solo exhibition Latham became famous for his seminal ac- addressed the human body, sexuality, and Chinese social realism. He first studied oil 1940. Although Louis first painted in a German occupation of France in World War He presided over the Rirratjingu during the
in 1952. After immigrating to the United at the Rolf Nelson Gallery in Los Angeles tion in 1966, when he produced the first of his political strife. Early in his career he showed -
painting at the Zhongy -
ang Meish
Xuyu figurative, social realist style, after World II, Mancoba was sent to an internment camp establishment of a Methodist mission in
States in 1957, she worked as an avant-gar- (1964). Johnsons art changed in response so-called skoob works (books spelled back- in the 1969 Paris Biennale and the 1970 (Central Academy of Fine Art [CAFA]) in War II he began to move toward ab- in St. Denis in 1940. The couple moved to Yirrkala in 1935 and was an informant to an-
de painter and sculptor. Her large-scale to the violence of the civil rights movement, ward). While teaching at St Martins School of Bienal de So Paulo. Beijing, under the tutelage of the famous straction. In 1948, he began to work Denmark in 1947 and became involved with thropologists Catherine and Roland Berndt.
Net painting series presented a system and he began to create confrontational as- Art, he invited his students to a quasi-ritual- social realist painter Dong Xiwen (1914 with Magna, an acrylic resin paint that the artist collective CoBrA (194851), of In 1963 Marika was instrumental in sending
of small, thickly painted loops covering the semblages, such as Freedom Now, Number istic ceremony in which they chewed and spit 1973). Lis painting Cross the Yangtze River he used for the rest of his life. In 1952, which Mancoba was a founding member. a petition on bark to the Australian House
entire surface in rhythmic undulations. Her 1 (1963). He often combined found objects, out pages of art critic Clement Greenbergs Lee Ufan (1959), which he completed while still a Louis moved to Washington, D.C., where The avant-garde group, which inclu ded of Representatives protesting the mining
Accumulation sculptures of that time are such as fragments of broken dolls, hack- book Art and Culture. Equating destruction Born 1936 in Haman County, Korea CAFA student, achieved critical acclaim, he befriended the artist Kenneth Noland Karel Appel (19212006) and Asger Jorn of Yolngu land.
monochrome everyday objects (e.g., furni- saws, and mousetraps, which he arranged in and creation, he then decanted the vestiges Lives and works in Kamakura, Japan both in China and internationally. Li has (19242010). In 1953 Louis had his first (19141973), embraced Marxism and
ture, boats) covered with soft, phallic forms wooden boxes and then painted (or tarred) of the book into a vial and returned it to the and Paris, France held positions in many national art institu- solo show and visited the New York studio tachism. Mancoba abandoned sculpture in
of different sizes. Yayoi Kusama covered the entirely black. In 1965 he received a Gug- schools library. Latham and his wife, Barbara tions of China, including founder and vice of Helen Frankenthaler (19282011). He the 1950s and turned to painting, creat- Maruki Iri & Maruki Toshi
surfaces of her paintings, sculptures, and genheim fellowship, enabling him to study Stevini, founded the Artist Placement Group Lee Ufan is a multimedia artist who emerged president of the Chinese Research Insti- was deeply impressed by her soak-stain ing loose, abstract forms related to West Born 1901 in Hiroshima, Japan / Born
even entire rooms with sprawling, brightly in Paris with sculptor Alberto Giacometti in 1966. as the leader of the Mono-ha (School of tute of Fine Arts (1988) and director of the technique, and his own experiments with African Kota reliquary figures. After CoBrA 1912 in Hokkaido, Japan
colored patterns (her signature feature being (19011966). After returning to the United Things) movement. He is also consider ed China Oil Painting Society. He has also paint application resulted in three series stopped exhibiting, Mancoba and his fam- Died 1995 in Tokyo, Japan / Died 2000 in
the dot pattern) and often positioned herself States (New York City) in 1966, Johnson a key figure in the so-called Korean mono worked with the Heilongjiang Artists As- of colorful, large-scale paintings: Veils, ily resettled in Paris; he became a French Tokyo, Japan
in the center of them, wearing similarly pat- abandoned his black boxes and instead Jacob Lawrence chrome painting movement. He initially inter- sociation. Li has been featured in Fine Arts, Unfurled, and Stripes. Louis destroyed citizen in 1961.
terned clothes to blend in with the art. From began painting hard-edge abstractions with Born 1917 in Atlantic City, NJ, USA rupted his studies at the Seoul Daehaggyo a CAFA publication, and his work has been most of his Abstract Expressionist paintings Maruki Iri and Maruki Toshi, who married
the late 1960s onward she staged a variety vibrant colors, glossy surfaces, and precise- Died 2000 in Seattle, WA, USA (Seoul National University) in 1956 to study included in the National Fine Arts Exhibition, from 1955 to 1957. in 1941, were professional artists with
of provocative happenings (body-painting ly painted contours. Johnson has also made philosophy at Nihon daigaku (Nihon Univer- organized by the China Artists Association, Piero Manzoni different backgrounds. While Maruki Iri
events, antiwar demonstrations) and fur- a number of large-scale commemorative Jacob Lawrence is known for his vivid sity) in Tokyo, Japan, graduating in 1961. since 1962. In 1981, Li curated an exhibi- Born 1933 in Soncino, Italy studied traditional nihonga painting (ink
ther expanded her repertoire to include film sculptures, in abstract, Minimalist forms. scenes of everyday life among blacks. His most representative works are series of tion of contemporary Chinese painters from Toms Maldonado Died 1963 in Milan, Italy painting), Maruki Toshi studied Western
and fashion design. After Yayoi Kusama His work has been exhibited at the Whitney When he was thirteen his family moved to Minimalist abstractions produced by mak- CAFA, Tsinghua University, and Beijing Fine Born 1922 in Buenos Aires, Argentina art at the Joshibijutsudaigaku no joshi-k o-
returned to Japan in 1973, she began to Museum of American Art, the Solomon R. Harlem, where he attended an after-school ing repetitive gestural marks on the canvas. Art Academy. Lives and works in Milan, Italy Piero Manzoni, a largely self-taught artist, (Joshibi Universitys Womens School of
write novels and poems. Late in the 1980s Guggenheim Museum, and the Museum of art program. He quit school at age sixteen, His Relatum sculpture series combines made his earliest paintings at age seven Art and Design). He preferred large-scale
her work gained international recognition. In Modern Art, all in New York. but continued his interest in art. He frequently large stones with industrial materials, such Artist, industrial designer, and semiologist teen. By the time he first exhibited his paintings, while she favored drawing and
1993 she represented Japan at the Venice visited the Metropolitan Museum of Art, took as glass and iron or steel plates. In addition Roy Lichtenstein Toms Maldonado attended the Academia workin a group show in his hometown illustrations. In 1948 the couple began
Biennale. classes at the Harlem Art Workshop and to his artworks, he has produced a remark- Born 1923 in New York, NY, USA Nacional de Bellas Artes (National Academy in 1956he had already begun to experi their lifelong artistic collaboration on the
Maria Lassnig the Harlem Community Art Center, and later able amount of critical and philosophical Died 1997 in New York, NY, USA of Fine Arts) in Buenos Aires. In 1944 he ment with anthropomorphic silhouettes, subject of war and human tragedies, such
Born 1919 in Kappel am Krappfeld studied at the American Artists School. writing, including The Search for Encounter co-founded the Asociacin Arte Concreto- multiple imprints of everyday objects, and as the atomic bombing of Hiroshima in
L (Carinthia), Austria Lawrence was inspired by the Harlem com- (1971) and The Art of Encounter (2004). Lee Roy (Fox) Lichtenstein was one of the first Invencin. The groups Manifesto Inven- the use of tar instead of paint. In 1957 he 1945. Maruki Iri, who was from Hiroshima
Died 2014 in Vienna, Austria munity and made its people and life his sub- Ufans first solo show was held in 1967 at and most widely recognized Pop artists. He cionista (1946), co-written by Maldonado, took part in the exhibition Movimento Arte and lost family members in the bombing,
ject matter. He composed his pictures of the Sato Gallery in Tokyo, and his work was studied at the Art Students League of New elaborates his theory supporting ration- Nucleare (Nuclear Art Movement) in Milan. arrived on the site only three days after the
Maria Lassnig was the first woman to win plain, often monochrome shapes painted first shown in Europe at the Paris Biennale York in 1940. His college career was inter- ality and objectivity over expressionism. Inspired by a series of monochrome blue bombing. His wife followed a few days later.
Wifredo Lam the Grand Austrian State Prize in 1988. in bold colors. He first received recognition (1971), where he represented Korea. rupted by military service during World War Maldonados early paintings were charac- works by the new realist artist Yves Klein The urge to respond artistically to what they
Born 1902 in Sagua La Grande, Cuba She began to study art at the Akademie for his paintings with a solo exhibition in II, but he returned to Ohio State University terized by geometric abstraction that played (19281962), Manzoni created his first had seen emerged from their inability to
Died 1982 in Paris, France der Schnen Knste (Academy of Fine 1938 at the Harlem YMCA. Early in the in 1945 to complete his BFA and earn a with visual perception. On the invitation Achromes (1957)colorless canvases forget the haunting memories, and during
Arts) in Vienna in 1941, first under Wilhelm 1940s he created his famous sixty-panel Norman Lewis masters degree (1949). He later held of Swiss Concrete artist Max Bill, in 1954 with dimensional layers of gesso, clay, or the next thirty years they created fifteen
Through his work, Wifredo Lam sought to Dachauer (18811951), who allegedly de- series, The Migration of the Negro (now Born 1909 in New York, NY, USA teaching positions there and at other col- Maldonado accepted a teaching position kaolin. For later Achromes works he used large folding-screen panels with complex
revive the Afro-Cuban culture. Lams father clared her art degenerate, then studied the Migration series). In 1946 he received Died 1979 in New York, NY, USA leges. After his graduation he began to at the Hochschule fr Gestaltung (College cotton wadding, fiberglass, plush, and even and densely layered images. The Marukis
was Chinese and his mother was Cuban of under Ferdinand Andri (18711956) and a Guggenheim fellowship, enabling him work in series and to adopt iconographies of Design) in Ulm, Germany, where he re- bread rolls. In 1958 he began his collabo- also produced collaborative works on other
African descent. After briefly studying law, Herbert Boeckl (18941966). Late in the to accomplish his War series, based on Norman (Wilfred) Lewis developed his own from printed images, and he had his first mained until 1967, eventually becoming its ration with Enrico Castellani and Agostino atrocities of war, such as the Auschwitz
he began to study painting at the Escue- 1950s, Lassnig described her primarily ar- the experiences of his tour of duty during style within the Abstract Expressionist solo show at the Carlebach Gallery, New director. Maldonado moved the legendary Bonalumi, co-founding an art gallery, concentration camp and the Nanking mas-
la de Bellas Artes (School of Fine Arts) in tistic concern as body awareness. Freed World War II, and took a teaching position at movement. After studying commercial de- York, in 1951. In 1960 he began to incorpo- institution away from its Bauhaus princi- Azimuth. From the late 1950s onward, sacre. Since the 1950s, their Hiroshima
1918, and in 1923 he traveled to Madrid, from the constraints of realistic rendering, Black Mountain College in North Carolina. sign in high school he spent several years rate themes and images from mass media ples, pioneering a streamlined approach for Manzonis art became more conceptual. Panels have been exhibited worldwide
Spain, to study under Fernando lvarez de she considered her inner sensations and Lawrence received numerous awards, in- as a seaman in South America and the Car- and developed a unique style by mimicking mass-production design that is echoed in In works like Artists Breath, Artists Shit, and both artists have received honors and
Sotomayor y Zaragoza (18751960), who needs of her body as the most urgent re- cluding the National Medal of Arts and held ibbean. He began his painting career as a a basic newspaper reproduction process todays technological products. Maldonado Sculpture Eggs, Magic Bases, and Living prizes, including a nomination for the Nobel
also taught Salvador Dal (19041989). ality, which she depicted through paintings more than two dozen honorary degrees. social realist in the 1930s, when he stud- (using Ben-Day dots), thus blending me- moved to Italy in 1967, where he achieved Sculptures (all from 196061), he explored Peace Prize in 1995 for their commitment
In 1936 he revolutionized his practice af- of deformed bodies in meaningful colors. His work is included in collections all ied at Columbia University, trained in the chanical reproduction and hand drawing renown for his collaborations with Ettore the ironic and critical role of the artist and to nuclear disarmament and world peace.
ter seeing an exhibition of work by Pablo After living in Paris from 1961 to 1968, over the world. studio of Augusta Savage (18921962), techniques. He was part of the first group of Sottsass for Olivetti and for his corporate questioned the dynamics of the art market
Picasso (18811973). He moved to Paris Lassnig moved to New York. She attend- and joined the Harlem 306 Group. He Pop artists, owing to a much-noticed exhi- design work for the Gruppo Rinascente. His and its object-bound mechanisms.
in 1938, where Picasso encouraged Lam ed an animated film course at the School emerged as a politically conscious artist, bition at the Leo Castelli Gallery, New York, landmark text, written in 1970, La speranza Almir Mavignier
to seek his own modernism, and the two of Visual Arts, which led to several noted Lee Seung-taek worked for the Works Progress Adminis- in 1962. His first retrospectives, in the late progettuale, was translated into English in Born 1925 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
exhibited their work at the Perls Galleries, films, including Selbstportrait (Self-portrait; Born 1932 in Kowon, Korea tration, and became deeply involved in the 1960s, were held at the Pasadena Art Mu- 1972 as Design, Nature, and Revolution: Mawalan Marika Lives and works in Hamburg, Germany
New York, in 1939. Lams graphic works 1971). In 1980 she was appointed pro- Lives and works in Seoul, South Korea Harlem art community. In the 1940s Lewis seum; the Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam; Toward a Critical Ecology. Maldonado urged Born c. 1908 in Yirrkala, Northeast Arn-
illustrated many poems, including Andr fessor at the Hochschule fr Angewandte created gestural, jazz-inspired works with and the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, designers to think about the problems hem Land, Northern Territory, Australia Brazilian artist Almir da Silva Mavignier
Bretons Fata Morgana (1940). In 1941, af- Kunst (Academy of Applied Arts), Vienna, A noted artist in sculpture and installation atmospheric effects in a bright, expressive New York. Lichtensteins body of work in- of environmental destruction and social Died 1967 in Yirrkala, Australia has pursued geometric abstraction, Op
ter being imprisoned in France by the Nazis, and later established an animated film as well as environmental and performance palette, with calligraphic lines arranged in cludes more than 5,000 paintings, prints, transformation in their work. He is emeritus art, and graphic design. After studying with
Lam returned to Cuba, where his work was studio in her master class. Lassnig repre- art, Lee Seung-taek fled to South Korea dynamic, swarm-like formations. He had a drawings, sculptures, and murals. professor of environmental design at the Mawalan Marika was the senior ceremonial the Hungarian-born painter rpd Szens
reinvigorated by his African heritage. After sented Austria at the Venice Biennale in during the Korean War (195053). He be- series of solo shows at the Willard Gallery Polytechnic University of Milan. leader of the Rirratjingu clan in Northeast (18971985) in 1946, Mavignier created
World War II, Lam traveled abroad, associ- 1980 and took part in Documenta, Kassel gan drawing portraits of American soldiers in New York beginning in 1949 and was Arnhem Land and an important indige- his first abstract paintings in 1949. After
ating with the Italian avant-garde and the (1982). At the Venice Biennale in 2013 she at this time and continued after the conflict. included in the exhibition Abstract Painting nous Australian artist of the Yolngu people. his work was featured in a solo exhibition
M
CoBrA group. In 1964, Lam received the received the Golden Lion award for lifetime In the mid-1950s, he began working with and Sculpture in America at the Museum of Ernest Mancoba The head of a veritable artistic dynasty, he at the Museum of Modern Art, So Paulo,
Guggenheim International Award. His work achievement in the arts. nonmaterial substances such as smoke, Modern Art, New York, in 1951. In response Born 1904 in Johannesburg, South Africa transgressed traditional gender divisions in 1951, he devoted himself to Concrete
has been widely exhibited, including at the wind, and fire after seeing a spindly figura- to the civil rights movement he co-found- Died 2002 in Paris, France by teaching his daughters as well as his art. From 1953 to 1958 Mavignier studied
Centre Georges Pompidou in 2015. tive sculpture by Alberto Giacometti (1901 ed the SPIRAL artist group in 1963 and sons how to paint. Many of his family mem- at the Hochschule fr Gestaltung (College
John Latham 1966) and a Saudi Arabian oil-burning fur- helped establish New Yorks Cinque Gallery Morris Louis Ernest (Methuen) Mancoba was one of bersincluding his brother Mathaman, of Design) in Ulm, Germany, with Josef
Born 1921 in Livingstone, Northern Rhodesia nace on television. Lee Seung-taek received for minority artists in 1969. Lewis received Born 1912 in Baltimore, MD, USA the first successful black modern artists son Wandjuk, and daughters Banduk and Albers, Max Bense, and Max Bill. In 1954 he
Died 2006 in London, UK an art degree from Hongik University, a Guggenheim fellowship in 1975 and had Died 1962 in Washington, DC, USA in South Africa. He began woodcarving Dhuwarrwarrare well-known artists. He created his breakthrough color-point grid
Seoul, in 1959. As a student he created his a major retrospective at the Pennsylvania in 1925 while studying at Grace Dieu, an considered art an important tool in dissemi- series that causes optical vibrations. While
The British conceptual artist John Latham first works with Godret stones, traditionally Academy of the Fine Arts in 2015. Morris Louis was one of the foremost Anglican teachers college, and produced nating Yolngu culture and helped to pioneer living in Paris in 1958, Mavignier joined the
studied at the Chelsea School of Art in used for tying off strands of weaving, sus- proponents of Color Field abstraction, a a moder nist relief, African Madonna, in the marketing of cross-hatched bark pain radical ZERO group, whose artists rejected
London during the second half of the 1940s. pended on cords from a horizontal bar. For style more focused on color than gesture. 1929. In 1935 Mancoba moved to Cape ting in the 1950s. His compositions include color and expression for ephemeral events
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and nontraditional materials. In 1961 he Exploding Galaxy collaborative (1967), and Evgeny Mikhnov-Voitenko Joan Mitchell in Paris, a group of Op art and kinetic artists (Nishinomiya Art School). After a short Institute (known as the Villa Massimo), and ignoring the rising abstract movement of
co-organized Nove Tendencije (New Ten- Artists for Democracy (197477). Medalla Born 1932 in Kherson, UDSSR Born 1925 in Chicago, IL, USA who created works with light, motors, and figurative phase (adopting the croquis draw- in 1937, through a grant given by Edvard the postwar era. With her move to the Up-
dencies), the first Yugoslavian exhibition has taught in Europe and the United States Died 1988 in Leningrad, UDSSR Died 1992 in Paris, France sculptural materials and encouraged visitor ing technique and elements of Fauvism), Munch (18631944), he studied in Norway. per West Side in the 1960s, she made her
devoted to post-informel art, with the art his work has been included in many im- participation. Though Morellet was mostly he turned to abstraction in 1953. At the That same year, Nays paintings were way back into the current artistic circles and
historian Marko Mestrovich and Bozo Bek, portant exhibitions, including Documenta Evgeny Mikhnov is a painter, graphic art- Joan Mitchell is known for her Abstract Ex- self-taught, he took some painting lessons invitation of Yoshihara Jiro- (19051972), included in the infamous Nazi-organized portrayed important artists, curators, and
director of the Museum of Contemporary (1972), Kassel. ist, and theater designer. He first moved pressionist paintings in intense composi- from a professional artist. From 1948 to Sadamasa Motonaga became a member exhibition Entartete Kunst (Degenerate Art) gallery owners, such as the poet and wri
Art, Zagreb. Mavigniers work was included to Leningrad with his mother in 1939. tions of distinct brushstrokes and bold colors 1975 he led his fathers toy car factory, of the Gutai Art Association. From 1955 in Germany. His ability to paint and exhibit ter Frank OHara (19261966), Pop artist
in the Venice Biennale (1964), Documenta From 1941 to 1944 he was an evacuee in on pale backgrounds. She attended Smith which allowed him the financial indepen to 1971 he created experimental and site- was severely curtailed at that time. Nay Andy Warhol (19281997), and land artist
(1964; 1968), and the kinetic and Op Mohammed Melehi Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan, and from 1944 College in Northampton, Massachusetts dence to work as an artist, in both Cholet specific works (installations) using natural was conscripted in 1940 and went with the Robert Smithson (19381973). In 1974
art exhibition The Responsive Eye at the Born 1936 in Asilah, Morocco to 1946 in Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine. He (194244) and the School of the Art Insti- and Paris. In 1950 Morellet turned to abs and industrial materials. His Work (Water) German infantry to France, where he paint- she was honored with a major retrospec-
Museum of Modern Art, New York (1965). Lives and works in Marrakesh and Tangier, returned to Leningrad in 1946, but was tute of Chicago, earning BFA (1947) and traction and had his first solo show at the (1956) for the second Gutai outdoor ex- ed in secret in a French artists studio. From tive at the Whitney Museum of American
He taught at the Hochschule fr Bildende Morocco sent to an artillery academy in 1947. He MFA (1950) degrees. She lived briefly in Galrie Creuze in Paris. His paintings, which hibition is considered a seminal work with 1945 to 1948 Nays work explored myth Art in New York.
Knste (College of Fine Arts) in Hamburg attended night school while working as an New York, but in 1948 moved to Paris on a depict infinite structures of geometric or its innovative concept of combining stable and poetry, grappling with the trauma of
from 1965 to 1990. Mohammed Melehi is a significant figure apprentice at the Sverdlov Factory in 1949. fellowship and traveled to Spain and Czech- stylized elements, reflect his application of materials (plastic) with ephemeral, fluid World War II. In 1950, Kestner-Gesellschaft
in Moroccan modernism. From 1953 to In 1951 he studied in the Scandinavian oslovakia. During this time Mitchell mainly predefined rules that were also determined elements (water, color, and light). After living Hannover organized Nays first retrospec- Albert Newall
1955, he studied at the cole des Beaux- department of the First Leningrad Peda- painted Expressionist landscapes, evolving by chance. In 1963 he began to use neon in New York from 1966 to 1967, he began tive. Nay work became completely non-rep- Born 1920 in Manchester, UK
John McHale Arts (School of Fine Arts) in Ttouan, Mo- gogical Institute of Foreign Languages, toward abstraction. She returned to New tubes that rhythmically switch on and off, to use airbrush and acrylic paint, changing resentational after he moved to Cologne Died 1989 in Cape Town, South Africa
Born 1922 in Glasgow, UK rocco. Melehi subsequently spent six years and transferred to the Theater Institute in York in 1949 and quickly became part of which became his favored material for ob- his visual language to hard-edge yet round in 1951. His work was shown in the Venice
Died 1978 in Houston, TX, USA studying in Seville, Madrid, Rome, and Paris. 1954. There he studied under the theater the downtown avant-garde art scene, as- jects and installations. Morellet took part shapes of bright, saturated colors. Motonaga Biennale (1956) and Documenta, Kassel Albert Newall was a British-born painter and
He received a Rockefeller Foundation director and designer Nikolai Akimov sociating with such prominent New York in Documenta, Kassel (1964; 1968; 1977), received many important prizes, including (1955; 1959; 1964). photographer who settled in South Africa in
John McHale co-founded the Independ- scholarship to study at Columbia Uni- (19011969), who introduced him to Euro- School artists as Franz Kline (19101962) and in the Venice Biennale (1970), and in the Japanese Art Grand Prix in 1983. 1947. He worked as an aerial photographer
ent Group, a British Pop art movement versity in New York from 1962 to 1964. pean modernism. Mikhnov became one of and Willem de Kooning (19041997). In 1970 he contributed to the French pavilion before and during World War II, and later
that grew out of a shared fascination with Melehi has used the motif of the wave the first abstract artists in Russia. He was 1951 she became one of the few female at Expo 70 in Osaka, Japan. Morellets first Iba NDiaye commented that his work as an artist was in-
N
American mass culture and postwar tech- in his painting since the 1960s in vari- influenced by the Arefiev Circle (the first members of the Eighth Street Club and retrospective was held in 1977 at the Na- Born 1928 in Saint-Louis, spired by that mode of viewing the world, as
nologies, in 1952. He had worked as a tech- ous ways, typically with a bold color pal nonconformist group in Leningrad) and was included in the groundbreaking Ninth tional Gallery in Berlin; his last was in 2011 French West Africa well as by his cave explorations. After early
nician and volunteered for military service ette and hard-edge lines. On his return Abstract Expressionism, especially the art Street Show. The next year Mitchell had at the Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris. Died 2008 in Paris, France painting experiments with Cubist and Surre-
in the Royal Marines during World War II, to Morocco, Melehi became a professor of Jackson Pollock (19121956). A prolific her first New York solo show and met the alist styles, he turned to hard-edge abstrac-
but his relatively brief artistic career began of painting, sculpture, and photography abstract artist, Mikhnov experimented with poet Frank OHara (19261966), whose Movimento Nucleare (Enrico Baj, Iba NDiaye has been called the father of tion in the late 1950s. Newall was included
after the war. Though his first works were at the cole des Beaux-Arts (School of Fine a variety of techniques but also invented a poems (among others) inspired her work. Robert Morris Sergio Dangelo, and Joe C. Colombo) Senegalese modern art. As a young artist in the exhibition South African Non-figurative
based on the Constructivist style, he later Arts) of Casablanca. At this time Melehi new style of painting with his Tube series From 1955 onward, she lived alternately Born 1931 in Kansas City, MO, USA Active 1950c. 1960 in Milan, Italy working for the cinema in his home town, Art at the Bienal de So Paulo in 1959. His
transitioned to Pop art and proto-Op art, co-founded the Casablanca Group, who be- (195659). In 1959 Mikhnov accepted a job in New York and France until she settled Lives and works New York, NY, USA NDiaye developed a style that would in- photographs, like his paintings, reflect his in-
establishing his first London studio early lieved in exploring the tenets of modernism at the Zhivopis i dizayn kombinata (Painting in Vtheuil, a village in the northwestern The atomic bombings of Japan during World fluence his lifes work. He first trained as terests in geometry, patterning, and shadow,
in the 1950s. In 1954 McHale co-curat- through local Moroccan visual language and and Design Combine), the state organiza- suburbs of Paris, in 1968. One of her asso- Robert Morris is a central figure of Minimal- War II by the United States and the subse- an architect in Senegal, then in France: at recalling the compositional strategies of the
ed the exhibition Collages and Objects at traditions. Melehi was involved with the lef tion of freelance designers. He represented ciates in France was the artist Cy Twombly ism, process art, and performance. Prior to quent Cold War nuclear arms race between the cole des Beaux-Arts (School of Fine so-called New Objectivity photographers of
Londons Institute of Contemporary Arts tist journal Souffles from 1966 to 1969 and Russia in the 1977 Venice Biennale. (19282011). moving to New York in 1960, where he re- the US and the USSR strongly influenced Arts), Montpellier; the cole des Beaux- the early twentieth century. Newalls work
(which he also co-founded), displaying col- was founding director of the cultural publi- ceived an art, history degree from Hunter the development of the Movimento Nucleare Arts (School of Fine Arts), Paris (Atel- left a legacy to the people of South Africa:
lages from his Transistor series along with cation Intgral from 1972 to 1977. He orga College in 1966, Morris studied engineer- (Nuclear Movement). The movement began in ier Pingusson); and the Acadmie de la The photography collection at Iziko Muse-
his interactive gaming collage, Why I Took nized the first Moroccan open-air exhibition Marta Minujn Henry Moore ing, art and philosophy in Kansas City, San Milan in 1950 when Italian artists Enrico Baj Grande Chaumire (194958). NDiaye ums of South Africa, Cape Town, was es-
to the Washers in Luxury Flats (1954). In in 1969 in Marrakesh. In 1978 he founded Born 1943 in Buenos Aires, Argentina Born 1898 in Castleford, UK Francisco, and Portland. He was drafted into (19242003) and Sergio Dangelo (b. 1932) returned to Senegal when his country won tablished in 1965, based on the gift of 135
1955 he received a fellowship to study color an annual arts festival in his hometown, Lives and works in Buenos Aires, Died 1986 in Much Hadham, UK the U.S. Army from 1951 to 1952. Although curated an exhibition at Galleria San Fedele independence in 1959. There, at the re- prints by Newall from the Cape Tercentenary
theory and industrial design under Josef Asilah. Melehi was the arts director at the Argentina he first practiced painting, Morriss then- titled Pittura nucleare (Nuclear Painting). Baj quest of President Lopold Sdar Senghor Foundation. Since Newalls death, his work
Albers (18881976) at Yale University. He Ministry of Culture from 1985 to 1992 The British sculptor Henry Moore ex- wife, Simone Forti (b. 1935), introduced him began to use the mushroom cloud in his works (19062001), he founded the Departement has been shown in three historical surveys
returned to England with collected ephem- and Cultural Consultant to the Ministry of Marta Minujn is an acclaimed pioneer of pressed an interest in sculpture at an early to dance and performance in California in of the 1950s, while Dangelo had been influ- des Arts Plastiques (Department of Plastic of South African abstract painting mounted
era of American popular culture, especially Foreign Affairs and Cooperation from 1999 happenings, performance art, soft sculp- age. After serving in the army in World War the 1950s. Morriss subsequent work consi enced by the free-ranging artistic expression Arts) at the cole Nationale des Beaux-Arts at Stellenbosch Modern and Contemporary
colorful magazines, which he used as raw to 2002. ture, and media arts. She initially studied at I (19171919), he studied at the Leeds dered sculpture in the context of space and and folkloric elements of the CoBrA group. de Dakar (National School of Fine Arts of (SMAC) Gallery, located in Stellenbosch and
material for his art from 1956 to 1958. the Instituto Universitario Nacional del Arte School of Art. In 1925 he toured France and time. Morris and Forti collaborated with the Joe Colombo (19301971), an Abstract Ex- Dakar), heading this department until 1967. Cape Town.
After he moved to America early in the (now Universidad Nacional de las Artes, or Italy on a scholarship. He then taught at the postmodern Judson Dance Theater in the pressionistinfluenced artist later known NDiaye participated in many exhibitions,
1960s, he earned a PhD in sociology and Gustav Metzger National University of the Arts) until 1960. Royal College of Art, London, until 1932, early 1960s. In 1963 Morris mounted his as an industrial designer, joined the group in including the Salon dAutomne (Autumn
published extensively on the impact of tech- Born 1926 in Nuremberg, Germany She then received a scholarship to travel to when he became head of the sculpture de- first solo exhibition of Minimalist sculpture 1951. Manifesto tecnico della Pittura nucle- Salon), Paris (1962); the Bienal de So Barnett Newman
nology and mass communications. Lives and works in London, UK Paris, where her work was featured in the partment at the Chelsea School of Art (until reviewed by Donald Judd (19281994) are (Technical Manifesto), published in 1952 Paulo (1963, where he won the bronze Born 1905 in New York, NY, USA
exhibition Pablo Curatella Manes y 30 artis- 1939). Moores first one-man show was at at New Yorks Green Gallery. The following to accompany an exhibition in Brussels, con- medal); and the seminal exhibition Con- Died 1970 in New York, NY, USA
The son of Jewish-Polish parents, Gustav tas argentinos de Nueva Generacin (Pablo Londons Warren Gallery in 1928, followed year, Morris showed gray-painted polyhedron cretized the groups theories. In this screed temporary African Art at the Camden Arts
David Medalla Metzger came to London in 1939 under Manes and Thirty Argentines from the New by other exhibitions and public commis- sculptures at the same space, focusing on the artists sought to reinvent painting for the Centre, London (1969). In the 1970s he Barnett Newman, who was part of the
Born 1942 in Manila, Philippines the auspices of the Kindertransport (Refu Generation) at the Galrie Creuze in 1960. sions. Influenced by primitive art and Surre- the spatial relations between the objects and atomic age, warn about the dangers of nucle- divided his time between his Atelier la New York School of Abstract Expression-
Lives and works in London, UK gee Childrens Movement). He attended the During her three years in Paris, she explored alism, his work became more abstract, and the viewer. In 1966 he published his Notes ar technology, and criticize the uniformity of Ruche, Paris, and his home in the Dordogne, ists, is distinguished by his extreme formal
Cambridge School of Art in London and the the local avant-garde art scene, created her in the 1930s he associated with several on Sculpture in Artforum and participated contemporary painting. Dangelo spearheaded in southwestern France, where he painted reduction and his challenging purism. He
David Medalla was a pioneer of land art, Koninklijke Academie voor Schone Kunsten first participatory works, and experimented artist groups, including the Seven and Five in the exhibition Primary Structures at New Il Gesto (19551959), a journal affiliated with some of his best-known works, including first attended classes at the Art Students
kinetic art, and performance art. He was van Antwerpen (Royal Academy of Fine with transforming hand-painted mattresses Society (later the Seven and Five Abstract Yorks Jewish Museum. Later in the decade the Movimento Nucleare. The movement is a series on the theme of the biblical ritual League during his teenage years. It was
only twelve years old when the poet Mark Arts), Antwerp (194849), on a scholarship into interactive soft sculptures. Her lifelong Group) and Unit One. During World War he introduced more flexible materials like historically associated with Eaismo (Atomic slaughter of a lamb (the Tabaski series). there that he met fellow abstract artist
van Doren (18941972), a professor of from the United Kingdoms Jewish commu- aesthetic concernsaudience involvement II he was commissioned to do a series of felt into his work. In 1969 he produced an Era-ism), founded by Voltolino Fontani in Adolph Gottlieb (19031974). Newman
English at New Yorks Columbia University, nity. During the 1950s he took on various and protesting the concept of the artwork drawings depicting people seeking shelter ephemeral installation for Anti-Illusion: Pro- 1948 in Italy, and Salvador Dalis (19041989) worked for his fathers clothing company
recommended him for admission. There he jobs and was politically active, protesting as a permanent material objectreached in the London Underground. At first Moore cedures/Materials at the Whitney Museum. Mystical Manifesto from 1951. Movimento Alice Neel from 1927 until he became a part-time art
studied ancient and modern literature, dra- rocket bases in the UK and promoting nu- their first significant manifestation in 1963 mostly worked in wood and stone, while his Eventually, Morris became a pioneer of Land Nucleare influenced artists internationally, Born 1900 in Merion Square, PA, USA teacher in 1932. Early in the 1940s, he aban-
ma, and philosophy, and met the Filipino clear disarmament. In 1959 he developed with La Destruccin (The Destruction). For later sculptures were often in cast metal. Art and Conceptualism. including Yves Klein (19281962) and Asger Died 1984 in New York, NY, USA doned art and destroyed his Expressionist
poet Jos Garcia Villa (19081997), who the concept of auto-destructive art and this happening, Minujn invited other artists His subjects included reclining figures, Jorn (19141973). works. In 1944 he began to paint again,
encouraged Medallas interest in painting. began to publish and write on the subject. to help destroy and burn some of her own family groups, and abstract, organic forms. Alice Neel is best known for her straightfor- reaching a breakthrough with Onement, I
In the late 1950s, when he returned to Based on the destructive potential of his works. In 1966 she won a Guggenheim In 1977 he established the Henry Moore Sadamasa Motonaga ward, often confrontational, portraits. After (1948), his first monochrome work divided by
Manila, the Catalan poet Jaime Gil de time, his work combined destruction and Fellowshipescaping Argentina just as a Foundation, which encourages public ap- Born 1922 in Iga Ueno, Mie Prefecture, Ernst Wilhelm Nay working as a secretary (19181921) while a vertical stripe, called a zip, which became
Biedma (19291990) and the painter construction, using bags of garbage, ex- repressive regime assumed powerand preciation of the visual arts. Throughout his Japan Born 1902 in Berlin, Germany attending evening classes at the School of a signature feature of his work. His first solo
Fernando M. Zbel (19241984) became pa- haust fumes, acid, and liquid crystals in his moved to New York. There she created career Moore earned many important prizes Died 2011 in Takarazuka, Japan Died 1968 in Cologne, Germany Industrial Art in Philadelphia, she enrolled show, at the Betty Parsons Gallery in 1950,
trons of his art. From the 1960s onward, how- work. In 1966 he organized the internation- her psychedelic Minuphone, a telephone and retrospective exhibitions. at the Philadelphia School of Design for was harshly criticized, but by the 1960s
ever, he lived and worked in Europe, where al Destruction in Art Symposium (DIAS) in booth wherein visitors who dialed a number Sadamasa Motonaga initially became fa- From 1925 to 1928 Ernst Wilhelm Nay stu Women (now Moore College of Art and critics began to warm to his work. His The
he was encouraged by the philosopher Gas- London with members of the Vienna Ac- would suddenly hear sounds and see colors mous for his drip paintings (using enamel died painting at the Hochschule der Knste Design). She and her husband, Cuban art- Stations of the Cross series (195866)
ton Bachelard (18841962) and the artist tionist and Fluxus movements as well as on the glass panels and watch themselves Franois Morellet paint from 1957 onward), which were in- (College of Arte) Berlin under the tutelage of ist Carlos Enrquez Gmez (19001957), was shown at New Yorks Solomon R.
Marcel Duchamp (18871968). Medalla psychologists, poets, and musicians such on a TV screen in the floor. She returned to Born 1926 in Cholet, France spired by the traditional Japanese tech- the German Expressionist painter Karl Hofer traveled to Cuba in 1926 but moved to Guggenheim Museum in 1966. Although
often combined bubbles, sand, or neon with as John Lennon. From the 1970s onward, Buenos Aires in 1976. Died 2016 in Cholet, France nique of tarashikomi, but he also made (18781955). Nay was particularly interest- New York City the following year. When Newman produced a relatively small body of
glass or plastic structures. Medallas Cloud he created participatory art, with new tech- silkscreen prints and picture books. He ed in the paintings of Henri Matisse (1869 she moved to Spanish Harlem in 1938, she work, he had a notable influence both on his
Canyons (Cloud Gates) (1963), his first bub- nologies, and dealt with his personal history Franois Morellet produced drawings, pain began his artistic training in 1944 under 1954), Ernst Ludwig Kirchner (18801938), began to paint incisive portraits of family contemporaries and on future generations of
ble machine, was followed by many others and the theme of extinction. tings, objects, and installations. In 1960 he the painter Hamabe Mankichi (19021998) Caspar David Friedrich (17741840) and and friends, her Puerto Rican neighbors, artists. Newman was also a prolific writer of
during the next thirty years. He was a found- co-founded GRAV (Groupe de Recherche and moved to Kobe, Japan, in 1952 to study Nicolas Poussin (15941665). Nay traveled and people she met on the street. She reviews, magazine articles, and essays on art
er and director of Signals Gallery (1964), the dArt Visuel, or Visual Arts Research Group), at the nearby Nishinomiya geijutsu gakko- to Rome in 1931 to study at the German Art continued working in a figurative style, and music.
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Malangatana Valente Ngwenya Luis Felipe No Colette Oluwabamise Omogbai philosophy department of Tokyos exclusive Alexandria in 1958, serving as its head from eventually using aluminum. Paolozzi taught A. R. Penck (born Ralf Winkler)
Born 1936 in Matalana, Mozambique Born 1933 in Buenos Aires, Argentina Born 1942 in Zaria, Nigeria Gakush-uin University, but she left after 1977 to 1979. From 1967 to 1969, Owais at a number of art and design schools in Born 1939 in Dresden, Germany
Died 2011 in Matosinhos, Portugal Lives and works in Buenos Aires, Argentina Lives and works in Edo State, Nigeria just two semesters. After World War II she studied in Madrid at the Real Academia Britain and Germany from 1949 until his Lives and works in Berlin and Dsseldorf,
returned with her family to the U.S. and en- de Bellas Artes de San Fernando (Royal retirement in 1994, the last one being the Germany; Dublin, Ireland; and New York,
In his work, Mozambican painter and poet Argentinian artist and writer Luis Felipe Hlio Oiticica Colette Omogbai is a pioneering Nigerian rolled in Sarah Lawrence College. There Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando). Akademie der Schnen Knste (Academy NY, USA
Malangatana Valente Ngwenya, known as No studied painting and law before Born 1937 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil painter who identified as a Surrealist. She she first learned about the work of artist of Fine Arts) in Munich.
Malangatana, combined fantastical imagery co-founding the artist group Otra Figuracin Died 1980 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil received a degree in painting from the and composer John Cage (19121992), A. R. Pencks schematic yet complex ima
with political themes. Trained as a tradition- (Another Figuration) in 1961. Associated Nigerian College of Arts, Science, and who was later an influential mentor and col- gery was influenced by his interest in
P
al healer, he moved to Loureno Marques with the neofiguration movement, the col- Hlio Oiticicas investigations into the es- Technology (now Ahmadu Bello University, laborator. Ono met British singer-songwriter Lygia Pape mathematics, cybernetics, and information
(now Maputo) at the age of twelve to find lectives process-oriented, experimental sence of art led him to challenge the boun Zaria) in 1964, where she met artists of John Lennon (1940-1980) at an exhibition Born 1927 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil theory. He used archaic signs and symbols
work. After he discovered an interest in work reflected the turbulent social and po- daries between art, life, and the viewer. He the Zaria Art Society such as co-founder of her work in London (1966), and they were Died 2004 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil to ensure universal comprehension and to
art, he began taking classes at the college litical situation in Argentina in the 1960s. began his artistic career in 1954, studying Uche Okeke (19232016). During her first married from 1969 until his death in 1980. convey political meaning. His spare artistic
Ncleo de Arte in the late 1950s. Malanga- I believe in chaos as a value, said No. painting under Ivan Serpa (19231973) at solo exhibition, at Mbari Ibadan in 1963, Onos work has been widely exhibited in- Nam June Paik Lygia Pape relentlessly experimented with training included evening classes at the
tana achieved success in his twenties with His Introduccin a la esperanza (Introduc- the Museu de Arte Moderna (Modern Art her works rejected academic realism for ternationally. In 2009 she was awarded the Born 1932 in Seoul, South Korea form, sculpture, printmaking, installation, Kunsthochschule (Art University) Dresden
vibrant paintings that spoke to the countrys tion to Hope; 1963), a nine-panel work Museum) in Rio de Janeiro. In 1955 he an expressionism verging on pure abstrac- Golden Lion Award for lifetime achievement Died 2006 in Miami, FL, USA and film. By age twenty, she was a member (195354) and a draughtsman appren-
oppression under colonial rule, such as the combining chaotic images of incited crowds became a member of Grupo Frente and tion, with anguished figures and areas of at the Venice Biennale. of the Rio de Janeirobased Grupo Frente ticeship, which he began in 1955. Despite
hellfire scene Juzo Final (Final Judgment). with protest-like placards extending from started to participate in numerous Concrete bright color. When she moved to Lagos Nam June Paik is considered a leading wing of Concrete art, a movement of self- rejections of his applications to various art
In 1963 his poetry was published in Black it, won the Premio Palanza (Palanza Prize) and Neoconcrete art exhibitions, then joined after graduating in 1965, her bold, formal pioneer in video art. During the Korean reflexive geometric abstraction. In 1959, she academies in Dresden and East Berlin dur-
Orpheus magazine and in the Penguin from the Instituto Torcuato Di Tella (Torcuato the Neoconcrete movement in 1959. In experimentation provoked critics to find Alfonso Ossorio War (195053), his family immigrated to signed the Neoconcrete manifesto with ing the mid-1950s, Penck rigidly pursued his
Books anthology Modern Poetry from Afri- Di Tella Institute). Although Otra Figuracin 1970 he received a Guggenheim fellowship, her works unfeminine. She retaliated in a Born 1916 in Manila, Philippines Japan, where Paik studied at the University Lygia Clark (19201988) and Hlio Oiticica artistic career and searched for means of
ca. Malangatana joined the guerrilla group officially disbanded in 1963, the group did which enabled him to move to New York, promodernist manifesto, Man Loves What Died 1990 in New York, NY, USA of Tokyo. His dissertation focused on the (19371980). The Neoconcretists broke with artistic expression beyond traditional styles.
FREMILO (Front for the Liberation of Mo- participate in the Guggenheim International where he lived from 1970 to 1978. Through- Is Sweet and Obvious, published in Nigeria German Expressionist composer Arnold the prevailing Concretist ethos, believing that In 1961 he created his first System- and
zambique) in 1964 and was later impris- Award exhibition in 1964. A year later, out his career he questioned the two- magazine in 1965. Omogbai later studied at Alfonso Ossorio combined Abstract Ex- Schoenberg (18741951), an influential art should require active participation from Weltbilder deploying a visual language that
oned for eighteen months. After receiving No received a Guggenheim fellowship dimensional picture plane (Metaesquemas the Slade School of Fine Art, London, and pressionism, art brut, and assemblage, composer and music theorist. Paik then its viewers. Her early work alluded to hand- straddled figuration and abstraction. Highly
a grant from the Gulbenkian Foundation in and moved to New York. There he created [Metaschemes], 195758) and explored received a PhD in art education from New using nontraditional materials. In his youth studied at Munich University, where he met icraft, such as the Tecelares (Weaving) abstracted, two-dimensional stick-figures
1971, he studied ceramics and painting in ephemeral, sculptural installations and pub- viewer participation (Bilaterais [Bilateral], York University. he was educated in England but in 1930 artist-composer John Cage (19121992), series of geometric woodcut prints shown inhabited Pencks pictorial worlds and
Portugal. Following the Mozambican revo- lished the antiaesthetic pamphlet Antiestti- 1959), ephemeral materials, the dimensions he moved to the United States, becoming Fluxus co-founder George Maciunas (1931 in the third Bienal de So Paulo (1955). Her led to the development of his Standart, a
lution in 1974, he rejoined FREMILO, which ca. He returned to Buenos Aires in 1967, of color (Invenes [Inventions], 195962), a naturalized citizen in 1933. From 1934 1978), and performance artist Joseph Beuys Livro da Criacao (Book of Creation), 1959, strongly simplified pictorial language that
became the ruling Communist Party. During where he opened a bar and created spatial- and multisensory art (Blides, or exploding On Kawara to 1938 he studied fine art at Harvard Uni- (19211986). Paik participated in the Fluxus asked the viewer to assemble a book. In the has become the artists signature. In 1970
the Mozambican Civil War, his work entered ly complex installations with mirrors, inspir- meteors). Important among his series are the Born 1932 in Kariya, Aichi Prefecture, versity, then at the Rhode Island School group, performing in Fluxfests in Septem- 1960s, she became involved with the cine- Penck became a member of the artist group
a blue period. Malangatana co-founded ing the absurdist elements in his 1974 novel Parangols (mobile sculptures, costumes) Japan of Design (193839). After he met Betty ber 1962. The following year, his landmark ma marginal and cinema novo movements, Lcke, and from 1977 onward he rendered
the Mozambican Peace Movement and Recontrapoder. After a violent coup ousted and Penetrables (walkable color installa- Died 2014 in New York, NY, USA Parsons in 1941, she presented his work exhibition Exposition of Music-Electronic combining documentary and satire. Pape his signature figures and signs as wood
helped to establish many cultural organiza- Isabel Pern from power, No moved to tions), both of which were part of his seminal at her gallery in New York. During World Television was held at the Galerie Parnass, co-organized New Brazilian Objectivity, a sculptures. In 1980 Penckwhose maver-
tions, including the National Museum of Art Paris in 1976. In 1975 he returned to pain work Tropiclia (1967), an immersive instal- On Kawara was a conceptual artist whose War II he worked as a medical illustrator Wuppertal, Germany. In 1964 Paik moved groundbreaking exhibition at the Museu de ick approach to art in East Germany had
in Maputo. UNESCO named him an Artist ting, producing expressive landscapes and lation that gave its name to the Tropicalismo paintings, drawings, postcards, books, and for the U.S. Army in Illinois, painting in his to New York City, where he focused on the Arte Moderna do Rio de Janeiro (Museum always been troublesomemoved to West
for Peace in 1997. innovating a crumpled technique on canvas. movement. Besides being a visual artist, recordings were driven by his preoccupa- spare time. Ossorios first published work use of television and video. At this time, of Modern Art, Rio de Janeiro), in 1967. Germany, where he was appointed profes-
He returned to Argentina in 1987. Oiticica was also a prolific writer on tion with time as a measurement of human was the book Poems and Wood Engravings Paik also collaborated with cellist Charlotte That same year she created Roda Dos sor at the Kunstakademie (Art Academy)
art theory. existence. His early paintings were shown (1936). He is best known for his Congre- Moorman (19331991), blending classical Prazeres (Wheel of Delights), in which view- Dsseldorf in 1988. Penck participated in
Hermann Nitsch at the Tokyo Metropolitan Art Museum in gationsassemblages of shells, pearls, music with contemporary art. Paik taught ers taste colored waters with flavors that the 1984 Venice Biennale and Documenta,
Born 1938 in Vienna, Austria Isamu Noguchi Uche Okeke 1953. His first trip outside Japan in 1959 glass eyes, animal bones, and driftwood at the Kunstakademie Dsseldorf (Dussel- do not necessarily align with their hues. Kassel, from 1972 onward.
Lives and works in Austria Born 1904 in Los Angeles, CA, USA Born 1933 in Nimo, Nigeria initiated his lifelong penchant for traveling. which he began in the late 1950s. He also dorf Art Academy) from 1979 to 1996; his Pape taught semiotics at the Universidade
Died 1988 in New York, NY, USA Died 2016 in Nimo, Nigeria On January 4, 1966, shortly after settling produced paintings and works on paper. In work is in important collections worldwide Santa rsula (Saint Ursula University)
Hermann Nitsch is known for his experimen- in New York, On Kawara began his famous 1950 he returned to the Philippines to paint and has been exhibited internationally since from 1972 to 1985 and became a profes- Pablo Picasso
tal and multimedia art. He graduated from Isamu Noguchi worked in a variety of media, Born in northern Nigeria to an Igbo family, Today series consisting of hundreds of The Angry Christ, a mural for the Chapel of 1962, including the Whitney Biennial (1977; sor of fine art at the Universidade Federal Born 1881 in Mlaga, Spain
the Graphische Lehr- und Versuchsanstalt including sculpture, ceramics, architecture, Uche Okeke (Christopher Uchefuna) Date Paintings. On a black or colored St. Joseph the Worker. Ossorio was a friend 1981; 1983; 1987; 1989); Documenta, Kas- do Rio de Janeiro (Federal University of Died 1973 in Mougins, France
(Experimental Graphic Institute of Vienna), garden and theater design, lighting, and co-founded the Zaria Art Society while background he would paint only the date of artists Jean Dubuffet (19011985) and sel (1977; 1987); and the Venice Biennale Rio de Janeiro) in 1983.
but turned to painting in the 1950s. He furniture-making. He found inspiration in studying at the Nigerian College of Arts, when the work was made, in white letter- Jackson Pollock (19121956). On Pollocks (1984; 1993). South Korea awarded him the Pablo Picasso, considered one of the most
was a member of the Wiener Aktionismus both Japanese techniques and American Science, and Technology (now Ahmadu ing, using the language of his location for advice, in 1951, he acquired The Creeks, Gold Crown, Order of Cultural Merit in 2007. important artists of his time, worked in
(Viennese actionist movement) with Otto modernity, and collaborated with many Bello University, Zaria) in 1958. The groups that day. These visual records carry infor- an estate in East Hampton, where he Jeram Patel many different styles, from figuration and
Muehl (19252013), Gnter Brus (b. 1938), ar
tists, including choreographer Martha focus on indigenous art and culture coun- mation about Kawaras life and activities. housed Dubuffets collection of art brut Born 1930 in Sojitra, British India Neoclassicism to Surrealism and abstrac-
and Rudolf Schwarzkogler (19401969). Graham (18941991) and composer John tered Zarias Western-orien ted colonial One Million Years (1969), his multivolume (195161). Eduardo Paolozzi Died 2016 in Vadodara, India tion. Together with his fellow artist Georges
In 1957 Nitsch invented the Orgien Mys- Cage (19121992). As the son of Japa- curriculum. In 1960, the year that Nigeria work about the passage and marking of Born 1924 in Edinburgh, UK Braque (18821963), Picasso is credited
terien Theater (Orgiastic Mystery Theater), nese writer Yonejiro- Noguchi (18751947) achieved independence from Britain, the time, has been performed as a reading Died 2005 in London, UK Jeram Patel was among several artists who with developing Cubism. Picasso first studi
based on the idea of the Gesamtkunstwerk, and American writer Lonie Gilmour Zaria Art Society published a manifesto and also recorded. It lists each year, in the Hamed Owais transformed Indian art in the late 1950s ed art with his father, then enrolled in the
or comprehensive artwork. The Orgien (18731933), Noguchi often traveled be written by Okeke. The screed advocated million-year periods, before and after the Born 1919 in Beni Suef, Egypt Eduardo Paolozzisculptor, collagist, print- and 1960s by developing a new visual iden- Llotja School in Barcelona in 1895, and
Mysterien Theater is a six-day festival fea- tween Japan and the United States. He natural synthesis, a method of artistic works conception. On Kawara participated Died 2011 in Cairo, Egypt maker, and filmmakeris associated with tity and method of abstraction. Patel first later studied briefly at the Real Academia
turing a variety of art forms and rituals, both worked as an intern for the monumental creation bringing together elements of Eu- in many biennials, including those in To- the development of British Pop art; his early studied drawing and painting at the Sir J. J. de Bellas Artes de San Fernando (Royal
religious and pagan. The staging aims at lib- sculptor Gutzon Borglum (18671941) in ropean and African traditions to forge indi- kyo (1970), Venice, and Kyoto (1976), and Dissatisfied with his job as a metalworker, collages from the late 1940s and early School of Art in Mumbai (195055), then Academy of Fine Arts of San Fernando),
erating the spectators religious, moral, and 1922, and after taking sculpture classes vidual expressions of a modern Nigerian art. Documenta, Kassel (1972; 1982; 2002). Hamed Owais enrolled in the School of Fine 1950s incorporated American magazine commercial design at the Central School Madrid. After his return to Barcelona in
sexual inhibitions by engaging all senses. he abandoned his premedical studies at Okeke created his Oja seriesinspired by The first major retrospective of his work was Arts in Cairo, graduating in 1944. Afterward advertisements, paperback book covers, of Arts and Crafts, London (195759). 1899 he often traveled to Paris, settling
Nitschs controversial performance pieces Columbia University in 1924 to pursue art. Igbo uli drawings, a swirling, linear tradition at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum he studied at the Institute of Art Education and scientific illustrations. The son of Italian A trip to Japan in the late 1950s inspired there in 1904. In Paris his style and choice
have involved blood, dead animals, and pas- Noguchi received a Guggenheim fellow- of wall decoration and body pain tingin in New York, in 2015. in Cairo under Youssef el-Afifi. In 1947, immigrants, Paolozzi was interned for three him to explore new media and techniques. of subject changed: he abandoned his
sive human actors. His splatter paintings ship in 1927 and assisted in the studio of 1962, during time he spent in Lagos and Owais co-founded the Group of Modern months after Italy declared war on Britain Back in India he co-founded the short-lived so-called Blue Period (19014) and drew
(Schttbilder) mingle paint and blood on Constantin Brncusi (18761957) in Paris Munich. In 1963 Okeke co-founded the Art with artists including Gamal el-Sigini in June of 1940. During that time his father but seminal Group 1890 in 1962 and took inspiration from the circus during his Rose
rough burlap canvases. In 1971 Nitsch ac- for two years. His own first sculpture com- Mbari Cultural Center Enugu in Nigerias Yoko Ono (19171977), Gazbia Sirry (b. 1925), Zeinab and grandfather were also detained, then part in their sole exhibition at the Lalit Kala Period (1905). From 1907 to 1909, inspired
quired a castle in Prinzendorf, near Vienna, mission was News (1938), symbolizing free- eastern region, serving as director from Born 1933 in Tokyo, Japan Abdel Hamid (19192002), and Youssef drowned when their ship to Canada was at- Akademi Gallery in New Delhi. During the by the works of Paul Czanne (18391906)
as the main venue for his Orgien Mysterien dom of the press for the Associated Press 1964 to 1967. During the 1960s, Okeke Lives and works in New York, NY, USA Sida (19221994), which looked to the lives tacked by a German U-boat. Paolozzi stud- 1960s he pioneered a new medium, bur and African masks, Picasso painted Les
Theater. In 1974 he met the gallery owner building at New Yorks Rockefeller Center. produced expressive paintings examining of everyday Egyptians and viewed art as a ied at the Edinburgh College of Art (1943) ning wood with a blowtorch and engraving Demoiselles dAvignon (1907), which pres-
and publisher Peppe Morra, who became After the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, Igbo myths, Christian themes, and alien- Yoko Ono is considered a daring innovator revolutionary agent of social change. Owais and the Slade School of Fine Arts (194447), amorphous shapes on it, often against a aged his next two stylistic periods, Analytic
his agent, arranging his performances the backlash against Japanese Americans ation. After the Biafran War (196770), in performance and Conceptual art. She painted the struggles of the Egyptian work- where he met his future Independent Group monochrome background of bold colors. Cubism (c. 190811) and Synthetic Cubism
and publishing his theoretical works. In caused his work to become more politicized Okeke was appointed head of the art was born into an upper-class Tokyo family, ing class using a color palette inspired by collaborators. Afterward, he worked in His other innovative styles included abs (c. 191214). In 1916 Picasso began to col-
2007, Nitsch opened the Hermann Nitsch and he requested placement in an intern- department at the University of Nigeria, but because her father, a banker, was trans- the city of Cairo. A turning point for Owaiss Paris for two years and got to know sculp- tractionusing saturated, almost floating laborate on ballet and theater productions.
Museum in Mistelbach, Austria. His work ment camp in Arizona. Noguchi received Nsukka, where he institutionalized natu- ferred to San Francisco shortly before her practice was a trip to the 1952 Venice tors Alberto Giacometti (19011966) and shapes of black ink on paperor his dis- In 1936, deeply affected by the Spanish Civil
has been exhibited widely in the U.S. many important prizes for his work; he ral synthesis, creating courses in Igbo uli birth, she only came to the U.S. with her Biennale (his work was shown in the 1952, Constantin Brancusi (18761957), who in- tinctive and textured use of paint, especially War, he painted his powerful Guernica (1937).
and Europe. represented the United States at the techniques. His students included the artist mother two years later, in 1935. The fam- 1954, and 1956 editions), where he en- fluenced his later work. His relationship to bold strokes of black. His delicate and evoc- During his long career Picasso mastered a
Venice Biennale in 1986. El Anatsui (b. 1944). ily returned to Japan in 1937, but in 1940 countered Italian social realism. He would Surrealist artists and his rough-and-ready ative Hospital series (1966) is probably his broad spectrum of media, including paint-
they left for New York City, staying only later find strong affinities with the Mexican aesthetic vision merged with his interest in best known. Patel received several national ing, drawing, sculpture, collage, lithography,
until 1941, after the Pearl Harbor bombing. muralists, such as Diego Rivera (1886 modern machinery and mass media. In the awards and was a professor (and later dean) and engraving.
Ono lived in Japan during World War II, a 1957). In 1956 he won the Guggenheim early 1960s, for example, Paolozzi expand- at the Faculty of Fine Arts of the Maharaja
formative experience. In 1951 she became International Prize. Owais was appointed ed his sculptural techniques through his col- Sayajirao University of Baroda.
the first woman to be accepted into the a professor at the Faculty of Fine Arts in laboration with industrial engineering firms,
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Ivan Picelj style, yet irony and contradiction remain the Escola de Belas Artes Lisboa (Lisbon Ramas first solo show at the Gallery Faber many provocative cartoons and illustrations. Jane Freilicher (19242014) and poet Rhod Rothfuss (born Carlos Mara Ed Ruscha
Born 1924 in Okucani,
Kingdom of Serbs, its constants. Polke first trained as a glass School of Fine Arts) in 1942 and trans- in Turin, in 1945, was shut down by the From the late 1940s onward he taught at Frank OHara (19261966). He famously Rothfuss) Born 1937 in Omaha, NE, USA
Croats and Slovenes painter in Dsseldorf from 1959 to 1961, ferred to the Porto Escola de Belas Artes fascist government and many of her works several Americ an colleges and universities. depicted OHara wearing only his boots in Born 1920 in Montevideo, Uruguay Lives and works in Los Angeles, CA, USA
Died 2001 in Zagreb, Croatia then studied under Karl Otto Gtz (b. (Porto School of Fine Arts) in 1944. Inspired were seized by the Turin police. Only in Reinhardt became famous for his black 1954, and in 1957 he was one of twelve Died 1969 in Montevideo, Uruguay
1914) and Gerhard Hhme (19201989) by the Brazilian painter Cndido Portinari 1980, following an exhibition at the Palazzo paintings, which he first exhibited in 1955. U.S. artists in the 4th Bienal de So Paulo. Ed Ruscha began his art studies at the
After studying at the Akademija likovnih um- at the Staatliche Kunstakademie (State (19031962) and the Mexican muralists Reale (Royal Palace) in Milan, did her early After experimenting with abstraction during A retrospective of his work toured five The theorist of the irregular frame, Rhod Chouinard Art Institute (now California
jetnosti (Academy of Fine Arts) in Zagreb Academy of Fine Arts) Dsseldorf until 1967. Diego Rivera (18861957), David Alfaro works become known to a larger audience. the 1930s and 1940s, Reinhardt began to American museums in 1965; that same Rothfuss pushed the boundaries of Cons Institute of the Arts) after moving to Los
from 1943 to 1946, Ivan Picelj co-founded In 1963 he co-founded the Pop-inspired Siqueiros (18961964), and Jos Clemente After that, her erotic drawing again became reduce his paintings more and more in re- year he created his 76-panel multimedia tructivism in his mature style by incorporat- Angeles in 1956. He co-edited and co-pro-
EXAT 51 (short for Experimental Atelier), artist movement Kapitalistischer Realismus Orozco (18831949), Pomar adopted neo- her primary theme. During the 1950s Ra- spect to form, color, gesture, and expres- work The History of the Russian Revolution. ing geometric and irregular shapes in his duced the journal Orb in his final year, and
a Croatian avant-garde group that oper- (Capitalist Realism) with Gerhard Richter realism to express his antifascist beliefs. His mas paintings moved toward abstraction sion. His monochrome color-field paintings His documentary Africa and I, filmed with brightly colored artworks. Born Carlos Mara after graduation (1960) he worked as a
ated from 1950 to 1956. Influenced by (19372007), Konrad Lueg (19391996, activism against the Salazar regime resulted and during the 1960s she started to create in blue and red eventually culminated in Pierre Dominique Gaisseau, was aired on Rothfuss, he studied art in Montevideo layout artist for an advertising agency in
Russian Constructivism and the Bauhaus, a.k.a. Konrad Fischer), and Manfred Kuttner in his expulsion from art school in 1946. multimedia works by incorporating found black paintings divided into linear fields of the NBC television network in 1968. Ever before moving to Buenos Aires in 1942. Los Angeles. He had early success with
the collective advocated geometric ab- (b. 1937). In his paintings, Polke imitated After that, Pomar began to write for art and objects and everyday materials. In the subtly graduated black hues with green, red, seeking new media, Rivers later worked with There he joined the group that published his pain tings and collages, which were
straction, spatial innovation, and synthesis the Ben-Day dots of earlier print technology, literature magazines and in 1947 held his 1970s among paint and text, syringes, can- or blue undertones. video and neon. the single-issue magazine Arturo, including considered part of the Pop art movement
of all visual art forms. Picelj developed a rendering images derived from photography first solo show at the Galeria Portuglia in nulae, glass beads, and fingernails, her pre- Argentinian designer Toms Maldonado and were compared to the works of Jasper
clean, modular style that translated from or advertising as blurred and semiabstract. Porto. In 1950 Pomar studied the work of ferred material became rubber from tires. In (b. 1922), Uruguayan artist Carmelo Arden Johns (b. 1930) and Robert Rauschenberg
gridded painting and sculpture to graphic He also preferred experimental techniques Francisco de Goya in Spain, which greatly the late 1960s and early 1970s Rama was Gerhard Richter Joaquim Rodrigo Quin (19132010), and Slovak-born painter (19252008). While traveling in Europe dur-
design. EXAT 51s first painting show was and unusual combinations of materials, for influenced his later works, such as Maria da in contact with such notable artists as Man Born 1932 in Dresden, Germany Born 1912 in Lisbon, Portugal Gyula Kosice (19242016). The magazine ing the summer of 1961, Ruscha made his
held in Piceljs apartment in 1952. That example in his Fabric Pictures, in which Fonte (1947). In Portugal during the early Ray (18901976), Andy Warhol (19281987), Lives and works in Cologne, Germany Died 1997 in Lisbon, Portugal published artworks and manifestos by art- first word paintings. Since then his interest
same year, Picelj was among the EXAT 51 he used commercially printed fabrics as 1950s he experimented with watercolor, and Orson Welles (19151985). In 2003 ists who favored geometric abstraction over in words and typography became integral to
members who showed at the seventh Salon background patterns for gestures and gouache, ceramics, and printmaking, and she was awarded the Golden Lion for Life- Gerhard Richters vast oeuvre, spanning Self-taught Portuguese painter Joaquim traditional figurative and symbolic painting. his body of work, including paintings, draw-
des ralits nouvelles in Paris. With EXAT motifs taken from earlier or contemporary painted portraits of many intellectuals. In time Achievement at the Venice Biennale. realism and abstraction, reflects personal Rodrigo began his career as a professor In an article published in Arturo, Rothfuss ings, prints, photographs, books, and films.
51, Picelj helped organize the first Zagreb art. He layered images, experimented with 1956 he founded the cooperative Gravura. and collective experiences of rebuilding of agronomy in 1938. In 1951, he start- argued that shaped frames were neces- His images of words and phrases often
trijenale (Zagreb Triennial) in 1955 and es- embossing, and created highly tactile sur- After moving to Paris in 1963, Pomar began German cultural identity in the aftermath ed showing his work in exhibitions of the sary for self-reflexivity in painting. In 1945 contain comic or satirical connotations, al-
tablish the Studio industrijskog oblikovanja faces. Polke taught at the Hochschule fr to use acrylics for his colorful Neoexpres- Robert Rauschenberg of World War II. Having studied painting at collective Sociedade Nacional de Belas he participated in the first exhibition of the luding to popular culture and life in Los An-
(Studio for Industrial Design) in 1956. From Bildende Knste (University of Fine Arts) sionist paintings and collages, with ges- Born 1925 in Port Arthur, TX, USA the Kunstakademie (Art Academy) Dres- Artes (National Fine Arts Society). During Asociacin Arte-Concreto-Invencin (Asso- geles. Between 1963 and 1978 he worked
1961 to 1967 Picelj was a member of the in Hamburg for several years and recei tural brushstrokes, dynamic compositions, Died 2008 in Captiva Island, FL, USA den from 1951 to 1956, Richter began the 1950s, after seeing work by Victor ciation of Concrete Art-Invention). With Quin on sixteen small folded artists books that
art movement New Tendencies, the first ved many prizes, including the Golden Lion and saturated colors. He created his first his artistic career as a muralist in the for- Vasarely (19061997) and Piet Mondrian and Kosice he formed Mad, a splinter group feature photographs of his southern Cali-
group in Yugoslavia to survey cutting-edge for Painting at the 1986 Venice Biennale found-object assemblages in 1967. Before he became an artist, Robert mer German Democratic Republic. Upon (18721944) during a visit to Galerie Den- that advocated for a universal Concrete art fornia surroundings. During the late 1960s
international contemporary practices such and the Japan Art Associations Praemium Rauschenberg served in the U.S. Navy encountering Abstract Expressionism at ise Ren in Paris, he quickly abandoned fig- incorporating music and other forms. The and 1970s Ruscha was also noted for his
as conceptual, kinetic, environmental, and Imperiale in 2002. Hospital Corps in San Diego during World Documenta, Kassel in 1959, Richter decid- uration for an abstract style. He exhibited in group published a journal from 1947 to 1954. use of unconventional materials (gunpowder
computer art. A successful designer of Viktor Popkov War II. In 1947 he began his art career by ed to flee to West Germany to pursue his the Primeiro Salo de Arte abstrata (First Rothfuss participated in the most important and organic substances, such as food and
graphics and international pavilions for Born 1932 in Moscow, USSR studying fashion design at the Kansas own painterly style. From 1961 to 1964 he Salon for Abstract Art) at Galeria de Maro exhibitions of Mad art locally and internation- blood). Since 1982 his work has been the
Yugoslavian artists, Picelj founded the pub- Jackson Pollock Died 1974 in Moscow, USSR City Art Institute in Kansas City, Missouri, studied at the Kunstakademie (Art Aca in Lisbon in 1954, the 4th Bienal de So ally beginning in 1947. His work represent- focus of numerous retrospectives.
lication Edition a in 1962. In 1965 Piceljs Born 1912, in Cody, WY, USA followed by a stay in Paris. In 1948 he en- demy) Dsseldorf. The decade marked Paulo in 1957, and the Brussels Worlds Fair ed Argentina in the first Salon des ralits
work was included in the so-called Op art Died 1956 in Springs (East Hampton), Viktor Popkov is a leading protagonist of the rolled at Black Mountain College in North an important period for Richters stylistic (also known as Expo 58). Rodrigo changed nouvelles (Exhibition of New Realities) at the
exhibition The Responsive Eye at the NY, USA severe or austere style of Soviet arta Carolina, where he studied under Joseph development, along with his Kunstakade- course in the 1960s as Pop art took off in Muse d'art moderne de la ville de Paris
S
Museum of Modern Art, New York. paradigm shift from romanticism to social Albers (18881976) and met John Cage mie peers like Sigmar Polke (19412010) Europe and the United States, by develop- (Modern Art Museum of the City of Paris)
Best known for his drip paintings, Jackson realism manifested in the years immediately (19121992), among others. In the 1950s, and Konrad Lueg (19391996). The three ing a non-naturalistic, symbolic style that in 1948.
Pollock is a leading figure of Abstract Ex- following Joseph Stalins death in 1953. In after traveling Europe and North Africa with artists, with Manfred Kuttner (19372007), blended figuration and abstraction. Vari-
Giuseppe Pinot-Gallizio pressionism. Although his gesture-driven 1948 Popkov was accepted to study drafts- Cy Twombly (19282011), Rauschenberg staged the landmark installation Living ous critics have asserted the influence of
Born 1902 in Alba, Italy splattering and pouring technique marks manship at the Moskovskiy pedagogiches- befriended Jasper Johns (b. 1930) during with Pop: A Demonstration for Capitalist aboriginal and other indigenous practices Gerhard Rhm Sadequain
Died 1964 in Alba, Italy the height of his artistic achievement, he kiy institut iskusstv (Moscow Pedagogical his early years in New York. He soon became Realism in a Dsseldorf storefront in on Rodrigos works. His paintings from this Born 1930 in Vienna, Austria Born 1930 in Amroha, British India
searched throughout his career to express Institute of Art), where he trained in both famous for his series of Black Paintings 1963. The next year, Richter held his first time contain sharp criticisms of colonialist Lives and works in Cologne, Germany Died 1987 in Karachi, Pakistan
Giuseppe Pinot-Gallizio originally trained rather than illustrate emotions. Pollocks fine arts and applied arts until 1952. He and White Paintings, which commented solo exhibition at Dsseldorfs Galerie politics. M.L. (1961), for example, with its
as a chemist in Alba before turning to early work shows traces of ethnographic continued his studies until 1958 at the cap- on Abstract Expressionism. Although Schmela. In the 1960s and 70s he began red-soaked palette and African-inspired Gerhard Rhm is noted for his work in acous- Born into a family of Islamic calligraphers,
art in 1953. In 1955 he met Asger Jorn influences, deriving from early encoun- itals Surikov Insitute under the tutelage of Rauschenberg is often associated with Pop depicting blurred ima gery, taking inspira- forms, references the murder of Congolese tic art, including sound poetry and spoken Sadequain (Syed Sadequain Ahmed Naqvi)
(19141973), and together they co-founded ters with indigenous relics in the western Evgeny Kibrik (19061978). In the 1950s art, his work cannot be linked to one style tion from photographs and media. Since prime minister Patrice Lumumba. In 1972 word. He studied at the Universitt fr Musik drew on this aesthetic tradition through-
the Experimental Laboratory of the Imag- U.S. At Manual Arts High School in Los Popkov began to conduct field work at or movement. His notable Combined Pain the 1970s, Richter has divided his atten- Rodrigo received his first solo showa und darstellende Kunst Wien (University of out his painting career. In 1944, Sade-
inist Bauhaus in Pinot-Gallizios studio in Angeles he encountered theosophy, later construction sites across the Soviet Union, tings series of sculptural collages reflect his tion between figuration and abstraction, retrospective at the SNBA. Music and Performing Arts in Vienna) and quain moved to New Delhi and worked
Alba, which attracted such artists as Enrico evoked in his works unconscious imagery. including the hydroelectric power station at lifelong practice of using various mediums, leading to his squeegee paintings, glass later took private lessons with the compos- as a calligrapher for All India Radio. From
Baj, Ettore Sottsass, Elena Verrone, and Yet when Pollock arrived in New York in Bratsk. The Bratsk power station became techniques, and materials, as well as his images, vanitas motifs of the 1980s, and er Josef Matthias Hauer (18831959). In 1946 to 1948 he studied at the University
Piero Simondo. The following year he and 1930, he followed a traditional education the subject of Popkovs iconic painting from belief in the relationship between art and recent works utilizing digital printing tech- Dieter Roth (born Karl-Dietrich Roth; the early 1950s he developed an outstand- of Agra. In 1947, after the partition of
Jorn organized the First World Congress in composition at the Art Students League 1960. In the mid-1960s Popkov distanced life. In 1963 Rauschenberg earned an early niques. Richters has received multiple also known as Diter Rot) ing body of work, crossing the boundaries the British Indian Empire, Sadequain
of Free Artists, a precursor to the founding under regionalist painter Thomas Hart himself from industrial scenes and began to retrospective at the Jewish Museum in New retrospectives, and since 1972, he has Born 1930 in Hanover, Germany between many different mediums. He also identified as Pakistani and joined the
of the Situationist International in 1957. Benton (1889-1975). From 1938 to 1942, explore the grief-stricken facets of human York; the following year he was awarded participated in five editions each of the Died 1998 in Basel, Switzerland experimented in drawing, visual poetry, and Progressive Artists Group and the Pro-
During this time he also produced his most Pollock was employed by the Works Pro- psychology brought about by the Great the grand prize for painting at the Venice Venice Biennale and Documenta, Kassel. photomontage, using such diverse tech- gressive Writers Movement. Sadequains
famous series of works, the so-called pittura gress Administrations Federal Art Project, Patriotic War (the term used by Russians Biennale (1964). Dieter Roth was an exceptionally versatile niques as overpainting (lessentiel de la work was exhibited at the residence of
industriale (Industrial Painting), created on where he discovered the work of Mexican to refer to the German-Soviet War). In 1967 artist, working in drawing, painting, printma grammaire [The Essentials of Grammar], Pakistani Prime Minister Huseyn Shaheed
huge rolls of canvas that were spread across muralists Diego Rivera (18861957), Jos the artist won a Diploma of Honor at the Larry Rivers (born Yitzroch Loiza king, sculpture, assemblage, installation, and 1962) and collage (Typocollagen [Type Suhrawardy (18921963) in 1955. Sub-
drafting tables; paint was applied by means Clemente Orozco (18831949), and David Paris Biennale. In 1975 he was post- Ad Reinhardt Grossberg) artist books. He was also a musician, poet, Collage], 195563). He was one of Viennas sequently, he received a number of public
of a series of mechanized rollers, along with Alfaro Siqueiros (18961974). Their meth- humously awarded the State Prize of the Born 1913 in Buffalo, NY, USA Born 1923 in the Bronx, New York, USA and author. Four years after moving to Zurich first Concrete poets and was a co-founder of commissions for large-scale murals. No-
the help of multiple artists, and even children. od liberated Pollocks approach to scale USSR, one year after being tragically shot Died 1967 in New York, NY, USA Died 2002 in Southampton, New York, USA in 1943, he apprenticed in graphic design the Wiener Gruppe (c. 1954), which staged table examples include Treasures of Time
The longest of these, the Caverna di Antima- and paved the way for his first monumen- dead during a misunderstanding with a under Friedrich Wthrich (1905 1980) in the first happenings in Austria in 1958. His (1961) for the State Bank of soon-to-be
teria (Cavern of Antimatter), was 145 meters tal painting entitled Muralcommissioned cash-in-transit guard in Moscow. Ad Reinhardt (Adolph Dietrich Friedrich Artist, saxophonist, and bohemian Larry Bern, and later designed textiles in Copen- interest in language and the ambiguity be- Pakistan, Karachi; Saga of Labor (1967)
long (476 feet). It was first displayed at the by Peggy Guggenheim in 1943. In the late Reinhardt), the son of Russian and German Rivers was born in the Bronx, a borough of hagen from 1955 to 1957. After moving to tween meaning and form is manifest in his for the Mangla Dam Power House, Azad
Galerie Ren Drouin, Paris, in 1959, where 1940s Pollock came to develop and estab- immigrants, moved to New York in 1931. He New York City. He met his lifelong friend, Reykjavik, he married Sigridur Bjrnsdttir. poetry, music, and both visual and acous- Kashmir; and Evolution of Mankind (1973)
it was draped around the gallery and sold lish action painting as an artistic expres- studied art history on a full scholarship at jazz trumpeter Miles Davis, while the two Throughout his life Roth constantly changed tic arts. Along with his investigations into in the entrance hall of the Lahore Museum.
R
by the meter. During this period Pinot-Gal- sion of postwar existentialist mentality. Columbia University (193135), then at- studied music at the Juilliard School in his location, with Reykjavik and Basel being modes of expression through language, he Sadequains art heroicized the working
lizios work was also shown in important Pollock reached international acclaim dur- tended both the American Artists School 194546. After studying painting with his primarily bases of activity. Roth produced also strove to unveil its potential for so- class and included symbols of struggle,
exhibitions in Copenhagen and Munich. He ing his lifetime and was included in the and the National Academy of Design. From the Abstract Expressionist Hans Hoffman art works in almost any medium, often using cial implications. In 1964 Rhm moved to such as cacti. In 1960 Sadequain won
was honoured with a solo exhibition at the 1950 Venice Biennale. 1936 to 1940 he worked for the Works Pro- (18801966) in 194748, he earned a everyday materials, including food and oth- Germany, where he taught at the Hoch- Pakistans national prize for painting and
Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam, in 1960. Carol Rama gress Administrations Federal Art Project, degree in art education from New York er perishables. Among his lifelong artistic schule fr Bildende Knste (University of left for Paris later that year. In 1961 he won
(born Olga Carolina Rama) and from 1937 to 1947 he was a member of University in 1951. Rivers started show- concerns were books, prints, and multiples. Fine Arts), Hamburg, from 1972 to 1995. the laureate for artists under thirty-five at
Jlio Pomar Born 1918 in Turin, Italy the American Abstract Artists group (AAA). ing lusty, figurative work in 1948. His Roth briefly held a number of teaching posi- His work was presented in numerous exhi- the Paris Biennale. He returned to Pakistan
Sigmar Polke Born 1926 in Lisbon, Portugal Died 2015 in Turin, Italy Suspending his work and studies during brushy version of American history pain tions at art schools in the United States, the bitions, including Documenta, Kassel (1977; in 1967. Sadequains influence resulted
Born 1941 in Oels, Germany Lives and works in Paris, France, and U.S. involvement in World War II, he attended ting Washington Crossing the Delaware United Kingdom, and in Dsseldorf, Germa- 1987). Rhm has received many important in the use of calligraphy becoming wide-
Died 2010 in Cologne, Germany Lisbon, Portugal Carol Rama was a self-taught Italian artist New York Universitys Institute of Fine Arts (1953) anticipated Pop artists appropria- ny. In 1982 he represented Switzerland at prizes, including the Austrian State Prize for spread within Pakistani contemporary art.
who is best recognized for her watercolors after the war. Besides painting, Reinhardt tion of familiar imagery in the 1960s. As the Venice Biennale. Literature in 1991.
Sigmar Polkes Pop artinspired body of Jlio Pomar has explored both painting and depicting often bold and provocative ex- also became an influential art critic and the- part of the New York School, Rivers knew
work eschews categorization and a signature writing to express his ideas. He enrolled at pressions of sexuality and sexual actions. orist and a talented caricaturist, producing many notables, including landscape painter
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Mohan Samant Poalim publishing house. Throughout her scenes he encountered in Johannesburg, pen-and-ink drawing, Devils Dog (1964). (19311991), with solo shows at the New Kazuo Shiraga Mitchell Siporin sculptural treatment of form, working with
Born 1924 in Bombay, British India career, Schloss worked outside of schools Cape Town, and Pretoria. From 1939 onward, From the beginning his works stood out, Vision Centre (1959) and Gallery One - Prefecture, Japan
1924 Amagasaki, Hy ogo Born 1910 in New York, NY, USA a limited palette and dramatic light and
Died 2004 in New York, NY, USA or movements, though she is most fre- he participated in group exhibitions and an- due to their colorful palette and imaginative, (1960). He briefly returned to Pakistan in - Prefecture, Japan
2008 Amagasaki, Hyogo Died 1976 in Newton, MA, USA shadow. Siqueiros began his studies at the
quently identified as a social realist. Unlike nual exhibitions of the South African Acade tightly woven imagery, mostly inspired by the 1960, but moved back to the UK that same Academia de San Carlos (Academy of San
In his paintings, Mohan Samant linked his many Social Realists, however, she was my. In 1940 his painting Yellow Houses: Yoruba folklore, religion, and everyday life. year. His work was included in the land- Kazuo Shiraga became interested in oil Mitchell Siporin was a social realist artist Carlos) in Mexico City beginning in 1911. A
native Indian culture with his experience concerned with the fragility and loneli- A Street in Sophiatown became the first His spontaneous compositionswhich mark exhibition The Other Story: Afro-Asian painting when he was only fourteen years who focused on labor issues. After his fami staunch Communist and radical antifascist,
of immigration to New York City, where ness of individuals. Later her work would work of a black artist to be purchased by ignored rules of form, perspective, and Artists in Post-War Britain in 1989. -
old. He studied at Kaiga no Kyotofu Tachi ly moved to Chicago, he studied at the Art Siqueiros interrupted his studies in 1914 to
he lived for almost forty years. In 1952, be analyzed from a feminist perspective. the Johannesburg Art Gallery. Once he be- proportionfeature patterns based on tra- gakko- (Kyoto
- Prefectural School of Pain Institute of Chicago (Crane College), and join the Mexican Revolutionary Army. While
Samant graduated from the Sir J.J. School Despite her isolation from other contem- came one of South Africas leading artists, ditional textiles. Prince became a leading ting) from 1942 to 1948, majoring in tra- in the early 1930s he worked as an illus- traveling in Europe from 1919 to 1922, he
of Artwhere he studied under Basholi porary artists and little public exposure, two financially successful solo exhibitions representative of the Oshogbo School and Ahmed Shibrain ditional nihonga painting. Possibly inspired trator for Esquire, The New Masses, and met his fellow countryman, the artist Diego
miniature painter S.B. Palsikar (19171984) Schloss practiced rigid discipline in her in Pretoria galleries enabled his self-im- a widely recognized, influential artist. His Born 1931 in Berber, Sudan by the works of Jackson Pollock (1912 Ringmaster. Siporin gained early attention Rivera (18861957). Back in Mexico City
and joined the Progressive Artists painting, producing a large body of work over posed exile to Paris in 1947. Although he work was exhibited in Oshogbo, Lagos, Lives and works in Khartoum, Sudan 1956) (at Yomiuri dokuritsu-ten [Yomiuri for his Haymarket series of drawings illus- the two artists, together with Jos Clemente
Group. He won the gold medal from both the course of seven decades. After studying managed to establish himself as a painter Europe, and the United States, where he Independent Exhibition], Tokyo, 1951), he trating a notorious labor riot in Chicago in Orozco (18831949) founded the Mexican
the Academy of Fine Arts of Calcutta and at the Acadmie de la Grande Chaumire and was regu larly represented in Parisi- settled in the late 1980s. In 1989 his work Ahmed Shibrain is a Sudanese painter and began his unique approach of action paint- 1886 (193235). From 1937 to 1942 he mural movement. A successful painter of
the Bombay Art Society in 1956. That year, in Paris from 1949 to 1951, Schloss spent an galleries and international exhibitions, was shown in the exhibition Magiciens de la educator. Shibrain studied in the Depart- ing: In 1953 he abandoned the brush in fa- painted public murals for the Works Pro- monumental, political mural frescos, Siqueiros
he also showed in the Eight Painters exhibi- time on a kibbutz, but was asked to leave Sekoto never lost ties to his homeland. As Terre (Magicians of the Earth) at the Centre ment of Arts and Craft at the Khartoum vor of painting directly with his hands. He gress Administration (WPA), including a received public commissions in Mexico and
tion curated by patron Thomas Keehn and because of her socialist beliefs. Schloss a reaction to conflict in his native coun- Georges Pompidou, Paris, and in 2005 he Technical Institute (KTI). At the time co-founded the Zero-kai (Zero Society) in mural for in a St. Louis post office that was executed mural projects in Los Angeles, New
the 1956 Venice Biennale. Samant began returned to her parents home in Kfar try during the 1960s, his works became was designated UNESCO Artist for Peace. Shibrain attended KTI, the institution, it 1952, and in 1955 joined the avant-garde the largest single government commission. York, and South America during the 1930s.
his travels abroad in 1957 and 1958, with Shmaryahu in 1953, where she remained more political. In 1989 a retrospective of was the hub of contemporary African art Gutai Art Association and performed Chal- It is among the few WPA projects to show While in New York in the mid-1930s, he
a scholarship to Rome and Egypt. From for the rest of her life. She worked in a stu- his work was held at the Johannesburg of the region. He also studied abroad at the lenging Mud at the groups first exhibition. social conflict. Siporin was represented in founded the Experimental Workshop for
1959 to 1964 he came to New York on dio in Jaffa from the 1960s to the 1980s. Art Gallery, and he received an honorary Ismail Shammout Central School of Art and Design in London. Here, Kazuo Shiraga used his whole body the Century of Progress exhibition at the young artists, promoting collective practice
a Rockefeller grant, permanently relocat- Schloss was included in group shows at doctorate from the University of the Born 1930 in Lydda, Mandatory Palestine Shibrain co-founded the influential Khartoum to sculpt a pile of mud. His rebellious, di- Chicago Worlds Fair of 1933, and after and new techniques. One of the students was
ing to the city in 1968. Samants process the Tel Aviv Museum of Art and the Israel Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. Died 2006 in Amman, Jordan School with Kamala Ishag (b. 1939) and rect approach resulted in his famous prac- the U.S. entered the conflict of World War the young Jackson Pollock (1912-1956). In
involved making forms with wire and com- Museum in Jerusalem. In 1991, the Herzliya Ibrahim El-Salahi (b. 1930) in 1960. The tice of painting with his feet. To do so, he II he joined the army, serving in North Africa 1950 Siqueiros was one of the first Mexican
bining them on canvas, creating primarily Museum of Contemporary Art held her Ismail Shammout was a Palestinian artist group disbanded in 1975. The Khartoum dripped paint onto the canvas and, using and Italy. He received a Guggenheim artists to participate in the Venice Biennale.
abstract works with some narrative ele- first retrospective. Jewad Selim and art historian. He and his family were artists depicted primitive and Islamic ima his feet while swinging from a rope, paint- Fellowship (1945) and the Prix de Rome
ments. He added materials to his paint, Born 1919 in Ankara, Ottoman Empire expelled from his hometown on July 12, gery using abstracted Arabic calligraphy. ed multi-textured layers in broad strokes. for painting (1949). Siporin began teach-
such as sand and glue, and experimented Died 1961 in Baghdad, Iraq 1948, by Israeli forces. His family settled Shibrain wanted to define the contemporary Through his association with Gutai (1955 ing as director of the summer school pro- Gazbia Sirry
with paper and wire collage. He was in- Carolee Schneemann in a refugee camp in Gaza. Shammout en- Sudanese identitya blend of Arabic, Afri- 1972), his work was shown across Japan. gram at the School of the Museum of Fine Born 1925 in Cairo, Egypt
cluded in shows of the Progressive Artists Born 1939 in Philadelphia, PA, USA Jewad Selim is recognized as the father of rolled in the College of Fine Arts Cairo in can, and Islamic culturesafter the country In 1957 the French curator and collector Arts, Boston, in 1948. In 1951 he founded Lives and works in Cairo, Egypt
Group in New York during the early 1960s Lives and works in New York, NY, USA modern Iraqi art, whose teachings at the 1950, returning to Gaza in 1953. That year gained independence in 1956. He became Michel Tapi (19091987) noticed Kazuo the Department of Fine Arts at Brandeis
as well as the important 1963 traveling Maehad Alfunun Aljamila (Institute of Fine Shammout, with his brother Jamil, held the dean of the renamed departmentthe Col- Shiragas work and introduced it to the University, where he taught until shortly Over a wide-ranging and prolific career,
exhibition Dunn International. Carolee Schneemann was just sixteen years Arts), Baghdad, influenced a generation of first exhibition by a contemporary Palestini- lege of Fine and Applied Artsin 1975. European art market. His first solo show before his death. Gazbia Sirry has painted strong Egyptian
old when she received a scholarship to study artists. From 1938 to 1940, Selim studied an artist in Palestine. The exhibition included Under Shibrains direction, it continues to in Europe was at the Muse National dArt women. She graduated from Cairos Higher
at Bard College in New York. When she was art in Paris and Rome on scholarships. He Where to? (1953), a sobering oil-on-canvas be a crucial institution for the contemporary Moderne (National Museum of Modern Art), Institute for Arts Education for Women
Mira Schendel expelled for her nude self-portraits, she en- returned to Baghdad during World War depiction of a family in exodus. A year lat- art of sub-Saharan Africa. Shibrain was an Paris (1986), and he received the Osaka Yohanan Simon (born Hans Yohanan) in 1949 and completed further studies in
(born Myrrha Dagmar Dub) rolled at the School of Painting and Sculp- II and founded the sculpture department er, Shammout was part of the Palestine officer for the Sudanese Ministry of Youth Art Prize in 2002. Born 1905 in Berlin, Germany Rome, Paris, and London. In her painting she
Born 1919 in Zrich, Switzerland ture at Columbia University. She returned at the Institute of Fine Arts, eventually Exhibition of 1954 in Cairo, inaugurated by and culture secretary for the Ministry of Died 1976 in Tel Aviv, Israel sought to blend the traditions of Egypt with
Died 1988 in So Paulo, Brazil to Bard and later earned her BA in 1960, becoming the head of the department. president Gamal Abdel Nasser. Shammout Culture. His work was included in the 1967 European modernism. Politically, she was
and earned an MFA from the University of After the war, Selim attended the Slade incorporated Palestinian traditions in his Bienal de So Paulo and in Contemporary Fyodor Shurpin Yohanan Simon was an artist who lived and influenced by the socialist politics of Presi-
Mira Schendel, best known for her draw- Illinois. As a student, Schneemann exper School of Fine Art, London. Selim formed realist painting, which commented on the African Art at the Museum of African Art in Born 1904 in Kiryakinka worked internationally. He began his stu dent Gamal Abdel Nasser and the Egyptian
ings on rice paper, is considered one of ienced first-hand male dominance in the the Baghdad Modern Art Group in 1951. plight of Palestinians since 1948. In 1954, Washington, D.C., in 1974. (Smolensk Province), Russian Empire dies in medicine at Universitt Berlin (Berlin Revolution of 1952. Sirry continuously inno-
the most influential Latin American artists field of professional art, which led to her In developing a contemporary Iraqi visual he enrolled at the Accademia di Belle Arti in Died 1972 in Moscow, USSR University) in 1924 before switching to the vated and experimented in her artistic style.
of her time. In 1922, after her parents di- lifelong occupation with feminist themes language, Selim combined traditional Iraqi Rome. He moved to Beirut in 1956, where fine arts department, first studying sculp- Her early work resembled nave illustration,
vorce, her mother moved to Milan, where and the exploration of the female body iconographysuch as ancient Egyptian and he married fellow artist Tamam al-Alkal. - o- Shimamoto
Shoz Like several artists of his generation, Fyodor ture and then painting. He continued his evolving into Expressionism with thick, force-
Schendel later studied philosophy. Because in historic and social settings. Although Mesopotamian sculpture, Babylonian and Shammout became the Director of Arts and Born 1928 in Osaka, Japan Shurpin came from a rural background and studies at the Stdelschule in Frankfurt am ful applications of paint, and in the aftermath
of her Jewish ancestry she was forced to Schnee mann considers herself a paint- Assyrian reliefs, and miniature painting National Culture for the Palestine Liberation Died 2013 in Osaka, Japan produced a body of work that took coun- Main in 1926, under Expressionist artist Max of the Six-Day War of 1967, Sirrys former
abandon her studies, and during World er, she aims to extend visual principles with innovations by contemporary Western Organization (PLO) in 1965. In 1983, fol- try life and landscape as its subject. His Beckmann (18841950). In 1928 Simon realism became abstraction. Also in 1967,
War II she fled Italy and moved to Saraje- beyond the canvas, experimenting with artists, like Aristide Maillol (18611944) lowing the Israeli attack against the PLO in - o- Shimamoto began his artistic train-
Shoz studies transported him from his humble moved to Toulon, France, where he studied Sirrys work was exhibited at the Brenken
vo. After the war she lived in Rome until collage, sculp ture, photography, film, and and Henry Moore (18981986). During the Lebanon, Shammout moved from Beirut to ing in 1947 in the painting studio of Jiro- hometown in Smolensk Province to Mos- with the Fauvist artist Andr Derain Gallery in Stockholm, leading to international
1949, when she received permission to set- performance. In the early 1960s she used 1950s he primarily painted, creating a no- Kuwait, then Germany, and finally to Jordan. Yoshihara (19051972) at Kanseigakuin- cow, where he studied at the avant-garde (18801954) and held his first solo exhibi- recognition. She was an active contributor to
tle in Porto Alegre. There she studied life paintings, photographs, and everyday table series called Baghdadiat in homage daigaku (Kwansei Gakuin University). Even academy Vkhutemas (later Vkhutein) be tion in 1931. From 1931 to 1934 he studied Cairos Contemporary Art Group. Sirry was
drawing and sculpture and made paintings objects to create assemblages, either in- to traditional Abbasid painting traditions. before graduating in 1950, he took part tween approximately 1922 and 1930. at the cole des Beaux-Arts (School of Fine a professor in the painting department of
and ceramics. Her first solo exhibition, in spired by a historic personage (Sir Henry His practice increasingly focused on sculp- Anwar Jalal Shemza in exhibitions (Seven Avant-garde Artists, Shurpin regularly participated in official Arts), Paris, and worked as a graphic design- Jamieat Hulwan (Helwan University) and the
1950, included portraits, landscapes, and Francis Taylor, 1961) or a familiar place ture. An important public work is Nasb al- (born Anwar Jalal Butt) Kintetsu Department Store, Osaka, 1948) state exhibitions throughout the period of er for the journals Vu and Les Annales. He American University in Cairo. She received
still lifes. In 1953 she moved to So Paulo, (Colorado House, 1962). She explored Hurriya (Monument for Freedom, 196061), Born 1928 in Shimla, British India and created his first revolutionary series, Stalinist Socialist Realism and was also moved to New York City in 1934 to work for the Prix de Rome for painting in 1952.
where she met many other migr intellec- the destructive-constructive potential of a bronze relief mural in central Baghdad Died 1985 in Stafford, UK Ana (Holes). Emphasizing materiality rather invited to exhibit internationally. In 1948 Vogue, where he discovered the murals of Among other exhibitions, Sirry has shown in
tuals. From the 1960s onward Schendel fire in her Controlled Burning series, ex- commemorating Iraqs 1958 revolution. than pictorial space, he created fissured he tried his hand at official portraiture and Diego Rivera (18861957). He immigrated four editions of the Venice Biennale (1952;
developed a spare artistic language of perimented with film (Fuses, 1965), and During the completion of this work, Selim Anwar Jalal Shemza studied Persian, Ara and pierced surfaces in newspaper layered created his masterpiece Utro nashei rodiny to Mandatory Palestine in 1936 and was a 1956; 1958; 1984), two editions of the
geometric forms and linguistic elements. broke taboos on the notion of female sex- had a heart attack and died at forty-one. bic, and philosophy at Punjab University with industrial paint. He became a founding (The Morning of our Motherland), which de- kibbutz member until 1953, creating posters Bienal de So Paulo (1952; 1963) and three
She preferred ephemeral, translucent ma- uality (Meat Joy, 1964). Her provocative, in 1943, but then transferred to the Mayo member of the influential Gutai Art Associ- picts Joseph Stalin in his resplendent white and illustrations for the kibbutz movement. Alexandria Biennials (1959; 1961; 1963).
terials as well as paint, talc, brick dust, ink, radical performances peaked in 1975 with School of Arts in Lahore, graduating in ation in 1954, and participated in many of uniform before the backdrop of a rural land- He produced a number of public murals
and watercolors. In 1964 she began her her now-legendary performance Internal Prince Twins Seven Seven 1947. He worked as a graphic designer; the groups exhibitions. In the later 1950s scape. The paintingcommonly acknowl- throughout Israel, painting daily life on the
famous monotype drawings on Japanese Scroll. She has taught and published (born Prince Taiwo Olaniyi edited the literary journal Ehsas (1950 - o- Shimamoto focused on action-based
Shoz edged as the most famous portrait of the kibbutz in the style of social realism. Simon Lucas Sithole
rice paper: she first inked a sheet of glass, widely; in 2000 she received the College Art Oyewale-Toyeje Oyelale Osuntoki) 1953); wrote plays for Radio Pakistan; pub- art. His paintings became testimonies of his leaderwas met with critical and popular participated in the first Zionist-modernist Born 1931 in Springs, South Africa
traced free-floa ting lines into it with her Associations Lifetime Achievement Award. Born 1944 in Ogidi, Nigeria lished several novels; and was represented performance works, where he shot bags acclaim and earned Shurpin the Stalin Prize New Horizons Group exhibition in 1948. He Died 1994 in Pongola, South Africa
finger, and then pulled a rice paper print. Died 2011 in Ibadan, Nigeria in individual and group exhibitions in Pakis of paint, crashed bottles of paint through in 1949. In 1954 the work was shown in exhibited at the Venice Biennale (1948; 1958)
She also created three-dimensional objects tan. In his art, Shemza combined principles stones, or hurled them onto the canvas China as part of the influential exhibition of and the Bienal de So Paulo (1953). Lucas Sithole was a South African sculptor,
(Droguinhas) with knotted and intertwined Gerard Sekoto Prince Twins Seven Seven started his of Western modernism and abstraction with from a helicopter, a crane, and a hot-air bal- economic and cultural achievements of the known primarily for his work with indigenous
rice paper. Born 1913 in Botshabelo, artistic career as a dancer and musician traditional calligraphy and Islamic themes. loon. Shimamoto was a founder of the mail -
USSR that took place at the Sulin zhanl
an woods. From age six he lived with his Swazi
Eastern Transvaal in Nigeria. While traveling with a medicine In 1952 he co-founded the Lahore Art art movement in the 1960s. He was nomi guan
(Soviet Union Exhibition Hall) in Beijing. David Alfaro Siqueiros grandmother, a famous potter, who greatly
Died 1993 in Nogent-sur-Marne, France show in 1964 he came to Oshogbo and Circle, a group of young Pakistani artists nated for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1996, In 1969 Shurpin initiated the founding of Born 1896 in Chihuahua, Mexico influenced his career as an artist, teaching
Ruth Schloss spontaneously danced at an event of the and writers interested in modernism and participated in the Venice Biennale (1999; the Picture Gallery in the provincial town of Died 1974 in Cuernavaca, Mexico him about African myths and tales and en-
Born 1922 in Nuremburg, Germany Gerard Sekoto is considered one of the Mbari Mbayo Club, a group supporting Afri- abstraction. He moved to London in 1956 2003; 2007), and in the exhibition Out of Shumyachi (Smolensk Province), to which couraging him to make small figures of ani
Died 2013 in Kfar Shmaryahu, Israel most important figures in the development can arts. The German linguist and author Ulli and attended the Slade School of Fine Art, Actions: Between Performance and the he donated fifty of his works. David Alfaro Siqueiros constantly sought to mals and people in clay. At age seventeen
of South African contemporary art. A self- Beier (19222011), a promoter of Nigerian receiving his diploma in 1959. He later took Object, 19491979 (1998) organized by the express his revolutionary Marxist ideas us- he received a Springs Rotary Club scholar-
Ruth Schloss immigrated to Israel in 1937, taught artist and musician, he gave up his art and culture, recognized Princes talent an advanced course in printmaking from Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles. ing equally revolutionary means (airbrush, ship, which allowed him to enter Vlakfontein
attending the New Bezalel School of Arts teaching career and moved to Sophiatown and outstanding personality and convinced Anthony Gross (19051984) and co-foun photographic projection) and new materials Technical College. He intended to study
and Crafts in Jerusalem from 1938 to in 1938 to become a full-time professional him to remain with the group. That year ded the Pakistan Group. In London, Shemza (nitrocellulose pigments, plywood). In his sculpture, but because there were no sculp-
1942. After graduation, Schloss illustrated artist. His paintings and drawings are unob- Prince attended a workshop by Beiers exhibited alongside such artists as F. N. dynamic, figurative paintings and murals, tors on the faculty, he had to study crafts
adult and childrens books at the Sifriat structed records of the people, streets, and wife, Georgina Beier, and created his first Souza (19242002) and Avinash Chandra he developed a pictorial vocabulary and a like carpentry and welding instead. These
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skills later proved valuable for his work as Mondi (Festival of Two Worlds) in Spoleto. A Bolvar opened a museum dedicated to his art from the 1970s onward. He studied his- Prague in 1945 to study art. From 1946 his parents died in 1911. Although he took and techniques such as collage, grattage life and landscape. He captured important
a sculptor. In the late 1950s Sithole stu retrospective at the Solomon R. Gug- work in 1973. tory at Princeton University, where he be- to 1948 she studied with Otokar Velmsky some drawing lessons and attended the (scraping across a painted canvas to add scenes in Singapore history, as well as po-
died at the Polly Street Art Center, where he genheim Museum traveled to the Centre friended the abstract painter Walter Darby and then at the Vysok kola Um e leck- Escuela de Bellas Artes (School of Fine texture), and graffiti. In his paintings he litical and social concerns in paintings like
met the South African artist Cecil Skotnes Georges Pompidou, Paris, and Tate Modern, Bannard (b. 1934) and art historian Michael opr umyslov (Academy of Applied Arts), Arts) in Mexico City, he mostly studied inde- used marble dust, chalk, sand, and earth to Gujia- y uyn
- li (National Language Class;
(19262009). For his sculptures, Sithole London (20067). Francis Newton Souza Fried (b. 1939). Stella moved to New York in the studio of Joseph Wagner. She at- pendently. By age twenty-two Tamayo had create scratched and uneven surfaces with 1959) and Zi zhgong - shtng (Workers in
preferred to use the trunks of indigenous Born 1924 in Saligo, British India in 1958 and, during the heyday of Abstract tended the cole nationale suprieure des been appointed head of the Department of tactile and associative qualities. In some the Canteen; 1974). Chua was also a re-
trees, but he also worked in stone, bronze, Died 2002 in Mumbai, India Expressionism, developed a cool painting Beaux-Arts (National School of Fine Arts), Ethnographic Drawing at the Museo Nacional later works, he even applied three-dimen- nowned portraitist who portrayed a number
and sandstone. Many of his sculptures are Lol Soldevilla style devoid of external reference. Stellas Paris, from 1948 to 1951, and returned de Arqueologa (National Museum of Archeol- sional objects. In 1948 Tpies co-founded of significant political and historical figures.
thin, elongated figures with either highly Born 1901 in Pinar del Ro, Cuba Francis Newton Souza, often called Black Paintings of 1959 feature stripes of to Poland, where she immersed herself ogy) in Mexico City. There he worked with and the avant-garde magazine Dau al Set In 1974, when he gained much acclaim
polished or pitted and rough surfaces. Died 1971 in Havana, Cuba F. N. Souza, was one of the first painters to black house paint separated by thin bands in contemporary art and participated drew pre-Columbian objects, which inspired (Seven-Spotted Dice) and met Joan Mir for his first solo exhibition at the Rux-Ing
Although he never traveled outside South achieve international renown in newly in- of unprimed canvas. Fried described these in several competitions for public mon- his early still lifes and portraits. During several (18931983), with whom he shared a life- meish guan (Rising Art Gallery), Chua
Africa (except for Swaziland and Lesotho), Lol Soldevilla (Dolores Soldevilla Nieto) dependent India. He initially attended the paintings as deductive, with the shape uments. Szapocznikow worked in many years when he lived in Europe and the United long friendship. Tpies also worked closely finally decided to pursue art full-time, work-
his work was exhibited internationally. traveled to Paris in 1949, working as a cul- Sir J. J. School of Art in Mumbai but was of the canvas determining the patterning traditional mediums, but was noted for States, he adopted the styles of modern art- with many poets and writers and was a pro- ing predominantly in oil on canvas. His art-
tural attach in the Cuban Embassy and expelled for participating in the Quit India therein. Stella first showed these works in pioneering in new materials, namely poly- ists, fusing them with themes from Mexican lific essayist and printmaker. His first solo works have been shown extensively abroad
studying sculpture at the Acadmie de la Movement in 1945. Two years later he the exhibitions Three Americans (1959) at ester and polyurethane. Her distinct artistic folk culture. He was awarded commissions for exhibition was held at Galeries Laietanes, (Indonesia, Thailand, Belgium, Germany,
Willi Sitte Grande Chaumire. In 1950 she returned co-founded the Progressive Artists Group Oberlin College, Ohio, and Sixteen Ameri- approach was linked to her wartime incar- public murals by the Palacio Nacional de Bellas Barcelona, in 1950, when he also spent Australia, and New Zealand). In 2015 Chua
Born 1921 in Chrastava, Czechoslovakia briefly to Cuba, presenting sculptures and in Bombay and soon became its intellectual cans (1960) at the Museum of Modern Art, ceration and chronic illness, and her sculp- Artes (National Palace of Fine Arts), Mexico several months in France on a scholarship received Singapores Cultural Medallion.
Died 2013 in Halle, Germany paintings in her first two solo exhibitions. leader. Souza left for London in 1949 and New York. In 1960 he began producing tures evoke Surrealism, Nouveau Ralisme, City (195253), and UNESCO, Paris (1958). from the French government. His first exhi-
Back in Paris in 1951 she took part in the in 1955 he gained sweeping recognition shaped deductive canvases, using alumi- and Pop art. Szapocznikow unremittingly Unlike his fellow Mexican artists of that time, bitions in the United States were presented
Willi Sitte worked in a Socialist Realist Atelier dart abstrait (Studio of abstract art) for his first solo show at the Gallery One num and copper paints. In his later, brightly explored the human body (especially her Tamayo preferred easel painting and did not in 1953. Tpies was honored with numer- Herv Tlmaque
style with clear compositions and themes and turned to geometric abstraction. Her in London as well as for his autobiographi colored Protractor series, named after own), its impermanence and fragility, by strive to make his art the vehicle of political ous prizes and gained his first retrospective Born 1937 Port-au-Prince, Haiti
of the working class. In his work he always works of the 1950s, which mostly feature cal essay Nirvana of a Maggot, which was Middle Eastern cities, he overlaid brightly casting, fragmenting, reassembling, and change. He had a retrospective at the Instituto at age 39, in 1962. Lives and works in Paris, France
aimed to be understood by a wide audience. geometric forms, include slender metal first published in Encounter magazine. In colored circular shapes. He showed widely transforming it. Although the components de Bellas Artes (Institute of Fine Arts), Mexico
Sitte first studied art at the Kunstschule sculptures (Stables), paintings reminiscent 1967 Souza received the Guggenheim In- in the 1960s, including at Documenta, were modeled on real bo dies (often her City (1948), and took part in the Venice Bien- Herv Tlmaque left his Haitian homeland
des nordbhmischen Gewer bemuseums of celestial alignments, and luminous re- ternational Award and moved to New York, Kassel (1968). In 1970, he became the own), the resulting sculptures approached nale (1950). Working with Luis Remba in the Boris Taslitzky in 1957 to escape a newly corrupt politi-
(North-Bohemian Museum of Applied Arts) liefs inspired by her collaboration with the where he remained until shortly before his youngest artist to receive a retrospective at the abstract, because she decontextualized early 1970s, he invented mixografa (mixogra- Born 1911 in Paris, France cal scene and moved to New York, where
in Reichenberg (Liverec), from 1936 to Spanish kinetic artist Eusebio Sempere death. Souzas images often show distorted the Museum of Modern Art. Since then his and rearranged disembodied parts (limbs, phy), an innovative relief-printing technique. Died 2000 in Paris, France he studied at the Art Students League
1939. He then transferred to the Hermann- (19231985). From 1951 to 1955 she par- human figures and heads drawn or painted work took a maximalist turn, and he has lips, breasts, etc.). She was re presented until 1960. During this time he discovered
Gring-Meisterschule (Hermann-Gring ticipated in the Salon des realits nouvelles in a graphic style with distinct lines, brush- incorporated three-dimensional, architec- in the Venice Biennale in 1962 and finally Boris Taslitzky was a socialist Realist pain Abstract Expressionism and the American
Master School) in Kroneburg (Eifel), until (Exhibition of New Realities), and in 1956 strokes, and contours. His subjects range tural, and Expressionist elements. relocated to Paris the following year. Tanaka Atsuko ter who depicted scenes of suffering and version of Surrealism, especially as repre
he was expelled and sent to milit ary service she permanently returned to Havana. There from still lifes and landscapes to Christian Born 1932 in Osaka, Japan death in war and revolution. His family sented by Arshile Gorky (19041948).
in the Soviet Union and Italy in the early she organized the exhibition Pintura de hoy. themes and the negotiation of human sex- Died 2005 in Nara, Japan had fled Russia to France in 1905, where After his graduation, Tlmaque aban
T
1940s. In 1944 Sitte managed to contact Vanguardia de la Escuela de Paris (Painting uality. Since the late 1980s he has been Sindoedarsono Sudjojono Taslitzky studied at the cole nationale doned the United States because of his
the Italian resistance and deserted. In Italy Today: Vanguard School of Paris; Palacio de honored with several retrospectives in India. Born 1913 in Kisaran, Sumatra Tanaka Atsuko was a leading Japanese suprieure des Beaux-Arts (National discomfort with racism, politics, and the
he traveled to Vicenza, Venice, and Milan, Bellas Artes, 1956) and opened the Galera Died 1985 in Jakarta, Indonesia avant-garde artist. She began studying art School of Fine Arts) in the 1930s. He then-pervasive Abstract Expressionism.
attending classes at the Accademia di Brera de Arte Color-Luz (Color-Light Art Gallery) -
at the Kyotoshiritsugeijutsudaigaku (Kyoto joined the Association of Revolutionary He moved to Paris, where he continued
(Academy of Brera). His first solo show was with Pedro de Ora (b. 1931) in 1957. The Aleksandar Srnec Sindoedarsono Sudjojono was a largely Takamatsu Jiro City University of Arts) in 1950, but in Writers and Artists in 1933 and two years his career as an artist and became a lea
- -
at the Gallery Dedalo in Milan in 1946. After gallery became central to the group Diez Born 1924 in Zagreb, self-taught artist, art critic, and writer who Born 1936 in Tokyo, Japan 1951 she transferred to the Ato no Osaka later joined the Communist Party. His fa- ding figure in the French Pop art movement.
a short trip to his hometown, Chrastava, he Pintores Concretos (Ten Concrete Paint- Kingdom of Yugoslavia shaped the development of Indonesian Died 1998 in Tokyo, Japan ichi Kenkyujo- (Osaka Municipal Institute of ther had died in World War I and his moth- Most likely inspired by the appearance
moved to Halle in 1947 and became a mem- ers), which Soldevilla co-founded in 1958. Died 2010 in Zagreb, Croatia modernism. During the Dutch colonial pe- Art) to focus on modern Western art. Her er died at Auschwitz during World War II; of American and English Pop art at the
ber of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany Following the Cuban Revolution, Soldevil- riod in Indonesia he fought for a genuinely Takamatsu Jiro was an influential artist husband, artist Akira Kanayama (b. 1924), thus his paintings often reference the two Venice Biennale in 1964, Tlmaque and
(Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands, las artistic output decreased, although Aleksandar Srnec worked in a variety of Indonesian art, free from European colonial and art theorist. He majored in oil painting founded Zero-kai (Zero Society) in 1952. wars. Taslitzky first supported the French other French artists developed the Nar-
SED). There, he exhibited his work with the she taught at the Escuela de Arquitectura media, including painting and kinetic sculp- influences. He laid great emphasis on the at the Tokyo National University of Fine She first participated in Zero-kai, then joined Front populaire (Peoples Front), making rative Figuration movement. Led by
artists association Die Fhre (The Ferry) (School of Architecture) in Havana (1960 ture. He first studied at the Akademija development of a personal artistic language Arts and Music, graduating in 1958. Dur- the Gutai Art Association in 1955. After a se- placards for political demonstrations. In the art critic Grard Gassiot-Talabot
and in the Zweite Deutsche Kunstausstel- 61), edited the Communist newspaper Gr- likovnih umjetnosti (Academy of Fine Arts) and focused on depicting the everyday lives ing the 1960s and '70s he developed a ries of paintings and collages incorporating 1940, while fighting against the Germans, (19292002), Tlmaque and other ar
lung (Se cond German Art Exhibition) in anma (196571), and founded the group at the University of Zagreb from 1943 to of Indonesian people during the Dutch colo- diverse body of work, including sculpture, numbers, she became interested in everyday he was arrested but later escaped. In late tists mounted the famous group exhibition
Dresden. His life in the German Democratic Espacio (1965) to mentor young artists. 1949. After graduation, he worked with the nial regime, which began in the eighteenth photography, painting, drawing, and per- materials, such as commercially dyed tex- 1941 he was recaptured and served two Mythologies quotidiennes (Everyday My-
Republic (GDR) was marked by several architect Vjenceslav Richter (19172002) century. He rejected the predominant colo- formance art. He was a founding member tiles, electric bells, and lightbulbs. She also years imprisonment. In 1944 Taslitzky was thologies; 1964), promoting their new
prizes and honors as well as nominations to and fellow artist Ivan Picelj (19242011) to nial stylewhich he critically termed Mooi of the legendary artist collective Hi Red created many innovative works involving the sent to Buchenwald concentration camp, painterly approach. By that time Tlmaque
important committees and functions. Jess Rafael Soto curate and design exhibitions of contempor Indi (Beautiful Indies)for its idealized Center (196364) and a key figure in the spectator, performative art, and new tech- where he secretly made drawings of the was also working in collage and as-
Born 1923 in Ciudad Bolvar, Venezuela ary Yugoslavian art. In 1951, the three men, depiction of the Indonesian landscape. In development of the Mono-ha (School of nology. At the first Gutai exhibition in 1955, atrocities and inhuman conditions there. semblage as well as painting, sculp ture,
Died 2005 in Paris, France along with other architects and the painter Indonesian Art Now and That of the Future Things) movement (196779). Takamatsu Tanaka Atsuko showed her first electric and After the war he returned to Paris, where and graphic arts. His colorful composi
David Smith and filmmaker Vladimir Kristl (19232004), (1939) Sudjojono criticized Indonesian Jiro questioned the material and meta- participatory piece, Work (Bell). Her most his drawings were published as 111 dessins tions depict everyday objects within
Born 1906 in Decatur, IN, USA The body of work by Jess Rafael Soto founded the Experimental Atelier, or EXAT artists for adopting this style. Sudjojono physical foundations of art within his own famous work, Electric Dress (1956), was faits Buchenwald (111 Drawings Made sometimes confusing, sometimes banal
Died 1965 in Shaftsbury, VT, USA synthesized abstraction, visual perception, 51. Their manifesto protested the Commu- helped to establish several artists asso- practice, while challenging the boundaries a wearable kimono-like sculpture made of at Buchenwald; 1946). Continuing the scenes, always suggesting his critical
and participation. He first studied art in Ca- nist preference for social realist art, arguing ciations: Union of Indonesian Painters between art and life (Moderu 1000-en (chu) colorfully painted lightbulbs, which one critic heroic and figurative traditions of nine- under standing and appropriation of Pop
David Smith was an Abstract Expressionist racas but moved to Paris in 1950, where he for abstraction as an instrument of social (PERSAGI) (193738), Young Indonesian [Model, 1000-Yen Note], 1963). Besides his described as a powerful conflation of the tra- teenth-century painting, he painted politi- culture through mass media, advertising,
best remembered for his large steel sculp- met op artist Victor Vasarely (19061997) change. EXAT 51 sought to bring together Artists (SIM) (1946), and Peoples Painters actions and public interventions in Tokyo, dition of the Japanese kimono with modern callycharged scenes (Riposte, 1949), genre and comics.
tures. After moving to New York in 1927, and kinetic sculptor Jean Tinguely (1925 art, architecture, and design to improve dai- (1947). In 1950 he joined the Indonesian he primarily worked in series, of which his industrial technology. The lights represent- scenes, and lanscapes. Taslitzky taught at
he studied painting at the Art Students 1991). Soto first showed at the Galerie De ly life. Out of EXAT 51 developed the Nove Communist Party and adopted a social re- Kage (Shadow) paintings (196498) and ed systems pulsing inside the human body. the cole nationale suprieure des Arts
League. Smith often supported himself by nise Ren in the 1955 exhibition Le Mouve- tendencije (New Tendencies) movement, alist style. In 1951 he traveled to Europe his series Shashin no Shashin (Photo- She later returned to painting in a visual vo- Dcoratifs (National School of Decorative Mark Tobey
welding and riveting, skills that later fig- ment (The Movement), which also included which focused on kinetic and optical art. and participated in the third Weltfestspiele graph of Photograph; 197273) are among cabulary, featuring networks of concentric Arts) and worked as an illustrator for the Born 1890 in Centerville, WI, USA
ured in his work. In 1929 he learned about work by the Dadaist artist Marcel Duchamp Srnec began to make kinetic sculptures in der Jugend und Studenten (World Festival the most influential. Besides being an artist circles and circuitous lines on large-scale Communist press. Died 1976 in Basel, Switzerland
Picassos Project for Monument (1928) and (18871968). Sotos Espiral con Red (Spiral the 1950s, later adding light and highly pol- of Youth and Students) in East Berlin. His and theorist, Takamatsu also taught at the canvases. Her work is included in several
met the painter John Graham (18861961), with Red) comprised a solid and transpar- ished metals into his work during the 1960s body of work includes paintings, sketches, Tamabijutsudaigaku (Tama Art University), important private and public collections, in- Mark Tobey is noted for his nonrepresenta-
who introduced him to several avant-garde ent sculptural layer painted with concentric and 70s. In 1999, he was awarded the drawings, public art, reliefs, and ceramics. Tokyo, from 1968 to 1972. His first solo cluding the Museum of Modern Art, New York. Chua Mia Tee tional works in multi-layered, allover brush-
painters and to the work of metal sculptor forms that seemed to vibrate before ones Vladimir Nazor Award for Lifetime Achieve- After 1959 he withdrew from politics and show at the Tokyo Gallery in 1966 was Born 1931 in Shantou, China strokes that evoke Asian calligraphy. He
Julio Gonzlez (18861942). Smith made eyesa reference to Duchamps Rotoreliefs ment, and in 2008 he received an award instead focused on painting landscapes; followed by seven other exhibitions at this Lives and works in Singapore studied painting at the Art Institute of
his first welded metal sculptures in 1933 (1935). From 1951 to 1968, Soto partici- from the Croatian Association of Artists. still lifes, and portraits. venue; he also participated in many important Antonio Tpies Chicago from 1906 to 1908 then worked
and committed himself to sculpture from pated in the Salon des ralits nouvelles, a A retrospective of Srnecs work was pre- group exhibitions, including the Venice Born 1923 in Barcelona, Spain Chua Mia Tee, whose family fled to Singa- as a fashion illustrator in New York and Chi-
1935 onward. His Medals of Dishonor se- yearly survey in Paris focusing on abstract sented at the Muzej Suvremene Umjetnosti Biennale (1968), Paris Biennale (1969), and Died 2012 in Barcelona, Spain pore in 1937 during the Sino-Japanese War, cago from 1911 onward. His early portrait
ries (193740) was inspired by his travels in art. In 1958 his work was featured in the (Museum of Contemporary Art), Zagreb, Alina Szapocznikow Documenta, Kassel (1977). studied art at the Nnyng Ysh Xuyun drawings were presented in his first solo
Europe and Russia. In 1938 he had his first Venezuelan pavilions at both the Brussels in 2010. Born 1926 in Kalisz, Poland The painter, sculptor, and art theorist (Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts) from exhibition at Knoedler & Co., New York, in
solo show and his sculpture Head (1938) Worlds Fair (Expo 58) and the Venice Died 1973 in Praz-Coutant, France Antonio Tpies became one of the most fa- 1950 to 1952. After graduation he taught 1917. The following year he moved to Se-
was purchased by the Museum of Modern Biennale. In 1964 Soto was included in Rufino Tamayo mous European artists of his time. He first at Nanyang Academy in 1956 and 1957; attle, where he first came in contact with
Art, New York. After he received a Guggen- Documenta Kassel and again in the Venice Frank Stella Sculptor Alina Szapocznikow once ex- Born 1899 in Oaxaca, Mexico studied law at the Universidad de Barcelona later that year he commenced his career the Bah faith and converted. His enduring
heim fellowship in 1950, his works expand- Biennale. His breakthrough sculpture se- Born 1936 in Malden, MA, USA plained that she was searching for form, Died 1991 in Mexico City, Mexico (University of Barcelona) but quit in order to as an illustrator and designer of books and interest in East Asian philosophy and aes-
ed in scale and became more abstract; he ries, the Pntrables (The Penetrables; Lives and works in New York, NY, USA searching for the greatest expression study drawing at the Academia Valls (Valls advertising. Showing great attention and af- thetics (Chinese calligraphy, Persian and
later added color to some works. In 1962 196797) consists of vinyl or metal tubes, of sensuality or dramatic quality. After Rufino Arellanes Tamayo was a figurative Academy), Barcelona, in 1944. Following fection for his people and surroundings, he Arabic script) was nurtured by his friendship
the Italian government invited him to cre- hung from a gridwork, which viewers can Frank Stella pioneered both post-painterly spending several years in ghettos and painter who incorporated Surrealist influenc- his interest in matter over draftsmanship, created detailed painted and drawn records with the Chinese painter Teng Kuei and his
ate 27 sculptures for the Festival dei Due pass through. His hometown of Ciudad abstraction in the 1960s and postmodernist prisons during World War II, she moved to es in his work. He moved to Mexico City after he began to experiment with materials of Singapores vanishing traditional urban travels abroad. In 1925 Tobey left Seattle
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for Paris, then traveled in Europe and the Advanced Visual Studies (196970). Van- 1958, precursor to the Nouveau Ralisme you thought pop, you could never see Amer- Wols Andrew (Newell) Wyeth -
Yosuke Yamahata
Middle East for about two years. His journey DerBeeks work was included in the Soft- (New Realism) manifesto of 1960. Villegls ica the same way again. Warhol broke the (Alfred Otto Wolfgang Schulze) Born 1917 in Chadds Ford, PA, USA Born 1917 in Singapore
to China and Japan in 1934 eventually led ware exhibition at the Jewish Museum, New works have been featured in more than 100 boundaries between high and low art in his Born 1913 in Berlin, Germany Died 2009 in Chadds Ford, PA, USA Died 1966 in Tokyo, Japan
to the development of his white writings. York, in 1970. His work was later exhibited at exhibitions in the U.S. and Europe. famous New York studio, the Factory, ex- Died 1951 in Paris, France
These abstract compositions in a subdued Gnther Uecker the Whitney Biennial (1983) and the Venice panding the scope of his work to sculpture, Andrew Wyeth was a realist painter whose -
Yosuke Yamahata is best known for his pho-
palette, with dense layers of calligraphic Born 1930 in Wendorf, Germany Biennale (2013). photography, experimental film, and video. A key figure of the tachisme movement, work, as one critic put it, represented con- tographs of Nagasaki on August 10, 1945,
lines, were first exhibited in 1944 at the Lives in Dsseldorf, Germany Wolf Vostell Wols left his parents home in Dresden to tinuity and permanence in the face of insta- the day after the city was bombed by U.S.
Willard Gallery, New York. Tobeys art has Born 1932 in Leverkusen, Germany pursue art at age seventeen. Following a bilities and uncertainties of modern life. forces at the end of World War II. He first
been featured in numerous solo and retro- Gnther Uecker studied painting at the Emilio Vedova Died 1998 in Berlin, Germany Susanne Wenger photography apprenticeship in 1930 at Wyeth began studying art in 1932 under his studied at Hosei University in Tokyo, but
spective exhibitions since the early 1960s. Kunsthochschule Berlin-Weiensee (Berlin- Born 1919 in Venice, Italy Born 1915 in Graz, Austria the Reimann-Schule (Reimann School) in father, the illustrator Newell Convers Wyeth left in 1936 before completing his studies
He received the Guggenheim International Weissensee University) from 1949 to Died 2006 in Venice, Italy Wolf Vostell is known as a co-founder of the Died 2009 in Osogbo, Nigeria Berlin, he moved to Paris in 1932 at the (18821945). Wyeths first solo showat in order to begin working in his fathers
Award (1956) and the International Award 1953, where he was influenced by social Fluxus movement of the 1960s and '70s as recommendation of Lszl Moholy-Nagy the Macbeth Gallery, New York, in 1936 photographic company, G. T. Sun (Graphic
for Painting at the Venice Biennale (1958). realism. He continued his studies in 1955 Emilio Vedova was a modernist painter and well as for his pioneering works in instal- Susanne Wenger is known both for her art (18951946). Acquainted with leaders of was a complete success. Although his early -
Times Sun). During World War II, Yosuke
at the Kunstakademie Dsseldorf (Dussel- a pioneer in Italys art informel movement. In lation, happenings, and environmental art. and for her commitment to restoring Yoruba the Parisian art scene such as Fernand works were in watercolor, he soon changed Yamahata worked as a Japanese military
dorf Art Academy) under the Expressionist the mid-1930s he spent time in Rome and His education included studies at the cole shrines in her adopted home of Osogbo, Lger (18811955), Amde Ozenfant to egg tempera, a Renaissance-era me- photographer in China and elsewhere in
Tony Tuckson printmaker Otto Pankok (18931966). Florence. He joined the Milanese anti-fas- nationale suprieure des Beaux-Arts (Na- Nigeria. Her career began with studies at (18861966), and Hans Arp (18861966), dium that demanded great care and deli- Asia. After the bombing of Nagasaki on
Born 1921 in Port Said, Egypt Uecker remained in Dsseldorf, where he cist artists association Corrente in 1942, tional School of Fine Arts) in Paris (1955) the Akademie der Schnen Knste (Aca Wols expanded his creative output in paint- cacy, allowing complexity and detail in his August 9, 1945, he was sent to record the
Died 1973 in Sydney Australia joined a vibrant emerging art scene and and from 1944 to 1945 he worked for the and the Kunstakademie Dsseldorf (Dus- demy of Fine Arts), Vienna (193337), under ing, writing, music, and photography during canvases. Wyeths paintings blended vivid -
bombs effects. Within twelve hours Yosu-
became interested in the philosophies Italian resistance. In 1946 he signed the seldorf Art Academy; in 1957). Starting in Herbert Boeckl (18941966). During the 1930s. In 1937, he was commissioned landscapes and insightful portraits of the ke Yamahata took nearly 120 photographs
Tony Tuckson, a preeminent Australian ar of Buddhism and Taoism. His art prac- Al di l di Guernica (Beyond Guernica) 1958, Vostell initiated happenings across World War II she remained in Vienna and to photograph the Worlds Fair in Paris. At land and the people around his hometown of the devastated landscape and the citys
tist and Abstract Expressionist, worked in tice had a turning point in 1957 when he manifesto and co-founded the Nuova Europe and New York. That same year, he Graz, joined the resistance, and helped the outbreak of World War II in 1939, Wols of Chadds Ford, in rural Pennsylvania, and survivors, the greatest immediate photo-
pencil, charcoal, ink, watercolor, gouache, hammered nails into his canvases. Unit- Secessione Italiana (New Italian Seces- created the first installation to incorporate a refugees, including the fantastic realist was sent to an internment camp near Aix- his summer home in Cushing, Maine. One graphic documentation of Nagasaki or
and mixed media. His emphasis on line ing Buddhist meditation with art making, sion) in Venice. Vedova first exhibited in the TV set (German View from the Black Room Ernst Fuchs (19302015). She also made en-Provence. In 1940 he fled to Cassis, subject was Christina Olson, a polio survi- Hiroshima by a single photographer. His
and brushstrokes reflected his spontane- Uecker explored the ritual repetition of Venice Biennale in 1948 and later received Cycle, 195863). Appropriating the term her first Surrealistic drawings during this where he began creating drawings and vor and friend of Wyeths wife, Betsy. Helga photographs were published in the Japa-
ous and highly gestural approach. Tuckson hammering and the reductive abstrac- the Grand Prize for Painting (1960) and D-coll/age from the French language period. After the war she worked for the watercolors. With an increasing interest in Testorf, a neighbor in Chadds Ford, was an- nese magazine Mainichi Shibun, but due
studied painting at the Hornsey School of tion the nails shadows cast on canvas. In the Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement in 1954, Vostell reintroduced the Dadaist Communist childrens magazine Unsere abstraction, Wols gradually shifted his fo- other notable subject. Wyeth received many to postwar censorship they were not seen
Art in London from 1937 to 1939 and at the 1960, Uecker began to add kinetic com- (1997). In the early 1950s his style shifted legacy of deconstructing consumerist Zeitung (Our Newspaper) and co-founded cus from the line to the interplay between awards during his lifetime. He was the first widely until 1952, in the magazines Life and
Kingston School of Art, serving in the Royal ponents, such as engines, to his works. from geometric abstraction to a spontane- items (like street posters) as a means of the Vienna Art Club in 1947. In 1946 she color fields and to the dripping of paint. artist to receive the Presidential Medal of Asahi Gurafu, in the book Kiroku-shashin:
Air Force from 1940 onward. When he was He was included among forty artists in a ous, gestural informalism. His series include encouraging independent thinking. Vostells traveled to Italy and Switzerland, exhibiting Art critic Michel Tapi would coin the term Freedom (1963) and was the first living art- Genbaku no Nagasaki (Photo-Record: The
sent to Sydney in 1946, he pursued studies series of one night pop-up exhibitions in Scontro di situazioni (Collision of Situa- artistic achievements earned him early at the Galerie des Eaux Vives (Gallery of art autre (other art) to describe the oil ist to exhibit at the U.S. White House (1966). Atomic Bomb of Nagasaki), and in the exhi-
at the East Sydney Technical College for Dsseldorf organized by Heinz Mack tions), Ciclo della Protesta (Protest Cycle), international recognition. He helped organ- Living Waters). In 1949 she met the scholar paintings that Wols began in 1946. Wols In 1977 he made his first trip to Europe bition and catalogue Family of Man (1955).
three years. In 1949 Tuckson was deeply (b. 1931) and Otto Piene (19282014), and Cicli della Natura (Cycles of Nature). ize the Festum Fluxorum in Wiesbaden of and author Ulli Beier (19222011) in Paris held his first exhibition at Galerie Ren to be admitted to the Acadmie des Beaux- In 1965 he became violently ill with terminal
impressed by an exhibition of aboriginal the founders of the anti-Expressionist His first solo show outside Italy was at the 1962, among other events with the Fluxus and the two soon married and moved to Drouin in 1945; his second exhibition at Arts (Academy of Fine Arts) in Paris. cancer, exactly twenty years after hisexpo-
art from Arnhem Land from the collection ZERO movement. Ueckers work was Catherine Viviano Gallery, New York (1951). group. Vostell was granted major retro- Nigeria. Wenger converted to Yoruba religion the gallery two years later earned him sure to radiation at Nagasaki.
of Ronald Berndt. After he became assis- displayed in an exhibition entitled Das In 1960 Vedova designed lighting and cos- spectives at the Muse d'art moderne de while recovering from a serious illness and widspread acclaim. His work was shown
tant director, then deputy director (1957), Rote Bild (The Red Image) on April 24, tumes for Luigi Nonos opera Intolleranza la ville de Paris (Modern Art Museum of eventually became a Yoruba priestess. She posthumously in the first three editions of
of the Art Gallery of New South Wales, he
pioneered curatorial work in promoting and
exhibiting Australian aboriginal and Mela-
nesian art. Tuckson painted and drew his
1958. He joined ZERO in 1961. Later
he participated in Documenta, Kassel
(1968) and the Venice Biennale (1970).
After the ZERO group dissolved in 1966,
60. He created his first Plurimi (Many),
freestanding, hinged sculpture-paintings
made of wooden panels and metal frame-
works in the following year. His Absurdes
the City of Paris) and the Neue Nation-
algalerie (New National Gallery), Berlin,
in 1974, and participated in Documenta,
Kassel in 1977. In the 1980s, Vostell ex-
divorced Beier in 1958 and married a lo-
cal drummer in 1959. Besides restoring a
Yoruba shrine to the goddess Osogbo, she
built monumental sculptures and made
Documenta, Kassel (1955; 1959; 1964).
Andrzej Wrblewski
Y Ramss Younan
Born 1913 in Minya, Egypt
Died 1966 in Cairo, Egypt
whole life and produced some 450 pain Uecker turned to Conceptualism, body art Berliner Tagebuch 64 (Absurd Berlin Diary panded his practice into environmen- large-scale textiles with a special batik and Born 1927 in Vilnius, Lithuania Vasily Yakovlev Ramss Younan is recognized as one of
tings and more than a thousand drawings. and theatre design. 64) was first shown at Documenta, Kass- tal art, creating immersive installations dye technique. In 1965 Wenger founded the Died 1957 in the Tatra Mountains, Poland Born 1893 in Moscow, Russian Empire the founders of Egyptian Surrealism. He
Although his work in later years was over- el (1964). Vedova received many prizes, for the FLUXUS-Train traveling across artist group New Sacred Art with Osogbo Died 1953 in Moscow, USSR finished his studies at the cole des Beaux-
shadowed by his museum career, he had including the Guggenheim International Germany. He founded the Museo Vostell, artists and craftsmen. Andrzej Wrblewski, who developed an Arts (School of Fine Arts) in Cairo in 1933
two solo shows at Watters Gallery in East Award (1956). dedicated to his work, in 1976 in Malpartida individual approach to realist painting, be- After studying mathematics and physics, and became a secondary school art teacher
Sydney in 1970 and 1973.
W
Gregor Heinrich Hellberg) Stan VanDerBeek Lives and works in Paris, France University, 194548) and trained at the Ak- Konstantin Korovin (18611939). Yakovlevs Part du Sable (with poet Georges Henein,
Born 1933 in Dresden, Germany Born 1927 in New York, NY, USA Jack Whitten works in gestural abstraction, ademia Sztuk Pi e knych (Academy of Fine study of the European old masters and 19141973) and al-Tatawwurthe first
Lives and works in Israel Died 1984 in Columbia, MD, USA Jacques (Mah de la) Villegl is known for incorporating aspects of sculpture and col- Arts, 194552). Even as a student he be- Russian icon painting was bolstered by his socialist magazine in Egypt. From 1942 to
making art from scraps of torn posters. He lage. During his premedical studies at Tus- gan to rebel against the predominant Kapist role as a conservator for various institutes 1944, Younan edited Al Magalla al Gedida
Igael Tumarkin is a painter, printmaker, Stan VanDerBeek was a pioneering ex- began his painting studies in 1944 at the Andy Warhol kegee Institute, Whitten discovered the leg- style (colorism) that was promoted in Polish and museums in Moscow. In the late 1920s (All-New Magazine), the first Trotskyist bul-
and sculptor who created such memorials perimental filmmaker. He first studied art cole des beaux-arts (School of Fine Arts), (born Andrew Warhola) acy of inventor, scientist, and artist George academic circles. Searching for a unique and early 1930s, he visited Western Europe letin published in Arabic. Younan immigrat-
as Holocaust and Revival (1971) in Rabin and architecture at New Yorks Cooper Rennes, where he met his fellow student, Born 1928 in Pittsburgh, PA, USA Washington Carver (18601943). In the and personal style, free from ideology, he several times, including an extended so- ed to France after World War II, showing in
Square, Tel Aviv, and a memorial to fallen Union, graduating in 1952. He continued Raymond Hains (19262005). From 1947 Died 1987 in New York, NY, USA late 1950s, while studying art at Southern inaugurated a Self-Teaching Art School at journ in Italy at the invitation of Maxim Gorky the Expositions Surralistes Internationaux
soldiers in the Negev. His father, Martin his studies at Black Mountain College in to 1949, Villegl studied architecture at the University in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, he the Akademia Sztuk Pieknych w Krakowie (18691936) in 1932. Astaunchly conser (International Surrealist Exhibitions) in Paris
Hellberg, was a German theater actor and Asheville, North Carolina, where he met cole suprieure des beaux-arts de Nantes Andy Warhol was a pioneer in the American became involved in the civil rights move- (Krakow Academy of Fine Arts) in 1948. vative artist, Yakovlev sought to couple the and Prague in 1947. In 1948, he published
director. In 1935, when he was only two such crucial influences and collaborators Mtropole (School of Fine Arts in Nantes Pop art movement of the 1960s. He initially ment. Whitten moved to New York in 1960 His work in oil paint and gouache featured skill of Renaissance and Baroque painting a pamphlet with Henein, Notes sur une
years old, he moved from Germany to Israel as Buckminster Fuller (18951983), John Mtropole). Dissatisfied with both fields of studied pictorial design at the Carnegie Ins and earned a BFA degree from Cooper elements of Surrealism and abstraction, in- with the ideological program of Soviet so- ascse hystrique (Notes on a Hysterical
with his Jewish mother and his stepfather, Cage (19121992), and Josef Albers study, he began to collect objects he found titute of Technology (now Carnegie Mellon Union in 1964. During the 1960s, Whitten cluding geometric and stylized forms. In the cialist realism. He produced many pain Asceticism), critiquing elements of Surre-
Herzl Tumarkin. After his military service in (18881976). While working on the chil- on the Atlantic beaches and then to reas- University). After earning a BFA degree in created dynamic works, from brightly color- late 1940s he devoted himself to his Exe- tings, usually portraits, in a highly finished alist practice, particularly automatism and
the Israeli Sea Corps (195154), he studied drens television show Winky Dink and semble them as sculptures, such as Fils 1949, he moved to New York, where he be- ed abstractions to ghostly evocations in his cutions series, depicting scenes of wartime academic style throughout the 1930s and the movements relationship to Marxism.
sculpture with Rudi Lehmann (19031977) You (broadcast 195357), VanDerBeek dacierChausse des Corsaires, Saint-Malo came a successful commercial artist and il- Head series (1964). He often experiments atrocities during the German occupation of 1940s. During the Great Patriotic War He broke with the French Surrealists that
at Ein Hod, an artists village near Haifa. developed innovative ways for viewers to (Son of Steel, Corsairs Highway, Saint Malo; lustrator. He turned to painting and drawing with color, technique, and materials (iron ox- Poland. Also during that time, as a critic and (194145) Yako vlev visited the front to same year. Younan translated the writings
Tumarkin returned to Germany in 1955 and interact with the show. This experience, 1947). Villegl moved to Paris in 1949 and in the early 1950s, developing a whimsical ide, dry pigments, crushed Mylar, ash, bone, theoretician, he published nearly eighty ar- study military life, and in 1946 he creat- of Albert Camus, Franz Kafka and Arthur
worked with the poet and playwright Bertolt and his collaborations with other artists reunited with Hains, who introduced him style based on traced photographs and and blood). During the 1970s he created ticles on art and literature. He often painted ed his iconic Portrait of Georgy Zhukov, Rimbaud in Arabic. He returned to Egypt
Brecht (18981956) at the Berliner Ensemble including Claes Oldenburg (b. 1929), Allan to dcollage. From their first collaborative other imagery. In the early 1960s, as his textured surfaces with squeegees, rakes, on both sides of the canvas, thus creating Marshal of the Soviet Union. Yakovlev twice in 1956 and represented the country in the
and assisted the stage designer Karl von Kaprow (19272006), and Merce Cunning- work, Ach Alma Manetro (1949; named for interest in American popular culture co- and Afro combs. In the 1980s he came to challenging, often contradictory combina- received the coveted Stalin Prize (1943; 1961 Bienal de So Paulo and the 1964
Appen (19001981). He continued his work ham (19192009)led VanDerBeek to ex- visible word fragments), and continuing incided with the emerging Pop art move- consider paint as similar to skin, but in the tions of recto and verso. In the early 1950s 1949), and in 1944 he was bestowed with Venice Biennale.
as a sculptor and stage designer in Europe periment with what cinematic theorist Gene until 1954, the two artists ripped torn post- ment, he adapted images from advertising 1990s, he began to create canvases with he briefly adopted the social realist style, the title of Peoples Artist of the RSFSR. In
until 1961. After traveling abroad and living Youngblood has called expanded cinema. ers from public billboards and glued them and commercial products. He then turned small painted tiles. Whittens work has and from 1955 onward he focused on the 1952 Yakovlev began work on his last sig-
for several years in the United States, he In the 1960s VanDerBeek worked with onto their canvases. Villegl continued to from hand-painted canvases to large-scale been featured at the 55th Venice Biennale family as his subject. He died in a mountain- nificant project, supervising the restoration
finally settled in Tel Aviv in the late 1970s. computer programmer and physicist Ken explore the artistic, documentary, and so- silkscreened images and began to feature (2013); MoMA PS1, New York (2007); and eering accident at age twenty-nine. of The Siege of Sevastopol (19024) by
His work has been shown internationally, Knowlton (b. 1931), at Bell Laboratories ciocritical potential of this technique, which celebrity portraits and other cultural icons, the Studio Museum in Harlem, New York Franz Roubaud (18561928).
and he has received many awards, including in New Jersey, to develop the language of he called affiches lacres (torn posters), unveiling his new works in Andy Warhol: (2006). He received an honorary doctorate
the prestigious Israel Prize, in 2004. computer animation. VanDerBeek taught for more than five decades. While his ear- Campbells Soup Cans at Ferus Gallery, Los from the San Francisco Art Institute in 2014.
animation and film at Columbia University ly works focused on word fragments, he Angeles, in 1962. As Warhol described his
(196365) and at the Massachusetts later became more interested in colors and work, Once you got pop, you could never
Institute of Technologys Center for shapes. Villegl wrote Collective Realities in see a sign the same way again. And once
800 801
Z while still an art student at Tehran School
of Fine Arts, Zenderoudi inaugurated
Sagha Khaneh, a pictorial movement that
would revive the spirit of Eastern gestural
Yosef Zaritsky writing. The movement is named for water
Born 1891 in Boryspol, Russian Empire dispensers around Tehran that are deco-
Died 1985 in Tel Aviv, Israel rated with popular illuminations or verses
from the Koran. Sagha Khaneh sought to
Yosef Zaritsky was intimately connected incorporate Iranian national, religious, and
with the development of Israeli art. Zaritsky folkloric elements. Zenderoudi soon re-
studied at the Akademiya khudozhestv ceived recognition, winning awards at the
(Academy of Art) in Kiev from 1910 to second Tehran Biennial and the Venice
1914. During World War I he was drafted Biennale (both 1960), the Bienal de Sao
into the Russian army, serving from 1915 Paulo (1961), and the Paris Biennale (1962).
to 1917. In 1923 he immigrated to Jerusa- In 1961 he moved to Paris, where he devel-
lem, moving with his family to Tel Aviv in the oped his calligraphic style. While his early
mid-1920s. There he became actively in- works remained figurative with patterns
volved in the citys cultural life, painting the of ornamental, calligraphic, and symbolic
daily lives of the citys inhabitants, primari- elementssuch as Alyad (The Hand; 1959)
ly in watercolor. He went to Paris in 1927, or Alshshams w alasad (The Sun and the
where he was inspired by the modernist Lion; 1960)his later paintings focused on
art he saw. With the New Horizons move- the abstract qualities of Persian calligra-
ment in 1948, Zaritsky and his fellow art- phy. Zenderoudi once explained his goal of
ists sought to promote progressive Zionist global communication: Men the world over
modernism. Beginning in the 1930s, Zarit- are identical and can all read my work. What
sky painted hundreds of watercolors of matters is to achieve a harmony between
Tel Aviv rooftops. The paintings became the person who created it and the spectator.
increasing abstract and this period proved In 1972 his illustrated Quran won the UNE-
a turning point for his practice. In 1948, he SCO annual award for most beautiful book.
became the Chairman of the Association of
Painters and Sculptors. He showed in the
1948 Venice Biennale. Zaritsky traveled to Yuri Zlotnikov
Europe in the mid-1950s, where he mount- Born 1930 in Moscow, USSR
ed a solo show at the Stedelijk Museum in Lives and works in Moscow, Russia
Amsterdam in 1955.
Yuri Zlotnikov was a pioneer of abstract art in
the post-Stalinist Soviet Union. Paintings, he
Princess Fahrelnissa Zeid said, should reveal the laws of psychophys-
Born 1901 in Bykada, Turkey iological motor behavior and the nature of
Died 1991 in Amman, Jordan reactions to color and form. He studied at the
Moscow Middle Art School for gifted children
Fahrelnissa Zeid was one of the first women in the 1940s and in the sculpture studio of the
to enroll at the Gzel Sanatlar Akademisi Anna Golubkina muzey (Anna Golubkina Mu-
(Academy of Fine Arts) in Istanbul in 1920. seum). In the 1950s, working with other art-
She traveled to Paris in 1928, where she ists at the studio of Vladimir Slepyan (1930
studied at the Acadmie Ranson ([Paul] 1998), Zlotnikov sought a visual language
Ranson Academy). Together with her first rooted in science and psychology. His first
husband, the novelist and writer Izzet Melih abstract work, Schetchik Geygera (Geiger
Devrim (1887-1960), she traveled through- Counter; 1956), was followed by his famous
out Europe and learned about European Sistema signala (Signal System) series
modern art movements. Her second mar- (195762). Inspired by De Stijl painter Piet
riage, to the Iraqi ambassador Prince Zeid Mondrian (18721944) and Suprematist art-
bin Hussein in 1934, also led to extensive ist Kazimir Malevich (18781938), Zlotnikov
travel throughout Europe, the Middle East, studied mathematics, cybernetics, and human
and the United States. It is not surprising, psychology. In compositions of small, colorful
therefore, that Zeids art shows influences geometric elements on a white background
of Byzantine iconography and Sufism as he attempted to link human perception with
well as Western Fauvism (painterly quali the communicative potential of abstraction.
ties, bold colors) and Cubism (fractured After 1962 Zlotnikov returned to a figurative
geometric forms). Although she became style, and in the late 1960s he created sche-
most famous for her abstractions, Zeid also matic compositions (Metaforikoy [Metapho-
painted portraits and scenes of everyday rics]) inspired by music and mass movement.
life. In 1942 she joined and exhibited with He later favored a more impulsive, naive style
the D-Group in Istanbul. Two years later in his abstract improvisations. Zlotnikovs first
she held her first solo show in Istanbul, solo exhibition was held in 1962; the Moskovs-
then exhibited work in London and Paris. kiy muzey sovremennogo iskusstva (Moscow
Her breakthrough came in 1950 with her Museum of Modern Art) organized a major
first New York show at the Hugo Gallery, retrospective in 2011.
where she presented a series of large ab-
stractions. In 1975 Zeid moved to Amman,
Jordan, where she taught at the Royal Art
Institute and established the Fahrelnissa
Zeid Institute of Fine Arts.
802
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2009. Rosen, Margit, ed. A Little-Known Story Christopher Heathcote. Australian Painting, Reimer, 1980. Yamahata, Yosuke. Photographing the
Plummer, Brenda Gayle. In Search of about a Movement, a Magazine, and the 17882000, South Melbourne, Vic.: Oxford BombA Memo. In Atomized Nagasaki:
Power: African Americans in the Era of Computer's Arrival in Art. New Tendencies University Press, 2001. U The Bombing of Nagasaki: A Photographic
Decolonization, 19561974. New York: and Bit International, 19611973, Karls Smith, Terry. Contemporary Art: World Ushiroshoji, Masahiro. The Birth of Record. Edited by Munehito Kitajima, n.p.
Cambridge University Press, 2013. ruhe, Germany: ZKM/Center for Art and Currents. London: Laurence King; Upper Modern Art in Southeast Asia: Artists and Tokyo: Daiichi Publishing, 1952. Trans
Prschmann, Dirk, and Margriet Schave Media; Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2011. Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall, Movements. Translated by Janet Goff. lated by Miryam Sas in Nagasaki Journey:
maker, eds. ZERO. Translated by Jennifer Rosenfeld, Allan, and Norton T. Dodge, 2011. Fukuoka City: Fukuoka Art Museum, 1997. The Photographs of Yosuke Yamahata,
Taylor. exh. cat. Amsterdam: Stedelijk Mu eds. Nonconformist Art: The Soviet Solt, Mary Ellen, ed. Concrete Poetry: A August 10, 1945 = [Nagasaki jani]. San
seum; Cologne: Verlag der Buchhandlung Experience, 19561986. New York: World View. Bloomington: Indiana Francisco: Pomegranate Artbooks, 1995.
Walther Knig, 2015. Thames and Hudson, 1996. University Press, 1968. 4445. Available online at: https://www.
Potts, Alex. Experiments in Modern exploratorium.edu/nagasaki/related/jour
Realism: World-making, Politics, and the neyYamahata.html (accessed September
Everyday in Postwar European and 7, 2016).
American Art. New Haven and London:
Yale University Press, 2013.
810 811
Alejandro Anreus Museums in Kibbutzim won the Ben-Zvi Zabel Award for Culture and Theory. She has Pedro Erber
Prize in 2010. She curated the Israeli Pa published Russian 20th Century Art (2000,
Alejandro Anreus is Professor of Art His vilion, Venice Biennale of Architecture (with Trilistnik, Moscow), as well as various es Pedro Erber is an Associate Professor in the
tory and Latin American/Latino Studies at Yuval Yaski, 2010), the Israeli Pavilion, So says on Soviet realism and the art of cultural Department of Romance Studies at Cornell
William Paterson University, Wayne, New Paulo Bienal (1996), the Israeli Pavilion, revolution, and has curated the exhibition University. He holds a PhD in Asian Studies
Jersey. Anreus was curator at the Montclair Istanbul Biennale (1992), and numerous Struggling for the Banner: Soviet Art between from Cornell University, an MA in philosophy
Art Museum (19871993) and the Jer exhibitions in Israel, Japan, Germany, and Trotsky and Stalin (Moscow Museum of Con from Pontifcia Universidade Catlica do
sey City Museum (19932001). He is the France. temporary Art, 2007). Her other curatorial Rio de Janeiro, and a BA in philosophy from
author of Orozco in Gringoland: The Years projects include Monday Begins on Satur- the Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro.
in New York (2001) and Luis Cruz Azace- day (with David Riff; First Bergen Assem Erber is the author of Breaching the Frame:
ta (2014), editor of and contributor to Ben Homi K. Bhabha bly, Bergen, Norway, 2013). She coedited The Rise of Contemporary Art in Brazil and
Shahn and the Passion of Sacco and Van- Post-Post-Soviet?: Art, Politics and Society Japan (2015), Poltica e verdade no pensa-
zetti (2001), and coeditor of and contribu Homi K. Bhabha is Anne F. Rothenberg in Russia at the Turn of the Decade (2013). mento de Martin Heidegger (2004), and nu
tor to The Social and the Real: Political Art Professor of the Humanities, Director of the She lives in Cologne and Moscow. merous articles on art and aesthetics, liter
of the 1930s in the Western Hemisphere Mahindra Humanities Center, and Senior Ad ature, philosophy, and political thought. His
(2006) and Mexican Muralism: A Critical visor to the President and Provost at Harvard curatorial projects include The Emergence
History (2012). His essays and articles have University. In addition to his most famous Jea Denegri of the Contemporary: Avant-Garde Art in Ja-
appeared in Art Journal, Third Text, Arte- work, The Location of Culture (1994); numer pan, 19501970 at Rio de Janeiros Pao
Facto, Commonweal, and Encuentro de la ous co-edited volumes; and works in journals Jea Denegri is an art historian and critic Imperial (JulyAugust 2016).
Cultura Cubana. A published poet, he is the such as Art Forum (regular contributor), Criti- based in Belgrade. He has curated numer
author of Memento mori (2010) and Los ex- cal Inquiry, and Art in America; he has written ous exhibitions, including the Yugoslavian
iliados suean (2013). many essays on contemporary artists. His participation in the Paris Biennale (1971, Gao Minglu
forthcoming books will include a collection 1976, 1983) and the Venice Biennale
of essays on contemporary diasporic art and (1976, 1982). He is a frequent contributor Gao Minglu is Research Professor in the
Ariella Azoulay another on culture, security, and globalization. to art magazines, newspapers, and exhibition Department of History of Art and Archi
Bhabha is a past jury member of the Venice catalogues. His most recent publications tecture at the University of Pittsburgh and
Ariella Azoulay is Professor of Modern Cul Biennale, serves on the Academic Commit include Themes in Serbian Art 19451970: Professor and Head of the Fine Arts De
ture and Media and Comparative Literature, tee for the Shanghai Power Station of Art, From Socialist Realism to Kinetic Art partment at the Sichuan Academy of Fine
Brown University, as well as a documenta and holds honorary degrees from Universit (2009) and the five-volume work Serbian Art Arts, Chongqing. His recent books include
ry-film director and an independent curator Paris 8, University College London, and Free 19502000 (2013). Total Modernity and the Avant-Garde in
of archives and exhibitions. Her books on University Berlin. In 2012 he was conferred Twentieth-Century Chinese Art (2011) and
photography include From Palestine to Is- the Government of Indias Padma Bhushan The Wall: Reshaping Contemporary Chi-
rael: A Photographic Record of Destruction Presidential Award in the field of literature Nikolas Drosos nese Art (2005).
and State Formation, 19471950 (2011), and education, and received the Humboldt
Civil Imagination: The Political Ontology of Research Prize in 2015. Nikolas Drosos is an art historian special
Photography (2012), The Civil Contract of izing in art and architecture from postwar Romy Golan
Photography (2008), and Am Deelle Lski Eastern Europe in its global context. He
and Horizontal Photography (2013). She has Emily Braun holds a PhD from the Graduate Center, Romy Golan is Professor of 20th Century
curated Enough! The Natural Violence of the City University of New York. His disserta art at the Graduate Center, City University
813
Andrea Giunta He has curated major exhibitions at venues writing has appeared in October, Artforum, Anne Massey coeditor of Nka: Journal of Contemporary range broadly across the field of modern Democratic Surround: Multimedia and Amer-
including the Venice and Dakar Biennales, Res: Anthropology and Aesthetics, Les African Art. His curatorial credits include and contemporary art and theory, with pub ican Liberalism from World War II to the
Andrea Giunta is Professor of Latin Amer the Museum Boijmans Van Beuningen, Rot Cahiers du Muse national d'arte moderne, Anne Massey is Professor of Design and the Uche Okeke retrospective in Lagos in lications that include Czanne and the End Psychedelic Sixties (2013), From Counter-
ican Art at the University of Texas, Austin. terdam, and the Sharjah Art Museum. In col Grey Room, Texte zur Kunst, and other jour Culture, Associate Dean of Research, and 1993, the Nigerian Pavilion at the 1st Jo of Impressionism (1984), Critical Terms for culture to Cyberculture: Stewart Brand, the
An English edition of her book Avant-garde, laboration with the Sharjah Art Foundation, nals. Lee is currently at work on Think Tank Head of the Graduate School at London hannesburg Biennale (1995), Seven Stories Art History (coedited, 1996, 2003), Bar- Whole Earth Network, and the Rise of Digi-
Internationalism and Politics: Argentine Art Hassan is working on two major exhibition Aesthetics: Mid-Century Modernism, the College of Communication. She studied about Modern Art in Africa (1995), The Short nett Newman: A Catalogue Raisonn (co tal Utopianism (2006), and Echoes of Com-
in the Sixties was published in 2007. and book projects: The Khartoum School: Cold War and the Rise of Visual Cultue, a the history of modern art and design at Century: Independence and Liberation authored, 2004), Doubt (2008), Between bat: The Vietnam War in American Memory
The Making of the Modern Art Movement book considering how the interdisciplinary, the University of Northumbria, where she Movements in Africa, 19451994 (2001), Sense and de Kooning (2011), and Ellsworth (1996). Before coming to Stanford he taught
in Sudan (1945Present) and The Egyp- cybernetic, and systems-based interests of also completed her PhD, The Independ the Gwangju Biennale (2014), and Who Kelly: New York Drawings 19541962 Communication at Harvards John F. Kenne
Catherine Grenier tian Surrealists: When Art Becomes Liberty think tanks such as the RAND Corporation ent Group: Towards a Redefinition. She Knows Tomorrow (2010). Okeke-Agulu is a (2014). Artists featured in Shiffs recent dy School of Government and MITs Sloan
(19381965), which are to premier in Shar sponsored new approaches to the study of is the world expert on the interdisciplinary columnist for The Huffington Post and main essays have included Georg Baselitz, Mark School of Management. He also worked for
Heritage curator and art historian, Cathe jah and Cairo in 2016. art and visual culture. history and contemporary significance of tains the blog Ofodunka: Art. Life. Politics. In Bradford, Peter Doig, Marlene Dumas, ten years as a journalist, writing about the
rine Grenier has been the Director of the the Independent Group. She has written Zeng Fanzhi, Ellen Gallagher, Jasper Johns, arts and the sciences for newspapers and
2016 he received the Frank Jewett Mather
Fondation Giacometti, Paris, since 2014. eight books, including Interior Design since Award for Distinction in Art Criticism from Donald Judd, Alex Katz, Per Kirkeby, Julie magazines ranging from the Boston Globe
She previously served as deputy direc Yule Heibel Anneka Lenssen 1900 (1990, 3rd ed. 2006), Blue Guide: the College Art Association. Mehretu, Piet Mondrian, Claude Monet, Sunday Magazine to Nature.
tor of the Muse National dArt Moderne, Berlin and Eastern Germany (1994), The Pablo Picasso, David Reed, Bridget Riley,
Centre Pompidou, where she curated Yule Heibel studied sculpture under Robert Anneka Lenssen is Assistant Professor Independent Group: Modernism and Mass Richard Serra, Joel Shapiro, Keith Sonnier,
over thirty exhibitions of modern and con Jacobsen at Munichs Academy of Fine Arts of Global Modern Art at the University of Culture in Britain, 194559 (1996), Hol- Stephen Petersen Cy Twombly, and Vincent van Gogh. Ulrich Wilmes
temporary artists, including the Boltanski before turning to art history. She studied California, Berkeley, with a focus on twen lywood beyond the Screen: Design and
installation for Monumenta 2009 at the with Serge Guilbaut at the University of tieth-century painting and visual practices Material Culture (2000), Out of the Ivory Stephen Petersen teaches art history and Ulrich Wilmes is Chief Curator of Haus der
Grand Palais in Paris and more recently British Columbia (MA) and with T. J. Clark in global context and the cultural politics of Tower: The Independent Group and Popular theory at the Corcoran School of the Arts Katy Siegel Kunst. He was a co-organizer of Skulptur
the Plural Modernities exhibition and the at Harvard (PhD). She subsequently taught the Middle East. Her writing has appeared Culture (2013), and ICA 194668 (2015). & Design at George Washington University, Projekte in Mnster 1987 and has served as
Martial Raysse retrospective at the Cen art history at the Massachusetts Institute in ARTMargins, Artforum, Bidoun, Ibraaz, She has appeared on BBC television and Washington, D.C. He is the author of Space- Katy Siegel is the inaugural Eugene V. and the Curator of Portikus, Frankfurt am Main,
tre Pompidou. Since joining the Fondation of Technology, Brown University, and Har Springerin, and other venues. Forthcoming Channel 4 as well as lecturing nationally Age Aesthetics: Lucio Fontana, Yves Klein, Clare E. Thaw Endowed Chair in Modern Curator of Contemporary Art and Deputy Di
Giacometti she has organised challenging vard Extension School. Her publications publications include a coedited volume of and internationally. and the Postwar European Avant-Garde American Art at Stony Brook University and rector of Lenbachhaus, Munich, and Deputy
Giacometti exhibitions at the Galleria dArte range from articles in peer-reviewed aca translated art writing from the Arab world, (2009), which examines postwar art in light Senior Programming and Research Curator Director of Museum Ludwig, Cologne. He
Moderna, Milan, the Fundacin Canal, Ma demic journals and university-press-pub Arab Art in the Twentieth Century: Primary of media and technology. His 2004 article at the Baltimore Museum of Art. Her books has curated numerous exhibitions and has
drid, the Pera Mzesi, Istanbul, and the lished books to popular magazine articles Documents, for the International Program at Mark Mazower in Science in Context, Explosive Proposi include The heroine Paint: After Franken- published extensively on artists including
Fonds Hlne & Edouard Leclerc, Lander (mostly on urban development and built the Museum of Modern Art, New York. She tions: Artists React to the Atomic Age, sur thaler (2015), Since 45: America and the Georg Baselitz, Mel Bochner, Chuck Close,
neau, Brittany. She has devoted numerous form) and blogs. She was cofounder of a is a Getty Residential Postdoctoral Fellow Mark Mazower is Professor of History at veyed artistic responses to the atom bomb Making of Contemporary Art (2011), and Hans Peter Feldmann, Dan Graham, Cristina
publications to such contemporary artists social-media and local news aggregator for the 201617 year, where she is prepar Columbia University, where he also directs in Europe and the United States in the Abstract Expressionism (2011). She has Iglesias, Jrg Immendorff, On Kawara,
as Annette Messager, Christian Boltanski, based in Victoria, Canada. She currently ing her first monograph, Being Mobilized, on the Heyman Center for the Humanities. His postwar decades. He has published sev written catalogue essays on modern and Ellsworth Kelly, Per Kirkeby, Matt Mullican,
Sophie Ristelhueber, and Maurizio Cattelan, lives in Greater Boston and is working on a painting and popular politics in Syria. prize-winning books include Inside Hitlers eral articles on the aesthetic and political contemporary artists including Wols, Georg Gerhard Richter, Ulrich Rckriem, Ed Ruscha,
and to modern artists including Salvador collection of essays. Greece: The Experience of Occupation, debates around art informel in the work of Baselitz, Rosalyn Drexler, Al Loving, Frank Wilhelm Sasnal, and Lawrence Weiner.
Dal. She publishes essays regularly, includ 19411944 (2001), which has recently ap Asger Jorn, Enrico Baj, and Lucio Fontana. Stella, Magnus Plessen, Eberhardt Have
ing La Fin des muses? (2013) and more Damian Lentini peared in a German translation; Dark Con- He has also written about the exhibition kost, Sharon Lockhart, and Sarah Sze, and
recently La Manipulation des images dans Geeta Kapur tinent: Europes Twentieth Century (1998); and critical reception of Picassos Guerni- is a Contributing Editor at Artforum. Curated Sarah Wilson
lart contemporain (2014). Damian Lentini is an Australian art historian and Salonica, City of Ghosts: Christians, ca in postwar Italy, the sculptural work of exhibitions include Painting Paintings (Da-
Geeta Kapur is a Delhi-based critic and cu and curator who has taught at the University Muslims and Jews, 14301950 (2004). He Michelangelo Pistoletto, Gerhard Richters vid Reed) 1975 (co-curated with Christo Sarah Wilson is Professor of the History of
rator. Her essays are widely anthologized of Melbourne and at Federation Universi comments regularly on international affairs drawings, the photography of Andy Warhol, pher Wool; Rose Art Museum, 2014), Light Modern and Contemporary art at the Cour
Atreyee Gupta and her books include Contemporary Indian ty, Ballarat, has worked on a variety of art for the Financial Times and his reviews have and other topics. Years: Jack Whitten, 19711974 (The Rose tauld Institute of Art, London. Recent publi
Artists (1978), When Was Modernism: Es- projects in Melbourne, Berlin, and Munich, appeared in the Guardian, The Nation, the Art Museum, 2013); The Matter that Sur- cations include The Visual World of French
Atreyee Gupta (PhD, 2011) is Jane Emison says on Contemporary Cultural Practice in and is now based in Germany. His current New York Times, and many other newspa rounds Us: Wols and Charline von Heyl (The Theory: Figurations (2010) and Picasso/
Assistant Curator of South and Southeast India (2000), and Critics Compass: Nav- research examines the design and function pers and magazines. He recently made a Mari Carmen Ramrez Rose Art Museum, 2014); and High Times Marx and Socialist Realism in France (2013).
Asian Art, Minneapolis Institute of Art. Her igating Practice (forthcoming). She was a of contemporary exhibition spaces, particu film about the Greek refugee crisis with the Hard Times: New York Painting, 196775 In 2015 she was co-curator for the First
research focuses on postwar art in relation founder-editor of Journal of Arts & Ideas and lar noncollecting sites such as Kunsthallen filmmaker Constantine Giannaris: called Mari Carmen Ramrez is the Wortham Cu (ICI, traveling 20068). She is co-curator of Asian Biennale/Fifth Guangzhou Triennale.
to the Cold War and the Nonaligned Move a member of the advisory council of Third and biennials, and he is currently completing Techniques of the Body, it premiered at the rator of Latin American Art and founding the American Pavilion at the 2017 Venice She was principal curator of Paris, Capital
ment, with a special emphasis on South Text. She is trustee and advisory editor of a book, The History of the Contemporary Arts Aladza Imaret, Thessaloniki, in June 2016. Director of the International Center for the Biennale, featuring Mark Bradford. of the Arts, 19001968 (Royal Academy,
Asia. Other interests include global art his Marg and editorial advisor of ArtMargins. Centre, that emerged from his PhD disser He is currently writing a book about his fa Arts of the Americas (ICAA) at The Muse London, Guggenheim Bilbao, 20023) and
tory and postcolonial studies. Her writing Her curatorial projects include Disposses tation (2009, the University of Melbourne). ther and his family. um of Fine Arts, Houston. She was previ Pierre Klossowski (Whitechapel Art Gallery,
has appeared in edited volumes and exhi sion (1st Johannesburg Biennale, 1995), He was the 201516 Goethe Postdoctoral ously Curator of Latin American Art at the Terry Smith 2006), and has been closely involved with
bition catalogues and in journals such as Century City: Bombay/Mumbai 19922001, Fellow at Haus der Kunst and is now working Jack S. Blanton Museum of Art and adjunct shows at the Centre Georges Pompidou,
Third Text, Yishu, and Art Journal. She has Tate Modern, London (co-curation, 2001), there as a research fellow. Yasufumi Nakamori lecturer in the Department of Art and Art Terry Smith is Andrew W. Mellon Professor Paris. Her research project Globalisation
received awards and fellowships from the subTerrain, Haus der Kulturen der Welt, History, both at The University of Texas at of Contemporary Art History and Theory in before Globalisation continues. She is a
Social Science Research Council, the Getty Berlin (2003), and Aesthetic Bind, Che Yasufumi Nakamori, PhD, is the Curator and Austin. She has curated many exhibitions of the Department of the History of Art and Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres (1997)
Research Institute, Haus der Kunst, and mould, Mumbai (201314). She has been Courtney J. Martin Head of the Department of Photography Latin American art, including Inverted Uto- Architecture at the University of Pittsburgh and was awarded the AICA International
the Forum Transregionale Studien, Berlin, a jury member of the Venice, Dakar, and and New Media at the Minneapolis Institute pias: Avant-Garde Art in Latin America (with and Professor in the Division of Philoso Award for Distinguished Contribution to Art
among others. Sharjah biennials. She has been a mem Courtney J. Martin is an Assistant Profes of Art. His exhibitions and publications in Hctor Olea, The Museum of Fine Arts, phy, Art, and Critical Thought at the Euro Criticism in 2015.
ber of the Asian Art Council, Guggenheim sor in the History of Art and Architecture clude Katsura: Picturing Modernism in Japa- Houston, 2004), which the International pean Graduate School. He is the author
Museum, and is an advisory member of the department at Brown University. She was nese Architecture. Photographs by Ishimoto Association of Art Critics named the Best of Making the Modern: Industry, Art and
Salah M. Hassan Asian Art Archive and an Advisory Board previously Assistant Professor in the Histo Yasuhiro (Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Thematic Museum Show Nationally in the Design in America (1993), Transformations Tobias Wofford
member of the Tate Research Centre: Asia. ry of Art department, Vanderbilt University; 2010), which received the 2011 Alfred H. United States for that year. At the ICAA, in Australian Art (2002), The Architecture
Salah M. Hassan is the Goldwin Smith She lectures internationally and has held Chancellors Postdoctoral Fellow, History of Barr Jr. Award for Smaller Museums, Col Ramrez conceptualized and oversees the of Aftermath (2006), What is Contempo- Tobias Wofford is an Assistant Professor
Professor and Director of the Institute for visiting fellowships at the Institute of Ad Art, at the University of California, Berke lections, Libraries and Exhibitions from the Documents of 20th Century Latin Amer rary Art? (2009), Contemporary Art: World in the Department of Art and Art History
Comparative Modernities and Professor of vanced Study, Shimla; the Nehru Memorial ley; a Getty Research Institute fellow; and a College Art Association, and For a New ican and Latino Art: A Digital Archive and Currents (2011), Thinking Contemporary at Santa Clara University. He received a
Art History and Visual Culture in the Afri Museum and Library, Delhi; Clare Hall, Uni Henry Moore Institute Research Fellow. In World to Come: Experiments in Japanese Publications Project. In 2005 she was the Curating (2012), and Talking Contemporary PhD from the University of California, Los
cana Studies and Research Center and the versity of Cambridge; and Jawaharlal Nehru 2015 she received an Andy Warhol Foun Art and Photography, 19681979 (The Mu recipient of the Award for Curatorial Excel Curating (2015). With Okwui Enwezor and Angeles. His research explores the meeting
Department of History of Art and Visual University, Delhi. dation Arts Writers Grant. Before obtaining seum of Fine Arts, Houston, 2015). lence granted by the Center for Curatorial Nancy Condee he edited Antinomies of Art of globalization and identity in the art of the
Studies, Cornell University. He is an art crit a doctorate from Yale University in 2009, Studies at Bard College. She has published and Culture: Modernity, postmodernity and African diaspora since the 1950s. Wofford
ic, curator, and coeditor of Nka: Journal of she worked for the Ford Foundation. In 2012 widely on a broad range of topics, includ contemporaneity (2008). is currently working on a book-length man
Contemporary African Art. He has written, Pamela M. Lee she curated Drop, Roll, Slide, Drip . . . Frank Chika Okeke-Agulu ing the relationship of Latin American art to uscript that examines the multifaceted role
edited, and coedited a number of books, Bowlings Poured Paintings 19731978 at identity politics, multiculturalism, globaliza of Africa in contemporary African American
including Darfur and the Crisis of Govern- Pamela M. Lee is the the Jeanette and Wil Tate Britain. In 2014 she co-curated Minimal Chika Okeke-Agulu is a poet, artist, curator, tion, and curatorial practice. Fred Turner art. His research has been supported by
ance: A Critical Reader (2009), Diaspora, liam Hayden Jones Professor in American Baroque: Post-Minimalism and Contempo- and Associate Professor of Art History in fellowships from the Center for Advanced
Memory, Place (2008), Unpacking Europe Art and Culture at Stanford University. She rary Art at Rnnebksholm, Denmark. In the Department of Art & Archaeology and Fred Turner is the Harry and Norman Study in the Visual Arts and the Mellon
(2001), Authentic/Ex-Centric (2001), and is the author of the books Object to Be De- 201516 she curated Robert Ryman at Dia: the Department for African American Stud Richard Shiff Chandler Professor in the Departments of Postdoctoral Program at Johns Hopkins
most recently Ibrahim El Salahi: A Visionary stroyed: The Work of Gordon Matta-Clark Chelsea. She is the coeditor of Lawrence Al- ies at Princeton University. He is the author Communication and, by courtesy, Art and University. Most recently, he was the 2015
Modernist, (2013) the companion book to (2000), Chronophobia: On Time in the Art loway: Critic and Curator (2015) and editor of Postcolonial Modernism: Art and Decolo- Richard Shiff is Effie Marie Cain Regents Art History at Stanford University. He has 16 Terra Foundation Postdoctoral Fellow in
the retrospective of Ibrahim El Salahi that of the 1960s (2004), Forgetting the Art of Four Generations: The Joyner Giuffrida nization in Twentieth-Century Nigeria (2015) Chair in Art at The University of Texas at written extensively about the history of American Art at Smithsonian American Art
premiered at the Sharjah Art Museum and World (2012), and New Games: Postmod- Collection of Abstract Art (2016). and, with Okwui Enwezor, of Contempo- Austin, where he directs the Center for the American technoculture after World War Museum in Washington, D.C.
traveled to Tate Modern, London, in 2013. ernism after Contemporary Art (2012). Her rary African Art since 1980 (2009). He is Study of Modernism. His scholarly interests II. He is the author of three books: The
814 815
A Wifredo Arcay Romare Bearden Alexander Skunder Boghossian
Shafic Abboud Proposition III, 1962 Evening 9:10, 461 Lenox Avenue, 1964 Night Flight of Dread and Delight, 1964
Composition, 1954 relief painting on wood collage oil on canvas with collage
oil on canvas 36.860.36 cm 4727.9 cm 143.8159.1 cm
64.592 cm The Mayor Gallery, London Van Every/Smith Galleries, North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh,
Collection Antoun Nabil Sehnaoui Davidson College, Davidson, NC Purchased with funds from the North
Siah Armajani Carolina State Art Society
Affandi Shirt #1, 1958 Conjur Woman, 1964 (Robert F. Phifer Bequest)
Pengemis Cirebon cloth, pencil, ink, wood photo projection on paper
(Beggar in Cirebon), 1960 80.676.2 cm 162.5127 cm Lee Bontecou
oil on canvas Lent by The Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Studio Museum in Harlem; Untitled, 1962
89125 cm Purchase, 2011 NoRuz at The Met Benefit, gift of the Artist 1972.5 welded steel, epoxy, canvas,
Collection of Museum Lippo 2012 (2012.109) fabric, saw blade, and wire
Mieczyslaw Berman 172.7182.976.2 cm
Mexico, Mother and Child, 1962 Prayer, 1962 Apoteoza (Apotheosis), 1947 The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston,
oil on canvas oil, ink on canvas mounted to board photomontage Gift of D. and J. de Menil 62.45
11999 cm 179.7128.9 cm 3120 cm
Collection of Museum Lippo Collection Walker Art Center, Minneapolis Muzeum Narodowe we Wrocawiu Derek Boshier
Art Center Acquisition Fund, 1962 (National Museum in Wroclaw) Man Playing Snooker and
Fateh Al-Moudarres Thinking of Other Things, 1961
Icon of Moudarres, 1962 Frank Auerbach Wojna (War), 1944 oil on canvas
oil and gold leaf on canvas Shell Building Site, 1959 collage 190152 cm
149884 cm oil on board 3023.5 cm Museu Coleo Berardo
Artwork Courtesy Barjeel Art 122154 cm Muzeum Narodowe we Wrocawiu
Foundation, Sharjah Hartlepool Borough Council (National Museum in Wroclaw) Vladimr Boudnk
Aktivn grafika III (Active Graphics III), 1959
Untitled, 1962 E.O.W. Looking into the Fire I, 1962 Antonio Berni mixed media, paper
mixed media on canvas oil on paper board La pampa tormentosa 26.619.1 cm
69.899.7 cm 3127 cm (The Stormy Pampas), 1963 Nrodn galerie v Praze (National Gallery
QM/QF - Mathaf: Arab Museum Collection Walker Art Center, Minneapolis oil, tempera, wooden sticks, metals in Prague)
of Modern Art, Doha - Qatar Gift of Sam and May Gruber in honor of (including sheet metal, corrugated metal
Kathy Halbreich, 1996 with paint residue, scrap and tinplate), Horizontly a vertikly
Carl Andre cardboard, imprint on paper, plastic (Horizontals and Verticals), 1959
Timber Piece (Well), 1964/70 B buttons, threads and fragments of lace mixed media, paper
wooden railway sleepers (28 pieces) Francis Bacon ontwo plywood panels 41.254.5 cm
213122122 cm Fragment of Crucifixion, 1950 300400 cm Nrodn galerie v Praze
Museum Ludwig Kln / Schenkung Ludwig oil, cotton wool on canvas Private Collection (National Gallery in Prague)
158.4127.49 cm
Karel Appel Collection Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven Joseph Beuys Kompozice (Composition), 1960
LIST OF WORKS
Exodus n 1, 1951 Hirschdenkmler mixed media, paper
gouache and colored paper on brown Pope, 1955-56 (Monuments to the Stag), 1958/82 2331.4 cm
kraft pieces of paper applied on paper oil on canvas mixed media Nrodn galerie v Praze
10065 cm 195.9140 cm dimensions variable (National Gallery in Prague)
Fondation Gandur pour lArt, Genve, Brooklyn Museum, New York Galerie Thaddaeus Ropac, Paris Salzburg
Switzerland. Courtesy Applicat-Prazan, Paris Gift of Olga H. Knoepke, 81.306 Krajina (Landscape), 1960
Fluxusobjekt, 1962 mixed media, paper
Hiroshima Child, 1958 Enrico Baj folding carton, grease, oil, broom, rubber 25.841.8 cm
oil on canvas Manifesto Nucleare BUM, 1951 ring and tin toy (in four parts) Nrodn galerie v Praze
162130 cm varnish and acrylic on canvas 47.34571.8 cm (box), (National Gallery in Prague)
Hara Museum of Contemporary Art 104943.6 cm 566.516.5cm (broom),
Private Collection 10.5718.5 cm (toy) Krajina (Landscape), 1960
Rasheed Araeen Stdtische Galerie im Lenbacchaus, mixed media, paper
Burning Bicycle Tyres, 1959 (1975) Georg Baselitz Leihgabe Lothar Schirmer, Mnchen 2648 cm
9 photographic prints on paper, Groe Nacht im Eimer Nrodn galerie v Praze
45.770 cm (each) (Big Night down the Drain), 1962-63 Verstrahlter Hangar (National Gallery in Prague)
Aicon Gallery oil on canvas (Radiated Hangar), 1962
185165 cm polystyrene, wood, animal hair and oil Strukturlni grafika
My First Sculpture, 1959 (1975) Privatsammlung 19.5 47.745,8 cm (Structural Graphics), 1960
steel Museum Schloss Moyland, Sammlung van mixed media, paper
45.745.738.1 cm Der Soldat (The Soldier), 1965 der Grinten Bedburg-Hau/Kreis Kleve 19.827.8 cm
Aicon Gallery oil on canvas MSM 02289 Nrodn galerie v Praze
194.5140 cm (National Gallery in Prague)
Before Departure Kunstmuseum Bonn, John Biggers
(Black Paintings) #1, 1963-64 DLG Privatsammlung Bonn The History of Negro Education Bez nzvu splenite
oil on canvas in Morris County, Texas, 1955 (Untitled Burnt Place), 1963
90.5993.5 cm Thomas Bayrle cont crayon and gouache on paper colored structural print, paper
Sharjah Art Foundation Collection Kennedy in Berlin, 1964 80330.8 cm 40.4 cm57 cm
lithograph on cardboard Courtesy Michael Rosenfeld Gallery, LLC, Nrodn galerie v Praze
Before Departure 4361 cm New York (National Gallery in Prague)
Black Paintings) #4, 1963-64 Sammlung Deutsche Bank
oil on canvas Max Bill Bez nzvu - komposice podobn tvr i
911383.5 cm Mao und die Gymnasiasten 22, 1953/(after 1980) (Untitled), 1965
Sharjah Art Foundation Collection (Mao and the Schoolboys), 1965 marble mixed media, paper
plywood, particle board, oil paint, 78.578.560.5 cm 34.128.7 cm
Before Departure electric motor Kunstmuseum Winterthur, Nrodn galerie v Praze
(Black Paintings) #5, 1963-64 13653.514 cm Ankauf, 1984 (National Gallery in Prague)
oil on canvas Museum Wiesbaden
91121.53.5 cm
Sharjah Art Foundation Collection
817
Frank Bowling Chua Mia Tee D Grand Tir - Sance de la Galerie J Man Stealing a Shoe for His Wife, 1965 Untitled, 1965 Mathias Goeritz Les nymphas (The Waterlilies), 1961
Swan I, 1964 Epic Poem of Malaya, 1955 Sand Dari (Big Shot Gallery J Session), 1961 collage, cuttings from magazines, and bronze El Serpente (The Serpent), 1953 torn posters on zinc sheet panel
oil on canvas oil on canvas Sin ttulo (Untitled), 1950s plaster, paint, string, fence, plastic on gouache on paper 36.51726.5 cm painted wood 100.5105.5 cm
112243 cm 107125.5 cm collage, pencil, ink, and watercolor on four chipboard, wire, mesh, wooden board, 5161 cm Artwork Courtesy Barjeel 428874407 cm Centre Pompidou, Paris
Courtesy a Private Collection Collection of National Gallery Singapore (4) paper panels on cardboard plastic balloons Egonu Estate c/o Grosvenor Gallery Art Foundation, Sharjah D.R. Mathias Goeritz (1956) Muse national dart moderne/
92.540.43.8 cm 142.977.67 cm Courtesy L.M. Daniel Goeritz & Centre de cration industrielle
Swan II, 1964 Lygia Clark Private Collection, London Private Collection, Courtesy Ibrahim El Salahi Jean Fautrier Galera La Caja Negra, Madrid Achat 1995
oil on canvas Planos em superfcie modulada no. 1 Galerie GP & N Vallois, Paris The Prayer, 1960 Sunset in Alabama, 1957 Reconstruction authorized by Instituto
112243 cm (Planes on a Modulated Surface N. 1), 1957 Sin ttulo Estructura transformable oil on Masonite oil on paper mounted on canvas Nacional de Bellas Artes y Literatura, Richard Hamilton
Courtesy the Artist and Hales Gallery industrial paint on wood (Untitled [Transformable Structure]) c. 1950s Aln Divi 61.344.5 cm 60 cm81 cm Mexico City, 2016 Respective, 1951
8760 cm oil on hinged wood elements Maska ticha (Mask of Silence), 1947 Iwalewahaus, Universitt Bayreuth Muse dArt moderne de la Ville de Paris oil on canvas on board
Alberto Burri The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston. 3949.5 cm oil on canvas Leon Golub 91.5122 cm
Sacco e oro (Sackcloth and Gold), 1953 The Adolpho Leirner Collection of Brazilian Private Collection, London 5340 cm Self-Portrait of Suffering, 1961 Len Ferrari LHomme de Palmyre, 1962 Pallant House Gallery, Chichester, UK
burlap and gold on canvas Constructive Art, museum purchase Nrodn galerie v Praze oil on canvas La civilizacin occidental y cristiana lacquer on canvas (Wilson Loan 2006)
126111 cm funded by Caroline Wiess Law Accessions Guy Debord (National Gallery in Prague) 30.440.6 cm (The Western Christian Civilization), 1965 199336,5 cm
Fondazione Palazzo Albizzini Collezione Burri Endowment Fund. 2005.469 Hurlements en faveur de Sade Iwalewahaus, Universitt Bayreuth plaster, wood and oil Courtesy the Nancy Spero and Leon Golub Weaver Hawkins
(Howling for Sade), 1952 Jean Dubuffet 198122 cm Foundation for the Arts and Hauser & Wirth Atomic Power, 1947
C Casulo (Cocoon), 1959 35mm black-and-white film , 64 La dame au pompon, 1946 Funeral and the Crescent, 1963 Fundacin Augusto y Len Ferrari oil on hardboard
Anthony Caro automotive paint on metal mixed media and oil on canvas oil on hardboard Arte y Acervo Gorgona 6178.5 cm
Capital, 1960 42.52942.5 cm Willem de Kooning 80.664.7 cm 101.8 cm94.9 cm Gorgona Anti-Magazines (11 issues), Collection: Art Gallery of New South Wales
steel, painted orange Private Collection, Rio de Janeiro Black Untitled, 1948 National Gallery of Art, Washington, Herbert F.Johnson Museumof Art, Cornell Lucio Fontana 1961-66 Purchased 1976
245241.5132 cm oil and enamel on paper, mounted on wood Chester Dale Fund, 1986. 11.1 University. Gift of Mariska Marker Concetto spaziale (Spatial Concept), 1949 mixed media
Courtesy Barford Sculptures Ltd. Contra Relevo (Counter Relief), 1959 75.9101.6 cm paper on frame 19.521.1 cm (each) Carmen Herrera
industrial paint on wood Lent by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Corps de dame - pice de boucherie Vision of the Tomb, 1965 100100 cm Marinko Sudac Collection Iberia No. 25, 1948
Alusio Carvo 1401402.5 cm From the Collection of Thomas B. Hess, (Womans BodyButchers Slab), 1950 oil on canvas Fondazione Lucio Fontana acrylic on burlap
Cubocor (Color Cube), 1960 Private Collection, So Paulo Gift of the heirs of Thomas B. Hess, 1984 oil on canvas 91.591.5 cm Karl Otto Gtz 4654.5 cm
pigment and oil on cement (1984.613.7) 11689 cm The Africa Center, formerly the Helen Frankenthaler Statistisch-Metrische Modulation 20:10:4:2 Courtesy the Artist and Lisson Gallery
16.516.516.5 cm Bicho Caranguejo Duplo Fondation Beyeler, Riehen/Basel, Museum for African Art Lorelei, 1957 (Statistical-metric Modulation 20:10:4:2),
Private Collection, Rio de Janeiro (Critter Double Crab) - replica, 1960 Woman, 1952 Sammlung Beyeler oil on untreated cotton duck 1961 Lynn Hershman Leeson
aluminium pastel and pencil on paper Erhabor Emokpae 190.5223.46.4 cm felt pen on canvas Breathing Machine, 1965
Enrico Castellani 4325,560 cm 61.641 cm E Struggle between Life and Death, 1963 Brooklyn Museum, New York 100130 cm Plexiglas on wood, sound, sensors, wax,
Superficie angolare bianca The Associao Cultural O Mundo Glenstone Charles and Ray Eames oil on board Purchase gift of Allan D. Emil, 58.39 Private Collection cast face, wig, make-up
(White Corner Surface), 1961 de Lygia Clark A Communications Primer, 1953 61122 cm 324242 cm
acrylic on canvas with reliefs and hollows Woman, 1953-54 16mm color film, 2130 Private Collection G Density 10:2:2:1, 1962-63 Courtesy the Artist and
7012070 cm Bicho em si - replica, 1960 oil on paper board Eames Office LLC, Los Angeles Ivo Gattin 8mm black-and-white film, 554 Bridget Donahue, NYC
HEART Herning Museum aluminum 90.861.9 cm Ben Enwonwu Red Surface with Two Slashes, 1962 Private Collection
of Contemporary Art 334250 cm Brooklyn Museum, New York Melvin Edwards Anyanwu, 1954-55 burlap, resin, pigment, Caged Woman, 1965
The Associao Cultural O Mundo Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Alastair B. Martin, His and Hers, 1964 bronze 14589 cm Marcos Grigorian cage, make-up, wax, wig, wire and tape
Superficie angolare nera de Lygia Clark the Guennol Collection, 57.124 welded steel 210 cm Marinko Sudac Collection Untitled, 1963 recorder, Plexiglas, wood, sensor and sound
(Black Corner Surface), 1961 27.415.210.9 cm Private Collection sand and enamel on canvas 41.926.745.7 cm
acrylic on shaped canvas Bicho Sem Nome - replica, 1960 Beauford Delaney Courtesy the Artist and Alexander Gray Gego (Gertrud Louise Goldschmidt) 76.263.5 cm Courtesy the Artist and
908427 cm aluminium Portrait of James Baldwin, 1945 Associates, New York, NY Going, 1961 Vibracin en negro Grey Art Gallery. New York University Art Bridget Donahue, NYC
Collezione Prada, Milano 262026 cm oil on canvas oil on canvas (Vibration in Black), 1957 Collection. Gift of Abby Weed Grey, 1975
The Associao Cultural O Mundo 55.945.7 cm Mojo for 1404, 1964 1142725.5 cm aluminum painted black Eva Hesse
John Chamberlain de Lygia Clark Philadelphia Museum of Art: 125th welded steel University of Lagos 756043 cm Philip Guston Untitled, 1965
Wildroot, 1959 Anniversary Acquisition. Purchased 25.416.511.4 cm The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, The Tormentors, 1947-48 painted cord wrapped around plastic
automobile parts; iron, lacquered and welded Obra Mole (Soft Work) - replica, 1964 with funds contributed by The Daniel W. Courtesy the Artist and Alexander Gray Erol (Erol Akyavas) Fundacin Gego Collection at the Museum oil on canvas tubing and ring in wood and metal
17513395 cm Industrial rubber Dietrich Foundation in memory of Joseph Associates, New York, NY The Glory of the Kings, c.1959 of Fine Arts, Houston, TR:2020-2004 103.9153.7 cm 26281.518 cm
MMK Museum fr Moderne Kunst, 17348 cm C. Bailey and with a grant from The Judith oil on canvas San Francisco Museum of Modern Art Moderna Museet, Stockholm
Frankfurt am Main The Associao Cultural O Mundo Rothschild Foundation, 1998 Texcali, 1965 121.8214 cm Alberto Giacometti Gift of the Artist Purchased 1980 with contribution
Ehemalige Sammlung Karl Strher, Darmstadt de Lygia Clark welded steel The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Grande figure II (Tall Figure II), 1948-49 from The Friends of Moderna Museet
Inv. No. 1981/5 Untitled, c.1958 50.338.921.6 cm Gift of Mr. and Mrs. L. M. Angeleski, 1961 plaster Untitled, 1958
Bruce Conner oil on canvas Courtesy the Artist and Alexander Gray Accession Number: 130.1961 17316.534.5 cm oil on canvas Untitled, 1965
Avinash Chandra A MOVIE 1958 (Digitally restored, 2016) 76.263.5 cm Associates, New York, NY Collection Fondation Giacometti, Paris 162.9191.1 cm ink and gouache on paper
Early Figures, 1961 16mm film (black-and-white, sound) , 12 Courtesy Michael Rosenfeld Gallery, F Inv. 1994-0312 Private Collection. Courtesy Hauser & Wirth 29.241.9 cm
oil on board Music: The Pines of the Villa Borghese, LLC, New York Inji Efflatoun yvind Fahlstrm Museum Wiesbaden
92122 cm Pines Near a Catacomb, and The Pines Portrait of a Man, 1958 Dr. Schweitzers Last Mission, 1964-66 La cage, premire version Renato Guttuso
Leicestershire County Council of the Appian Way, movements from Pines Pedro de Ora oil on canvas variable polyptych, tempera on panel, [The Cage (first version)], 1949-50 Boogie-Woogie, 1953 Untitled (Study for or after Legs of a
Artworks Collection of Rome (192324), composed by Ottorino Sin ttulo (Untitled), 1959 4556 cm metal, plastic bronze oil on canvas Walking Ball), 1965
Respighi, performed by the NBC Sympho acrylic on canvas mounted on cardboard Artwork Courtesy Barjeel dimensions variable 90.536.534 cm 169.5205 cm ink and gouache on paper
Ahmed Cherkaoui ny, conducted by Arturo Toscanini 50407.5 cm Art Foundation, Sharjah Moderna Museet, Stockholm Collection Fondation Giacometti,Paris Mart, Museo di arte contemporanea di 28.541 cm
Le Couronnement (The Coronation), 1964 Courtesy of the Conner Family Trust and Private Collection, Coconut Grove, Florida. Inv. 1994-0180 Trento e Rovereto. Collezione VAF-Stiftung Privatsammlung Mnchen,
oil on canvas Kohn Gallery, Los Angeles Courtesy Tresart. The Queue, 1960 Wojciech Fangor Courtesy Barbara Gross Galerie
91119 cm oil on wood Postaci (Figures), 1950 La Clairire (The Clearing), 1950 H
FNAC 28551 Waldemar Cordeiro Niki de Saint Phalle 9035 cm oil on canvas bronze Hans Haacke Maqbool Fida Husain
Centre national des arts plastiques (France) Movimento (Movement), 1951 Fragment de lHommage au Facteur Cheval SAFARKHAN Art Gallery 100125 cm 58.765.352.5 cm Condensation Cube Man, 1951
tempera on canvas (Fragment of a Homage to Postman Muzeum Sztuki in dz Collection Fondation Giacometti, Paris (exhibition copy), 1965/2006 wood, metal, Masonite, oil
Saloua Raouda Choucair 90.195.3 cm Cheval), 1962 Trees behind the Wall, c1960 Inv. 2007-0223 Plexiglas, water 126.4248.91 cm
The Poem, 1960 MAC USP Collection (Museu de Arte paint, plaster, assemblage of small found oil on canvas on wood Ismail Fattah 767676 cm Peabody Essex Museum, Salem,
wood Contempornea da Universidade de objects, wire mesh on wooden board 2336 cm Reclining Man and Shield, 1960 Femme de Venise IX MACBA. Museu dArt Contemporani Massachusetts, USA
3416.513 cm So Paulo, Brazil) 30012018 cm SAFARKHAN Art Gallery bronze with brown patina on natural bronze (Woman of Venice IX), 1956 (cast 1958) de Barcelona Gift of the Chester and Davida Herwitz
Sharjah Art Museum, Private Collection, Courtesy base bronze with black patina Collection, 2001
Sharjah Museums Department Magda Cordell Galerie GP & N Vallois, Paris Uzo Egonu 2015.312.5 cm 112.717.136.2 cm Raymond Hains E301146
Figure 59, c. 1958 Mask with Musical Instruments, 1963 QM/QF - Mathaf: Arab Museum North Carolina Museum of Art, Paix en Algrie (Peace in Algeria), 1956
Poem, 1963-65 oil, acrylic on Masonite oil on canvas of Modern Art, Doha - Qatar Gift of Sara Lee Corporation decollaged posters on canvas I
wooden sculpture 243.8152.4 cm 5161 cm 3933.5 cm Robert Indiana
39197.5 cm Collection of the Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Egonu Estate c/o Grosvenor Gallery Untitled, 1965 Collection Ginette Dufrne The Confederacy Alabama, 1965
Courtesy the Artist / The Foundation Buffalo, New York bronze with brown patina on bronze base oil on canvas
and CRG Gallery Gift of the Artist, 1995 2011.115.3 cm 177.8152.3 cm
QM/QF - Mathaf: Arab Museum Miami University Art Museum
of Modern Art, Doha - Qatar
818 819
J Red Yellow Blue White, 1952 Ivan Koaric John Latham M Recreation of First Public Demonstration of Iba N'diaye Study for Bell Tower for Hiroshima, Little
Jess (Burgess Franklin Collins) dyed cotton; twenty-five panels in five parts Figura (Figure), 1956 Belief System, 1959 Toms Maldonado Auto-Destructive Art, 1960, remade 2004 Tabaski, Sacrifice du Mouton Bomb and Monument to Heroes, c. 1950
If All The World Were Paper And All The Height: 30.5 cm Width: 30.5 cm bronze books, plaster, metal, light bulb, Trayectoria de una ancdota glass, fabric, table, trash bag, paper, plastic (Tabaski, Sacrifice of the Sheep), 1963 pencil on paper
Water Sink, 1962 153.4375.9 cm 441419 cm paint on canvas on board (Trajectory of an Anecdote), 1949 and steel oil on canvas 30.641.9 cm
oil on canvas Width (Distance between each panel): Courtesy the Museum of 122.596.5 cm oil on canvas 30025010 cm 150200 cm The Isamu Noguchi Foundation
96.5142.2 cm 55.9 cm Contemporary Art, Zagreb TATE: Purchased 2004 99.772.4 cm TATE: Presented by the Artist 2006 Collection Rpublique du Sngal and Garden Museum, New York
Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco Philadelphia Museum of Art: The Ella Fontanals-Cisneros Collection, Miami
Gift of the Artist in memory of Lee Krasner Little Red Mountain, 1960-62 Evgeny Mikhnov-Voitenko Alice Neel Memorial to Atomic Dead, 1952-82
Jia Youfu Anne dHarnoncourt, 2010 The Seasons, 1957 timber base, books, plaster, wires Ernest Mancoba Composition(on a White Background), Georgie Arce, 1953 graphite on tracing paper
Marching Across the Snow-Covered oil and house paint on canvas 1326464 cm Composition, 1951 late 1950s oil on canvas 47.384 cm
Mount Minshan, 1965 Krishen Khanna 235.6517.8 cm Courtesy the Artist and Lisson Gallery oil on canvas oil on canvas 5565 cm The Isamu Noguchi Foundation
ink and color on paper News of Ghandijis Death, 1948 Whitney Museum of American Art, New York 61.551.52 cm 156218 cm Estate of Alice Neel and Garden Museum, New York
181439 cm oil on canvas Purchased with funds from Frances and Untitled (Roller painting), 1964 gordonschachatcollection, Johannesburg The State Russian Museum 2016
In the collection of CAFA Art Museum, Beijing 83.883.8 cm Sydney Lewis by exchange, the Mrs. Percy spray paint on white duck Albert Newall Sculpture Study, 1952
Collection of Rathika Chopra & Rajan Uris Purchase Fund and the Painting and 318268 cm Untitled, 1962 Marta Minujn Helmet Head, 1956 pencil on paper
Jasper Johns Anandan, New Delhi, India Sculpture Committee 87.7 Courtesy the Artist and Lisson Gallery oil on canvas My Mattress, 1962 oil on board 35.926.3 cm
Flags, 1965 8165 cm mattresses, cardboard, patching plaster 7045 cm The Isamu Noguchi Foundation
oil on canvas with raised canvas Kim Kulim Tetsumi Kudo Jacob Lawrence Moderna Museet, Stockholm and paint Private Collection and Garden Museum, New York
182.9121.9 cm Death of Sun II, 1964 The Flowing Movement and Its Four Sheep, 1964 200135105 cm
Collection of the Artist oil and object on wood panel Condensation in Mind, 1958 gouache on paper Piero Manzoni Courtesy Marta Minujn Composition No. 3, 1957 O
9175.3 cm watercolor on cotton fabric 56.276.8 cm Achrome, 1958 oil on board Hlio Oiticica
Daniel LaRue Johnson National Museum of Modern and 260275 cm Courtesy Andrew and Ann Dintenfass parts of canvas, impregnated Joan Mitchell 5161 cm Metaesquema, 1955
Freedom Now, Number 1, August 13, Contemporary Art, Korea Aomori Museum of Art with kaolin and glue on burlap Le Chemin des Ecoliers, 1960 Private Collection gouache on paper
1963-January 14, 1964 Lee Seung-taek 131972 cm oil on canvas 4056 cm
pitch on canvas with Freedom Now Three Circles, 1964 Philosophy of Impotence, 1959 Non-sculpture, 1960 MMK Museum fr Moderne Kunst 194.9 96.8 cm Barnett Newman Private Collection, So Paulo
button, broken doll, hacksaw, mousetrap, Steel, oil on wood panel cord and resin on painted panel rope, paper and wood stick Frankfurt am Main Collection of the Joan Mitchell Foundation, The Beginning, 1946
flexible tube, and wood 181.591 cm 1244785 cm 13110631 cm Ehemalige Sammlung Karl Strher, New York oil on canvas Relevos especial (Spatial Relief), c. 1960
136.6140.518.9 cm Courtesy the Artist Private Collection Courtesy Gallery Hyundai, Seoul Darmstadt Estate of Joan Mitchell 101.675.6 cm paint on cut-out wood
The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Inv. No. 1981/20 The Art Institute of Chicago, 114.3114.325.4 cm
Given anonymously, 1965 Julije Knifer Yayoi Kusama Lee Ufan Lucky Seven, 1962 Through prior gift of Mr. and Mrs. The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston.
Accession Number: 4.1965 Meandar u kutu No. E.R.F., 1960 Pushed-Up Ink, 1964 Mawalan Marika oil on canvas Carter H. Harrison The Adolpho Leirner Collection of Brazilian
(Meander in the corner), 1961 mixed media ink on Japanese paper mounted on wood Sydney from the Air, 1963 2001894 cm Constructive Art, museum purchase
Asger Jorn oil on canvas 182.2146.7 cm 70554.5 cm natural pigments on bark Museu Coleo Berardo Malangatana Valente Ngwenya funded by the Caroline Wiess Foundation,
De gule jne (Yellow Eyes), 1953 two parts: 143199 cm; 143308 cm Courtesy Gagosian Gallery Private Collection 43.391.3 cm Untitled, 1961 2005.1023
oil on Masonite Courtesy the Museum of Contemporary On loan from the National Henry Moore oil on canvas
6251.5 cm Art, Zagreb Ladder, 1963 Norman Lewis Museum of Australia, Canberra Atom Piece, 1964-65 123.561.5 cm B17, Glass Blide 5,
Galerie van de Loo mixed media Every Atom Glows: Electrons in Luminous bronze Iwalewahaus, Universitt Bayreuth Hommage to Mondrian, 1965
Jikken Ko-bo- 167.66696.5 cm Vibration, 1951 Maruki Iri and Maruki Toshi 12092 cm glass, textile, water, pigment, cork
Il Delinquente (The Delinquents), 1956 Ginrin (Silver Wheel), 1955 Des Moines Art Center Permanent Oil on canvas Fire (Panel II) from Hiroshima Panels Didrichsen Art Museum Hermann Nitsch 3047.560 cm
oil on canvas 35mm film transferred to DVD, 1157 Collection; Gift of Hanford Yang, New York, 137.288.9 cm (series of 15 panels), 1950 Blutbild (Blood Painting), 1962 TATE: Purchased with Assistance from the
114 cm146 cm Tokuma Shoten Publishing Co., Ltd 1970.38 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. The John Indian ink and Japanese paper Franois Morellet fabric, blood on canvas American Fund for the TATE Gallery, TATE
Galerie van de Loo Axelrod Collection Frank B. Bemis Fund, 180720 cm 4 Double Grids 0, 225, 45, 675, 11080.56 cm Members and the Art Fund 2007
Jir Kolr L Charles H. Bayley Fund, and The Heritage Maruki Gallery for the Hiroshima Panels 1960-61 Museum moderner Kunst Stiftung
K Rasierklingengedicht Wifredo Lam Fund for a Diverse Collection oil on wood Ludwig Wien Uche Okeke
Thadeusz Kantor (A Poem of Razors), 1962 Lunguanda Yembe, 1950 Atomic Desert (Panel VI) from Hiroshima 8080 cm acquired in 1983 Ana Mmuo (Land of the Dead), 1961
Signez sil vous plat! assemblage, cords and razor blades on oil on canvas Bonfire, 1962 Panels (series of 15 panels), 1952 Courtesy the Museum of Contemporary oil on board
(Sign, Please!), 1965 cardboard, wooden frame with glass screen 130.497 cm oil on canvas Indian ink and Japanese paper Art, Zagreb Luis Felipe No 92121.9 cm
mixed media 46.234.23 cm Museu Coleo Berardo 162.6126.7 cm 180720 cm A donde vamos? O presente National Museum of African Art,
261194 cm Neues Museum Nrnberg, The Studio Museum in Harlem; Maruki Gallery for the Hiroshima Panels Robert Morris (Where are we going? Or Present), 1964 Smithsonian Institution,
Moderna Museet, Stockholm Leihgabe der Stadt Nrnberg Seated Woman, 1955 gift of the Estate of Norman Lewis 1981.1.2 Box with the Sound of its Own Making oil, paper collage, synthetic on Gift of Koanne B. Eicher and Cynthia,
oil and charcoil on canvas Almir Mavignier (exhibition copy), 1961 canvas and wood Carolyn Ngozi, and Diane Eicher, 97-3-1
Marwan Kassab-Bachi Geliy Korzhev 130.897.7 cm Li Xiushi Konvex-Konkav II wood, internal speaker 260255 cm
Das Bein (The Leg), 1965 Raising the Banner, 1957-60 Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Morning, 1961 (Convex-Concave II), 1962 24.824.8 cm Courtesy Luis Felipe No Aba Revolt (Womens War), 1965
oil on canvas oil on canvas Garden, Smithsonian Institution, oil on canvas oil on canvas Original work: Seattle Art Museum, Seattle, oil on board
81100 cm 156290 cm Gift of Mrs. Bernard Gimbel, 1978 101301 cm 1511105 cm Gift of Mr and Mrs Bagley Wright Isamu Noguchi 182.912.9 cm
MARWAN The State Russian Museum 2016 Photo: Cathy Carver In the collection of CAFA Art Museum, Beijing Courtesy Almir Mavignier Humpty Dumpty, 1946 Artists Estate, Courtesy Asele
Sadamasa Motonaga ribbon slate Institute, Nimo
On Kawara Gyula Kosice Maria Lassnig Roy Lichtenstein David Medalla Work (Water), 1956 149.952.744.5 cm
Thinking Man, 1952 Variation in blue, 1945 Schwarzer Kopf des Vaters Atom Burst, 1965 Cloud Gates-Bubble Machine, 1965/2013 installation Whitney Museum of American Art, New York Colette Oluwabamise Omogbai
oil on canvas oil on canvas (Black Head of the Father), 1956/57 acrylic on board stainless steel, methacrylate, water pump, various dimensions Purchase 47.7a-e Agony, 1963
10065.3 cm 88606 cm Alternative Work Details: Portrt des Vaters 6161 cm water, soap, acrylic Motonaga Archive Research Institution Ltd oil on hardboard
Chiba City Museum of Art Gyula Kosice (Kopf) (Portrait of the Father [Head]), 1956 Collection of the Modern 320300300 cm Courtesy of Fergus McCaffrey, New York Memorial to Man, 1947 6950.5 cm
oil on fiberboard Art Museum of Fort Worth, Museum Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina wallpaper Iwalewahaus, Universitt Bayreuth
LAT.3125N, LONG. 841E, 1965 Estructura lumnica Mad 6 6048 cm Purchase, The Benjamin J. Tillar Memorial Sofia, Madrid Movimento Arte Nucleare dimensions variable
acrylic on canvas (Luminescent Mad Structure No.6), 1946 Maria Lassnig Foundation Trust Long-term loan of Bar Galera, Nuclear Composition, 1951 The Isamu Noguchi Foundation Alfonso Ossorio
83.596.35.3 cm neon gas, Plexiglas, and wood box Sao Paulo, 2014 oil and enamel on paper glued on canvas and Garden Museum, New York Full Mother, 1951
Collection Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven 605012 cm Selbstportrt (Self-Portrait), 1957 Morris Louis 97.567 cm oil, enamel on canvas
The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston. Alternative work details: Selbstportrait, Charred Journal: Firewritten II, 1951 Mohammed Melehi Collezione Privata Bell Tower for Hiroshima, 1950 (1986) 129.596.5 cm
Ellsworth Kelly Museum purchase funded by Caroline bereits aufgelst (Self-Portrait, already acrylic (Magna) on canvas Quadrettini, 1963 terra-cotta, wood Courtesy Michael Rosenfeld Gallery,
Spectrum Colors Arranged by Chance V, 1951 Wiess Law Accessions Endowment Fund. dissolved), 1957 / 89.576 cm acrylic on canvas N 128.678.778.7 cm LLC, New York
collage on paper 2004.1655 Figur auf Holz (Figure on Wood), 1956 Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Humlebaek 120100 cm Ernst Wilhelm Nay The Isamu Noguchi Foundation
9999 cm oil on wood Gift of Marcella Louis Brenner Loft Art Gallery, Casablanca, Morocco Augen (Eyes), 1963 and Garden Museum, New York Rescue, 1961-62
Estate of the Artist Leon Kossoff 78.849 cm Untitled (Jewish Star), c.1951 oil on canvas mixed media on panel
City Building Site, 1961 Maria Lassnig Foundation acrylic on canvas Gustav Metzger 200160 cm Sculpture Study, c. 1950 121.8244.2 cm
Spectrum Colors Arranged oil on board 86.472.4 cm Drawings, 194559/60 Ernst Wilhelm Nay Stiftung, Kln ink wash on paper Philadelphia Museum of Art:
by Chance VIII, 1951 123.8159.4 cm Selbstportrt mit Ordenskette The Jewish Museum, New York different materials on paper, 25.436.2 cm Gift of the Artist, 1969
collage on paper Private European Collector (Self-portrait with Livery Collar), 1963 Gift of Ruth Bocour in memory of various dimensions Meteor, 1964 The Isamu Noguchi Foundation
9999 cm oil on canvas Leonard Bocour, 1997 -126 Courtesy Gustav Metzger oil on canvas and Garden Museum, New York
Estate of the Artist 10073 cm 200160 cm
Sammlung Klewan Courtesy Aurel Schreiber, Berlin
820 821
Hamed Owais Pablo Picasso Robert Rauschenberg Klner Divisionen (Cologne Divisions), 1965 Colorado House, 1962 Shozo Shimamoto Sin ttutlo (Unitled), c. 1960 The String in the Bottle Nr. 1126, 1963-85
Al Zaim w Tamim Al Canal (Nasser and Massacre en Core The White Painting (two panel), 1951 150 pages cut out of the Klner Tageszei wood, stretchers, wire, fur, strips of painted Sakuhin (Work), 1955/92 mixed Media on wood in artists frame bottle, black cotton rope
the Nationalisation of the Canal), 1957 (Massacre in Korea), 1951 oil on canvas tung, adhesive binding, cardboard cover canvas, bottles, broom handle, glass galvanized steel painted on both sides 99994 cm 176 cm
oil on canvas oil on plywood 182.9243.8 cm 22.3 cm shards, flag, photograph, plywood base 123244 cm Gordon Family Collection, Los Angeles, CA The Estate of Jiro Takamatsu, Courtesy
109134.7 cm 110 cm210 cm Robert Rauschenberg Foundation Dieter Roth Foundation, Hamburg 154.9132.181.3 cm Axel & May Vervoordt Foundation Yumiko Chiba Associates, Tokyo;
QM/QF - Mathaf: Arab Museum ninv. MP 203 Courtesy the Artist and P.P.O.W., Jesus Rafael Soto Stephen Friedman Gallery, London;
of Modern Art, Doha - Qatar Dation 1979 Axle, 1964 Literaturwurst New York; Galerie Lelong, New York; Fyodor Shurpin Sin ttulo (Estructura cintica de elementos Fergus McCaffrey, New York
Prt du Muse national Picasso-Paris oil and screen print on canvas (Martin Walser: Halbzeit), 1967 Hales Gallery, London The Morning of Our Motherland, 1946 geomtricos) [Untitled (Kinetic Structure of
P 275.76104.7 cm chopped book, pressed into sausage form, oil on canvas Geometric Elements)], 1956 The String in the Bottle Nr. 1128, 1963-85
Nam June Paik Ivan Picelj Museum Ludwig Kln / Schenkung Ludwig dissected and framed by the Artist Gerard Sekoto 166232 cm paint on Plexiglas and wood with screws beer bottle (Ashai),
Zen for TV, 1963/90 Composition XL-1, 1952-56 52.542.512 cm Prison Yard, 1944 The State Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow 55.255.633 cm cotton rope (black and white)
476837 cm oil on canvas Ad Reinhardt Dieter Roth Foundation, Hamburg oil on canvas The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston. Muse 297 cm
TV, wooden case, magnet 10081 cm Untitled (Composition #104), 1954-60 71,561,5 cm Yohanan Simon um purchase funded by the Caroline Wiess The Estate of Jiro Takamatsu, Courtesy
Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Nationalgalerie Courtesy the Museum of oil on canvas Rhod Rothfuss gordonschachatcollection, Johannesburg Shabat on the Kibbutz, 1947 Law Accesions Endowment Fund, 2010.76 Yumiko Chiba Associates, Tokyo;
1993 Gift of the Artist Contemporary Art, Zagreb 281.3108.66,4 cm Composicin Mad (Mad Composition), 1946 oil on canvas Stephen Friedman Gallery, London;
Brooklyn Museum, New York enamel on wood Head of a Man, 1962 6555 cm Francis Newton Souza Fergus McCaffrey, New York
Eduardo Paolozzi Giuseppe Pinot-Gallizio Gift of the Artist, 67.59 86.449.8 cm watercolor on paper Collection Tel Aviv Museum of Art Degenerates, 1957
I Was a Rich Mans Plaything, 1947 La sirena e il pirata The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston. 48.931.8 cm oil on board The String in the Bottle Nr. 1129, 1963-85
printed papers on card (The Mirmaid and the Pirate), 1958 Gerhard Richter Museum purchase funded by Caroline Grosvenor Gallery Mitchell Siporin 143.5175.3 cm bottle, green electric cord
35.923.8 cm mixed media on canvas roll Sargtrger (Coffin Bearers), 1962 Wiess Law Accessions Endowment Fund. Endless Voyage, 1946 Aicon Gallery 176 cm
TATE: Presented by the Artist 1971 177095 cm oil on canvas 2004.1658 Jewad Selim oil on canvas The Estate of Jiro Takamatsu, Courtesy
Galerie van de Loo 135180 cm Untitled, 1951 111.1123.8 cm Head of a Man Thinking, 1965 Yumiko Chiba Associates, Tokyo;
Lessons of Last Time, 1947 Bayerische Staatsgemldesammlungen Gerhard Rhm oil on canvas University of Iowa Museum of Art, Iowa City oil on canvas Stephen Friedman Gallery, London;
printed papers on card Sigmar Polke Pinakothek der Moderne LEssentiel de la grammaire 48544 cm University acquisition, 1947.44 6650.8 cm Fergus McCaffrey, New York
22.931.1 cm Rasterzeichnung (Portrt Lee Harvey Oswald) 1979 erworben von PIN. Freunde (The Essence of Grammar), 1962 Artwork Courtesy Barjeel Collection Amrita Jhaveri
TATE: Presented by the Artist 1971 [Raster Drawing (Portrait of Lee Harvey der Pinakothek der Moderne German grammar in 6 plates, painted Art Foundation, Sharjah David Alfaro Siqueiros The String in the bottle Nr. 1131, 1963-85
Oswald)], 1963 over with India ink, foldable Cain in the United States, 1947 Two Saints (After El Greco), 1965 square bottle, black electric cord
Its a Psychological Fact Pleasure posterpaint and pencil on paper Bomber (Bombers), 1963 46.568.2 cm Baghdadiat, 1956 pyroxylin on Masonite oil on canvas 227.5 cm
Helps your Disposition, 1948 94.869.8 cm oil on canvas Generali Foundation Collection mixed media on hardboard 7793 cm 101.576 cm The Estate of Jiro Takamatsu, Courtesy
printed papers on card Privatsammlung 130.4180.62.5 cm Permanent loan to the Museum 98.5169 cm Coleccin Museo de Arte Carrillo Gil Grosvenor Gallery Yumiko Chiba Associates, Tokyo;
36.224.4 cm Stdtische Galerie Wolfsburg der Moderne Salzburg QM/QF - Mathaf: Arab Museum Secretaria de Cultura INBA, Mexico City Stephen Friedman Gallery, London;
TATE: Presented by the Artist 1971 Jackson Pollock of Modern Art, Doha - Qatar Aleksandar Srnec Fergus McCaffrey, New York
There Were Seven in Eight, c.1945 Neger (Nuba), [Negroes (Nuba)] 1964 Ed Ruscha From the Dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz Construction 53, 1953
Windtunnel Test, 1950 oil, enamel and casein on canvas oil on canvas Hurting the Word Radio #1, 1964 Twins Seven Seven to the Revolution - The People in Arms, brass wire The String in the Bottle Nr. 1132, 1963-85
printed papers on card 109.2259.1 cm 145200 cm oil on canvas Devils Dog, 1964 195765 mural 1083.546 cm beer bottle (Kirin), white electric cord
24.836.5 cm The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Larry Gagosian 150.2140 cm ink and gouache on paper dimensions variable Marinko Sudac Collection 297 cm
TATE: Presented by the Artist 1971 Mr. and Mrs. Walter Bareiss Fund and The Menil Collection, Houston 73.5113.8 cm Secretara de Cultura-INAH-MEX The Estate of Jiro Takamatsu, Courtesy
purchase, 1980 Larry Rivers 1971-30 DJ Iwalewahaus, Universitt Bayreuth Reproduction authorized by the Instituto Frank Stella Yumiko Chiba Associates, Tokyo;
Yours Till the Boys Come Home, 1951 Accession Number: 429.1980 The Last Civil War Veteran, 1961 Nacional de Antropologa e Historia Arbeit macht frei, 1958 Stephen Friedman Gallery, London;
printed papers on card oil on canvas S Ismail Shammout enamel on canvas Fergus McCaffrey, New York
36.224.8 cm Number 23, 1948 209.6163.8 cm Sadequain A Sip of Water, 1953 Gazbia Sirry 215.5 cm308.6 cm
TATE: Presented by the Artist 1971 enamel on gesso on paper Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco Seascape with Three Boats, 20th century oil on canvas The Fortune Teller, 1959 Private Collection Rufino Tamayo
57.578.4 cm Foundation purchase, Phyllis C. Wattis oil on wood 4560 cm oil on canvas Terror csmico (Cosmic Terror), 1947
Shattered Head, 1956 TATE: Presented by the Friends of the Fund for Major Accessions 57.281.3 cm Private Collection 52882 cm Sindoedarsono Sudjojono oil on canvas
bronze on stone base TATE Gallery (purchased out of funds 2009.13 Lent by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Courtesy the Artist and Zamalek Pertemuan di Tjikampek yang Bersedjarah 10676.2 cm
3230.523 cm provided by Mr and Mrs H.J. Heinz II Gift of the Government of Pakistan, 1980 Beginning of the Tragedy, 1953 Art Gallery, Cairo (Historic Meeting in Tjikampek), 1964 Coleccin/INBA/Museo Nacional de Arte,
Private Collection, London and H.J. Heinz Co. Ltd.) 1960 Joaquim Rodrigo (2016.12) oil on canvas oil on canvas Mexico City
Kultur 1962, 1962 4868 cm Lucas Sithole 153.5106 cm
Robot, c.1956 Julio Pomar tempera on canvas Cactus, 1960 Private Collection Lazarus I, 1961 Collection: Museum of Modern Tanaka Atsuko
bronze Resistncia (Resistance), 1945 73 cm92 cm oil on canvas bronze and Contemporary Art in Nusantara Electric Dress, 1956 (reproduced in 1986)
48.514.58 cm oil on Masonite Museu Nacional de Arte Contempornea 90120 cm Anwar Jala Shemza 195 cm (Museum MACAN), Jakarta, Indonesia synthetic paint on incandescent lightbulbs
Grosvenor Gallery 33 cm73 cm Museu do Chiado, Lisboa, Portugal Mr. Taimur Hassan c/o Grosvenor Gallery City Wall, 1960 Courtesy Laurie Slatter electric cords and control
Cmara Municipal de Lisboa / oil on board Alina Szapocznikow 1658080 cm
Standing Figure, 1958 Museu de Lisboa Dieter Roth Mohan B. Samant 55.825.4 cm Willi Sitte Hand. Monument to the Heroes of the Takamatsu Art Museum
bronze Bilderbuch (Picture Book), 1955 (1962) Green Square, 1963 Private Collection, NY Arbeitspause (Break), 1959 Warsaw Ghetto II, 1957
1755131 cm tude para Ciclo do Arroz II artist book, spiral-bound, 14 pages synthetic polymer paint, oil on hardboard patinated plaster and iron filings Work (Yellow Cloth), 1955
Private Collection, Courtesy (Study for Rice Cycle II), 1953 34321.5 cm sand, and oil on canvas The Fable, 1962 200122 cm 144.573 cm commercially dyed cotton and glue,
Galerie GP & N Vallois, Paris oil on Masonite Buchhandlung Walther Knig, Cologne 175.4132.1 cm oil on hand dyed cloth on mountboard Museum der bildenden Knste Leipzig Courtesy the Estate of Alina three parts
63132 cm The Museum of Modern Art, New York. 6847 cm Szapocznikow/Piotr Stanislawski / 100208 cm / 100202 cm / 100377 cm
Lygia Pape Private Collection Luis de Carvalho Bilderbuch (Picture Book), 1957 (1976) Gift of Mr. George M. Jaffin, 1963 The Estate of Anwar Jalal Shemza David Smith Galerie Loevenbruck, Paris Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York
Livro da arquitetura (Book of Architecture) e Oliveira, Lisbon artist book, spiral-bound, 14 pages Accession Number: 334.1963 Perfidious Albion, 1945 Purchased through prior gift of Andrew
exhibition copy, 1959-60 24231 cm Composition in Three Parts, 1963-64 bronze and cast iron Head VII, 1961 Powie Fuller and Geraldine Spreckles
tempera on cardboard Viktor Popkov Buchhandlung Walther Knig, Cologne Mira Schendel oil on canvas on hardboard 36.511.46.7 cm lead Fuller Bequest, 2013
12 pieces, each 30302 cm The Builders of Bratsk Hydro-Electric Untitled, 1963 8055 cm Raymond and Patsy Nasher Collection, 19.516 cm
Projeto Lygia Pape Power Station, 1960 Bilderbuch (Picture Book), 1957 (1976) tempera and plaster on canvas The Estate of Anwar Jalal Shemza Nasher Sculpture Center, Dallas Courtesy the Estate of Alina Antoni Tpies
oil on canvas artist book, spiral-bound, 23 pages 100100 cm Meem, 1964 Szapocznikow/Piotr Stanislawski / Forma negra sobre quadrat gris
Jeram Patel 183302 cm 25.522.53.5 cm Hecilda & Sergio Fadel Collection oil on canvas The Maidens Dream, 1949 Galerie Loevenbruck, Paris (Black Form on Grey Square), 1960
Untitled, 1961 The State Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow Buchhandlung Walther Knig, Cologne 91.591.5 cm bronze mixed media on canvas
oil on Masonite board Ruth Schloss Butcher Family Collection 7352.157.4 cm T 162162 cm
91.4121.9 cm R bok 4 A, 1961 Maabarah (New Immigrants Camp), 1953 The Estate of David Smith /courtesy Takamatsu Jiro Collection Fundaci Antoni Tpies, Barcelona
Kiran Nadar Museum of Art Carol Rama artist book, spiral of hand-cut cardstock, oil on canvas Ahmed Shibrain Hauser & Wirth The String in the Bottle Nr. 1124, 1963-85
Tovaglia (Table Cloth), 1951 45 pages 8160 cm Untitled, 1963 Coke bottle (1L), vinyl rope Boris Taslitzky
A.R. Penck tablecloth, Plexiglas 31401.7 cm Mishkan Lomanut, Museum of Art, ink on paper Lol Soldevilla 30.56 cm Riposte, 1951
Elektrischer Stuhl (Electric Chair), 1959-60 123123 cm Buchhandlung Walther Knig, Cologne Ein-Harod 7645.7 cm Sin ttulo (Untitled), 1954 The Estate of Jiro Takamatsu, Courtesy oil paint on canvas
oil on Masonite Courtesy Isabella Bortolozzi and Archivio Iwalewahaus, Universitt Bayreuth Bronze and wood Yumiko Chiba Associates, Tokyo; 210310 cm
4341 cm Carol Rama Daily Mirror Book, 1961 Carolee Schneemann 393425.5 cm Stephen Friedman Gallery, London; TATE: Presented by the Friends
Private Collection 150 pages cut-out of newspapers, Conversions, 1961 Kazuo Shiraga Private Collection Fergus McCaffrey, New York of the TATE Gallery 1998
Ovale Nero (Black Oval), 1961 adhesive binding wood, paint, rope, metal on board Work II, 1958
Umsturz (Coup dtat), 1965 mixed media and oil on canvas 22 cm 142.2104.1 cm oil on paper, mounted on canvas
oil on canvas 5035 cm Dieter Roth Foundation, Hamburg Courtesy Private Collection, London 183243 cm
96200 cm Aishti Foundation, Beirut -Lebanon Hyogo Prefectural Museum of Art
Private Collection
822 823
Herv Tlmaque Wolf Vostell Wols (Alfred Otto Woldgang Schulze) Charles Hussein Zenderoudi
My Darling Clmentine, 1963 Deutscher Ausblick, 1958-1959 aus dem Composition jaune The Sun and the Lion, 1960
oil on canvas, collages, painted wooden Environment Das schwarze Zimmer (Yellow Composition), c.1947 ink, watercolor and gold paint on paper
box, rubber doll, Plexiglas (German View from the Black Room Cycle), oil on canvas mounted on board
194.524525 cm 195859 7392 cm 106.7147.3 cm
Centre Pompidou, Paris dcollage, wood, barbed wire, tin, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin,National Grey Art Gallery. New York University Art
Muse national dart moderne/ newspaper, bone, television with cover galerie. 1972 erworben durch das Land Berlin Collection. Gift of Abby Weed Grey, 1975
Centre de cration industrielle 115.513030.5 cm
Achat 1991 Berlinische Galerie Landesmuseum fr Andrzej Wrblewski Yuri Zlotnikov
Moderne Kunst, Fotografie und Architektur Sonce i inne gwiazdy 4 works from the series
Mark Tobey (Sun and other Stars), 1948 Signal Systems, 1957-62
Verso i Bianchi (Towards the Whites), 1957 Sun in Your Head, 1963 oil on canvas tempera and watercolors on paper
tempera on paper black/white Film, 530 90120 cm each 81,557.5 cm
11271 cm Original 16 mm, transferred into Video Muzeum Sztuki in dz Collection of the Artist
GAM - Galleria Civica dArte (U-Matic) in 1967
Moderna e Contemporanea, Torino Restored and digitalized on DVD in 2006 Liquidation of the Ghetto/
The Wolf Vostell Estate, Bad Nauheim Blue Chauffeur, 1949
Tony Tuckson Oil on canvas
Black Woman, Half Length, 1956 You are Leaving the American Sector, 1964 89120 cm
oil on paperboard 123451.5 cm Private Collection
9970 cm spray paint on silkscreen
Collection: Art Gallery of New South print on photo canvas Executed Man, Execution with a
Wales - Gift of Margaret Tuckson 1977 Museum Folkwang, Essen Gestapo Man, 1949
oil on canvas
Igael Tumarkin W 12090 cm
Aggressiveness, 1964-65 Andy Warhol Private Collection
iron Mustard Race Riot, 1963
2188760 cm 2 parts; acrylic and Young America, 1950
Collection Tel Aviv Museum of Art silkscreen ink on canvas egg tempera on gessoed board
289.2208.3 cm (Renaissance Panel)
U Udo und Anette Brandhorst Sammlung 82.6115.1 cm
Gnther Uecker Courtesy the Pennsylvania Academy of
TV, 1963 Thirty-Five Jackies (Multiplied Jackies), 1964 the Fine Arts. Joseph E. Temple Fund
TV, table, nails silkscreen and acrylic on canvas
1188080 cm 255.7286.86.1 cm Y
Private lender MMK Museum fr Moderne Kunst Vasiliy Yakovlev
Frankfurt am Main Portrait of Georgy Zhukov,
V Ehemalige Sammlung Karl Strher, Marshal of the Soviet Union, 1946
Stan VanDerBeek Darmstadt oil on canvas
Breathdeath, 1964 Inv. No. 1981/58 206153 cm
16mm black-and-white film, 15 The State Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow
Copyright Estate of Stan VanDerBeek Susanne Wenger
Courtesy Electronic Arts Intermix (EAI), Yemoja, 1958 Yoko Ono
New York. batik Cut Piece, 1965
170252 cm black-and-white film at Carnegie Recital
Emilio Vedova Neue Galerie Graz Hall in New York City in March 1965
Europa 1950, 1949-50 8
oil on canvas Jack Whitten Collection of Yoko Ono
123 cm12618 cm Birmingham, 1964
Fondazione Musei Civici di Venezia, aluminum foil, newsprint, stocking, and oil Yosuke Yamahata
Galleria Internazionale dArte Moderna on plywood Nagasaki Journey, 1945
di CaPesaro 42.240.6 cm gelatine silver prints
Collection of Joel Wachs Courtesy Daniel Blau
Berlin, 64, 1964
relief, paper, iron, mixed media on wood Head I, 1964 Ramss Younan
10512118 cm acrylic on canvas Cristaux Rocheux (Rocky Crystals), 1960
Fondazione Emilio e Annabianca 27.927.9 cm oil on fiberboard
Vedova, Venezia Courtesy the Artist and Hauser & Wirth; 5988 cm
ZenoGallery, Antwerp Museum moderner Kunst Stiftung
Jacques Villegl Ludwig Wien
Palissade aux palmiers Head IV, 1964 acquired in 1978
(Fence with Palm Trees), 1957 acrylic on canvas
ripped posters mounted on wood 3325.4 cm Arabesques, 1961
111.545.53 cm Courtesy the Artist and Hauser & Wirth; oil on board
Private Collection, Courtesy Galerie ZenoGallery, Antwerp 9061 cm
GP & N Vallois, Paris May and Adel Youssry Khedr Collection, Cairo
Head VII, 1964
OUI - Rue Notre-Dame-des-Champs, 1958 acrylic on canvas Z
ripped posters mounted on canvas 38.138.1 cm Yosef Zaritsky
681003 cm Courtesy the Artist and Hauser & Wirth; Yehiam (Life on the Kibbutz), 1951
Private Collection, Courtesy Galerie ZenoGallery, Antwerp oil on burlap mounted on canvas
GP & N Vallois, Paris 208228 cm
Head VIII, 1964 Collection Tel Aviv Museum of Art
Rue Jacob. 5 dcembre 1961, 1961 acrylic on canvas
ripped posters mounted on canvas 38.138.1 cm Fahrelnissa Zeid
1142253 cm Courtesy the Artist and Hauser & Wirth; My Hell, 1951
Private Collection, Courtesy Galerie ZenoGallery, Antwerp oil on canvas
GP & N Vallois, Paris 205528 cm
Istanbul Museum of Modern Art Collection
Sirin Devrim and Prens Raad Donation
824
A Ardon, Mordecai 630 Belting, Hans 43 Bundestag Elections 62
AI, Ahmad Abdel 224 Arendt, Hannah 25, 26, 40n35, 40n45, Ben-Gurion, David 628 Bunte Illustrierte 690
A Little-Known Story about a Movement, 627, 628, 631 Benjamin, Walter 351 Buuel, Luis 488
a Magazine, and the Computers Arrival in Arikha, Avigdor 348 Bense, Max 493, 686, 689 Burda 690
Art: New Tendencies and Bit International, Aristotelian 345 Benton, Thomas Hart 446, Buren, Daniel 687n12
19611973 686 Armajani, Siah 230, 271, 608 Bergen-Belsen 26 Burri, Alberto 215, 216, 217, 218, 227, 230,
A Problem for Critics 56n19 Arnold, General Henry H. 703n10 Bergner, Yosl 630 233, 293
A Woman in Berlin 147 Art and Liberty Group (JFH) 231n8 Bergson, Henri 53, 235 Buruma, Ian 40n29
A Young Photographers Statement: Art brut 215, 224, 347 Berlin Wall 43, 690 Butler, Reg 347, 347
I Refute Mr. Natori 139n11 Art in Nigeria 243 Berman, Mieczysaw 202
Abboud, Shafic 286 Art Informel 213, 216, 241, 347, 689 Berni, Antonio 52, 334, 422, 423, 423n11
Abdul-Hai, Muhammed 223 Art Society at the Khartoum Technical Beuys, Josef 26, 26, 16264, 193, 228,
Abela, Eduardo 423n1 Institute 642 690, 728 C
Aboul-Ela, Hosam 56 Art Society at the Nigerian College of Art, Bezalel Art School 628, 630, 631n3 Cage, John 701
Abstract Expressionism, Abstract Expres- Science and Technology, Zaria 641 Bezalel Museum 628 Cai, Yuanpei 437
sionist 29, 45, 46, 64, 144, 213, 216, 239, Arte Nucleare 141, 144 Bezem, Naftali 627, 628, 630, 631 Caliban 77
422, 445, 635, 697, 698 Arte Nuevo 485 Bhabha, Homi 30 Camargo, Sergio 573, 583
Achebe, Chinua 77, 643n4 Arte Programmata 685 Bianchi (Whites) series 215, 217 Camberwell School of Art 225n1
AD&A Museum 695 Arte Spaziale 141 Biasi, Alberto 687n1 Cardazzo, Carlo 141
Adorno, Theodor 26, 27, 29, 40n44, 50, Artist Placement Group 227 Biblioteca Nacional 422 Caribbean Artists Movement (CAM) 572
54, 57n66, 346 Arturo 485, 487 Bichos (Critters) series 53, 494 Caro, Anthony 502
Adrian, Marc 687n1 Asahi Camera 139n11 Bienal de So Paulo 487, 488, 492, 583, 584 Carvo, Alusio 494, 495n13, 515
Affandi 411 Asahi Graph 136 Biennale de la Mditerrane 583 Cassirer, Ernst 342
African socialism 222 Asahi Graph and Life 41n53 Biennale der Ostseelnder 587n30 Castellani, Enrico 532, 533, 585, 687n1
Agamben, Giorgio 25 Ashton, Dore 244 Biennale Grafike 583, 584 Castro, Fidel 422
Akademie der Knste 444 Asociacin Arte Concreto-Invencin Big Three 71 Catrami (Tars) series 215, 217
Akimov, Nikolai 585 (AACI) 485, 487 Biggers, John 423n1, 446, 454 Celan, Paul 29, 41n51
Al Hurufiyya 222 Atlantic Charter 13, 69 Bill, Max 485, 487, 492, 493, 493, 499, Cline, Louis-Ferdinand 216
Al Rahal, Khalid 563 Atlas 26, 27, 29 584 Center for the Cultivation of Jewish
Al Said, Shakir Hassan 50, 222 Atom Age 144 Birkenau 41n48 Consciousness 630
Al-Adab 50 Auerbach, Frank 233, 259, 382, 572 Bishoff, First Lieutenant Robert E. 39n6 Central Academy of Fine Arts, Beijing 432
Al-Anbiyya (Prophets) series 221 Auschwitz 26, 27, 29, 30, 40n30, 339, 627 Bisire, Roger 642 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) 64, 578
Al-Awam, Ibrahim 224 Ausstellung Bayerischer Gemlde des Bit International 686 Centre for Advanced Creative Study 572
Al-Khaldi, Ghazi 431, 432, 434 15. Und 16. Jahrhunderts 23, 39 Bit International[Nove] tendencije. Centre Pompidou 567, 569n5
Al-Moudarres, Fateh 52, 383, 599 Avant-garde 59, 215, 216, 218, 224, 227, Computer und visuelle Forschung. Zagreb Centro de Arte Realista 421
Al-Musawwar 431 229, 230, 241, 421, 425, 438, 440, 477, 479, 19611973 686 Csaire, Aim 25, 32, 33, 41n67, 49, 52,
Al-Nasiri, Rafa 432 481, 482, 485, 487, 488, 489, 492, 493, Black Arts Movement 576 54, 75
Al-Sudanawiyya 223 494, 561, 569, 572, 573, 581, 585, 630, Black Orpheus 348, 559, 585 Czanne, Paul 341
Albers, Josef 481, 701 636, 639, 641, 642, 687, 694, 698, 701 Black Phoenix 230 Chakrabarty, Dipesh 38
INDEX
Aleksic, Dragan 686 Azimuth 685 Blackman, Charles 239 Chamberlain, John 331
Alfonsin, Ral 423n15 Azzawi, Dia 223, 600 Blaszko, Martn 485 Chandler, John 479
Algeria Unveiled 354 Bloch, Ernst 427 Chandra, Avinash 571, 572, 582, 583, 620
Allied Control Council 60 Bodet, Jaime Torre 346, 348 Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Simon 427
Allied New World Order 147 Boghossian, Skunder 244, 576, 585, 593 Charoux, Lothar 487, 495n13
Allied; Allies 59, 60, 67n4, 69, 71, 136, 147, B Boletn Arte Concreto Invencin 485 Chase-Riboud, Barbara 348
151, 152, 229, 231n7, 341 Bacon, Francis 26, 49, 159, 345, 362, 571, Bombay Progressive Artists Group 231n7 Chelsea Polytechnic 573
Alloway, Lawrence 46, 241, 690, 69395, 572, 691 Bomberg, David 642 Chelsea School of Art 573n6
701 Baj, Enrico 30, 30, 141, 143, 144, 199, Bonaparte, Napoleon 71 Chen, Duxiu 437
Alonso, Carlos 422 Bakic, Vojin 687n1 Bonsiepe, Gui 686 Chen, Peng 441n10
Alonso, Paloma 423n15 Balaghi, Shiva 49 Bontecou, Lee 312 Chen, Shizeng 437
Altdorfer, Albrecht 23, 23 Baldessari, John 687n12 Borduas, Paul-Emile 216 Chen, Yongjiang 441n10
Alte Pinakothek 40n19, 65 Baldwin, James 33, 458, 576, 577 Borgese, Leonardo 143 Chen, Zunsan 441n10
Alte Universitt 65 Bandung Conference 33, 54, 75, 76, 222, Boriani, Davide 687n1 Cherkaoui, Ahmed 287, 432, 642
Althusser, Louis 348 431, 576, 633, 698 Boshier, Derek 718 Chiang, Kai-Shek 437
Alviani, Getulio 687n1 Banham, Reyner 693, 694, 701 Boto, Martha 687n1 Chiggio, Ennio 687n1
Ambedkar, B.R. 231n7 Barilli, Renato 141, 686 Boudnk, Vladimr 49, 290, 291, 347 Chimei, Hamada 56n18
American Seventh Army 21 Barker, Heather 241 Bourdelle, mile-Antoine 347 China Academy of Art, Hangzhou 441n10
American Society of African Culture Barr, Alfred 567 Bourriaud, Nicolas 41n81 Chizu 136,
(AMSAC) 575, 578 Barr, Alfred H. (Jr.) 242 Bowling, Frank 571, 572, 573n5, 582, Choucair, Saloua Raouda 56n11, 493,
Ana, the Igbo earth goddess 641 Barr, Alfred (model) 567 587n16, 614, 615 494, 544
Anatol 155 Barson, Tanya Boyd, Arthur 239 Christen, Andreas 687n1
Anceschi, Giovanni 687n1 Barth, Richard 575 Boyd, David 239 Chua, Mia Tee 472
Anders, Gnther 41n55 Barthes, Roland 444 Brack, John 239 Chuikov, Semyon 427, 445, 446
Anderson, Benedict 633 Baselitz, Georg 46, 50, 52, 64, 387, 586 Brady, Mary B. Chukhrov, Keti 429
Andre, Carl 517 Bashir, Al Tijani Yusuf 225n2 Braithwaite, Edward Kamau 572 Ciudad Universitaria, Caracas 492
Anselmo, Giovanni 687n12 Bataille, Georges 218, 219n8, 227 Braque, Georges 23 Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City 492
Anthropometries 144 Baudissin, Klaus Graf von 62 Breker, Arno 22, 60 Civil Rights Movement 32, 36, 446, 625,
Anti-Nazi 40n46, 69 Bauhaus 343n7, 485, 488, 491, 630 Brenna, Enrico 144 633, 636, 701
Anti-Semite; Anti-Semitic 216, 352, 584, 628 Baumeister, Willi 50, 52, 343n5 Brest, Jorge Romero 242, 487, 488 Clark, Lygia 53, 229, 242, 309, 477, 487,
Antipodean Manifesto 239 Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich 39n6 Breton, Andr 444, 487 494, 495n13, 507, 508, 509, 510, 511,
Apollinaire, Guillaume 481, 481 Bayerischen Staatsministerium fr Unter- Brett, Guy 572, 698 573, 583
Apollonian 342 richt und Kultus (Bavarian State Ministry of Bretton Woods Conference 24, 35 Clifford, James 581
Apollonio, Umbro 584 Education and Culture) 66 Breuer, Marcel 571 Cloud Canyons series 53, 230
Appel, Karel 30, 30, 18283, 345, 694 Bayley, Edgar 485, 487 Bridges, Ruby 446 Coalition Provisional Authority 565n11
Appiah, Kwame Anthony 581 Bayrle, Thomas 376, 754 Bristol Aeroplane Company 693 CoBrA 586n13, 694
Arab-Israeli War of 1948 628 Bearden, Romare 582, 722, 723 British Army Film and Photographic Unit Coffineau, Nicole 245
Araeen, Rasheed 230, 74, 53536, 569, Becker, Carl 69 26, 40n42 Cold War 30, 33, 35, 43, 45, 46, 54, 55,
571, 572, 573n4, 573n9 Beckmann, Max 24, 1958 Brussels World Fair 447n15 71, 72, 75, 76, 133, 138, 242, 341, 342,
Arcay, Wifredo 542 Beier, Ulli 243, 244, 585 Bryen, Camille 347 343, 345, 419, 421, 423n11, 437, 444,
Arce, Georgie 444, 459 Bek, Boo 687 Buchloh, Benjamin H.D. 27 446, 575, 579, 581, 690, 698, 702
Archives de la critique dart 241 Belkahia, Farid 432, 642 Buddhist 52, 346 Coldstream, William 642
827
Collages and Objects 694 Der Blaue Reiter. Mnchen und die Kunst Expo 70 136 Gattin, Ivo 49, 328 Hautes ptes (thick pastes) 215 International Pop 56n23 Klek, Jo 686 Lissitsky, El 686
College of Fine and Applied Art 221, 225n1 des 20. Jahrhunderts 23, 66 Exposio de arte condenada pelo III Reich Gauguin, Paul 235 Hawkins, Weaver 30, 190 International Style 491, 559 Kline, Franz 46 Little Boy 21
Colombo, Gianni 687n1 Derain, Andr 23 (Exhibition of art condemned by the Third Geoffrey, Iqbal 571 Heckel, Erich 64 Internationale Jugendebuchausstellung 65 Knifer, Julije 685, 686, 687n1 Liu, Lydia 56n5
Colombo, Joe Cesare 141, 144 Descartes, Ren 345 Reich) 487 German Democratic Republic (GDR) 23, 63 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich 235, 345, Iommi, Godofredo 485 Kobo, Jikken 749 Liu, Shaoqi 439
Commission on Human Rights 35 Design Unit Group 693 Gerstner, Karl 686, 687n1 354, 428 Iron Curtain 43, 348, 443, 444, 446, 690 Kofi, Vincent Akweti 576, 578 Llins, Julio 242
Commonwealth Art Today 583 Destruction in Art Symposium (DIAS) 227 Gestapo 29 Heidegger, Martin 345 Isozaki, Arata 135, 138 Khn, Heinz 62 Locke, Donald 571
Commonwealth Institute 583 Deutscher Ausblick 26 Getty Research Institute 241 Heise, Carl Georg 66 Itike ite yokata 144 Kolr, Jir 322 Louis, Morris 29, 174, 175
Communist; Communism 35, 43, 46, 49, Di Tella, Guido 242, 492, 702 F Ghamari-Tabrizi, Sharon 698 Hekate series 341 Ivanissevich, Oscar 489n5 Konkrete Kunst 485 Lozza, Ral 485, 487
71, 229, 230, 235, 242, 343, 345, 347, 348, Daz, Porfirio 446 Fahlstrm, yvind 690, 756 Giacometti, Alberto 30, 345, 346, 347, Henderson, Nigel 693, 695 Korachi, Rachid 223 Lu, Dingyi 439
421, 422, 423n10, 425, 427, 428, 429, 431, Dickerson, Robert 239 Fangor, Wojciech 444, 457 363, 364, 366, 367 Hepworth, Barbara 571 Korean War 52, 76, 347 Lu, Zheng 437
432, 437, 438, 441n1, 443, 446, 584, 627 Die Neuen Tendenzen. Eine europische Fanon, Frantz 32, 33, 49, 52, 53, 54, 75, Gilroy, Paul 636 Heron, Patrick 573n3 Korzhev, Geliy 428, 429, 452 Luda and Yangquan 440
Conceptual art 242, 479, 572 Knstlerbewegung 19611973 686 339, 348, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355, 639, Girola, Claudio 487 Herrera, Carmen 500 J Kosice, Gyula 485, 487, 492, 501, 706 Luftwaffe 26
Congress for Cultural Freedom 40n27, 64 Die Zeit 66 641, 642 Giunta, Andrea 241, 702 Hesse, Eva 233, 288, 616, 617 Jabareen, Hassan 56n2 Kossoff, Leon 258, 572 Lukacs, Gyrgy 428
Congress of Black Writers and Artists 222, Dillgardt, Just 62 Farfield Foundation 67n15 Godfrey, Mark 29 Higgins, Dick 701 Yakovlev, Vasiliy 450 Kotelawala, Sir John 76 Lumumba, Patrice 221
585, 639 Dimitrijevic, Braco 687n12 Fat Man 21, 30 Goebbels, Joseph 60, 62 Hiroshima (event) 21, 25, 30, 41n53, 43, Jamaat Baghdad lil Fan al-Hadith Kounellis, Jannis 687n12 Luo, Gongliu 441n10
Connelly, Matthew 56n4 Dionysian 342 Fatah, Ismail 347 Goertiz, Mathias 52, 487, 488, 493, 538 71, 135, 136, 138, 141, 143, 149, 345 (The Baghdad Group for Modern Art) 563 Koaric, Ivan 414
Conner, Bruce 748 Diop, Alioune 578 Fautrier, Jean 26, 46, 158, 215, 216, 217, Goldenes Buch 21, 39n6 Hiroshima Atomic Bomb Dome 136 James, C. L. R. 75 Kramer, Hilton 56n24
Constructive Universalism 492 Discourse on Colonialism 32, 75 218, 227, 233, 281, 347 Goldschmidt, Gertrude (Gego) 488, 498 Hiroshima Peace Center 139n6 Jamiyat asdiqa al fan (Friends of Art) 563 Krampen, Martin 686
Constructivism 227, 485, 491, 687, 689, 690 Divi, Aln 402 Fauvism 641 Golub, Leon 396 Hirschenberg, Shmuel 628 Jardim, Reynaldo 242 Krasner, Lee (Lena, Lenore) 45, 254 M
Continuit et avant-garde au Japon 585 Diwani style 225n2 Fax, Elton 575 Gomringer, Eugen 481 Histadrut 628 Jaspers, Karl 40n46, 346 Krauss, Rosalind E. 219n8, 690 Ma, Yuanhong 441n10
Contro lo stile 144 Dmitrieva, Nina 428 Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) 347 Gordon, Allison 435n3 Hitler, Adolf 21, 22, 39n6, 39n13, 60, 62, Jenkins, Ronald 695 Krauss, Werner 342 MacArthur, General Douglas 136
Cordeiro, Waldemar 487, 493, 494, 495n2, Documenta I 46 Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) 15, 23, Gorgona group 686, 687 71, 341, 342, 343n7, 425, 697 Jess (Collins, Burgess Franklin) 191 Kristl, Vlado 686, 687n1 Mack, Heinz 585, 687n1, 689
495n13, 523, 687n11 Documenta II (1959) 46, 56n21, 64 63, 67n4 Gosebruch, Ernst 62 Hlito, Alfredo 485 Jeyifo, Biodun 643n9 Ku-lim, Kim 207 Macke, August 23
Cordell, Magda 30, 52, 347, 378, 693 Domon, Ken 136 Fjer, Kazmer 587n36 Gtz, Karl Otto 689, 690, 735, 751 Hochschule der Bildenden Knste (Univer- Ji, Xiaoqiu 441n10 Kubin, Alfred 489n7 Mad group 53, 477, 485, 492, 495n11, 584
Corriere della Sera 143 Dong, Xiwen 52, 439, 440 Feldman, Hannah 160 Gozo, Yoshimasu 482 sitt der Knste) 63 Jia, Youfu 446, 468, 469 Kubota, Shigeko 228 Madrasat al-Ghaba wa al-Sahra
Costa, Toni 687n1 Dong, Zuyi 441n10 Feng, Zhen 441n10 Grabowski Gallery 583 Hochschule fr Bildende Knste 64 Jiang, Feng 439 Kubrick, Stanley 41n56 (Jungle and the Desert School) 223
Council of Foreign Relations 55 Dorazio, Piero 687n1 Fenollosa, Ernst 482 GRAV (groupe de recherche dart visual) Hochschule fr Gestaltung Ulm 491, 584 Takamatsu Jiro 711 Kudo, Tetsumi 228, 233, 276, 324 Madrasat Al-Wahid (The School of One) 224
Crawford, Ralston 141 Dorfles, Gillo 686 Ferrari, Ariel 703n20 685, 689 Hoehme, Gerhard 690 Johns, Jasper 635, 647 Kunstakademie Dsseldorf 690 Maghribi tradition 225n20
Cremonini, Leonardo 348 Dova, Gianni 141 Ferrari, Len 49, 701, 702, 703n20, 729 Greek Alecco 67n2 Hofer, Karl 64, 343n10 Johnson, Daniel LaRue 494, 654 Kunsthalle-Altbau 40n22 Maharaj, Sarat 35
Crippa, Roberto 141 Dreyfus Affair 631n3 Fire Paintings series 144 Green, Charles 241 Hofgarten 22 Johnson, Sergeant Eugene 39n6 Kunstmagistrat 343n10 Mahdaoui, Nja 222
Cruz-Diez, Carlos 687n1 Dubois, William Edward Burghardt 40n26, First All-Union Congress of Soviet Artists Greenberg, Clement 216, 219n8, 241, Hofgartenarkadengebude 62 Jorn, Asger 380, 381, 694 Kunstverein 40n22 Mainichi Shinbun 30, 41n53
Cubism; Cubist 22, 49, 216, 224, 341 41n67, 576, 578 427 245n5, 341, 698 Holocaust 25, 26, 27, 29, 40n32, 141, 227, Jornal do Brasil 242 Kupferman, Moshe 630, 631 Makchmobk.M 438
Cuevas, Jos Luis 242 Dubuffet, Jean e215, 216, 217, 218, 227, First Congress of Negro Writers and Grez, Ramn Vergara 487 347, 421, 488, 628, 630, 631 Joyce, James 347, 481, 482 Kusama, Yayoi 228, 233, 320, 321, 690 Maksimov, Konstantin 427, 444
345, 347, 374, 375 Artists 575, 576 Gribaudo, Ezio 585 Holroyd, Geoffrey 695, 695n8 Judaism (Jew, Jewish) 22, 341, 347, 425, Kwon, Heonik 56n5 Malangatana 670
Duchamp, Marcel 227 First International Congress of Black Grigorian, Marcos 229, 316 Hlzel, Adolf 66 628, 630, 631, 693 Maldonado, Toms 242, 485, 487, 492,
Dunayevskaya, Raya 348 Writers and Artists 585 Gris, Juan 341 Honda, Ishiro 41n56 Judeo-Bolshevism 341 493, 504, 686
D Drer, Albrecht 23, 23 First World 36, 136 Grohmann, Will 65, 341 House of Un-American Activities Judt, Tony 35, 72 Maler am Bauhaus
DHarnoncourt, Ren 40n27, 575 Dvizheniye group, 685 First World Festival of Negro Arts 578 Gropius, Walter 343n7 Committee 636 L (Painters at the Bauhaus) 23, 66
Da Silva, Maria Helena Vieira 485 Fleischmann, Julius 67n15 Grosse Deutsche Kunstausstellung 21, 22, Howard University 575, 576 Ltudiant noir 41n67 Malevich, Kazimir 227, 485, 493, 686
Dachau 21, 39n12 Fluxus 228, 683, 691, 703n13 39n18, 59 Howard University Museum 575 La Phalange 215 Mallarm, Stphane 347, 481
Dada; Dadaism 22, 139n11, 227, 485, 492, Fontana, Lucio 141, 227, 233, 235, 294, Grote, Ludwig 66 Hua, Li 432 K La Rose, John 572 Malraux, Andr 347, 348
687, 689, 690 E 485, 689 Group 1890 230, 231n9 Hudson Institute 698 Kamei, Fumio 144 Laa, Diyi 485 Mancoba, Ernest 50, 52, 252, 253, 348,
Dada Jazz 686 Eames, Charles 744 Formalist 53, 215, 222, 227, 482, 689 Group of Modern Art 445, 636 Huebler, Douglas 687n12 Kammer der Kunstschaffenden 64 Lacan, Jacques 353, 355 586n13
Dada Tank 686 Eames, Ray 744 Frster, Otto H. 62, 63, 65 Grundig, Hans 64 Huelsenbeck, Richard 686 Kmmer, Rudolf 687n1 Lagos galleries 578 Man-Katz, Emmanuel 630
Dadi, Iftikhar 221, 223 East German Willi Sitte 446 Fotivec, Dorotea 687 Grnewald, Matthias 347, 23, 23 Hughes, Langston 578 Kandinsky, Vasily 23, 24, 46, 66, 235, Laguna, Juanito 422 Manet, douard 347
Dahlmann, Alfred 63 Eco, Umberto 347, 685 Fougeron, Andr 49, 444, 584 Grupo Ruptura 495n13, 584 Huidobro, Vicente 485 485, 686 Lam, Wifredo Manhattan Project 71
Dal, Salvador 30, 143 Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Casablanca 642 Franke, Herbert W. 686 Gruppo N 685, 687n1 Humanism and Terror 345 Kang, Youwei 437 52, 56n11, 376, 377, 542, 583, 694 Manichaean 75, 354
Damas, Lon 41n67 cole des Beaux-Arts, Paris 348 Frankenthaler, Helen 52, 233, 260 Guerrilla Art Action Group (GAAG) 573 Husain, Maqbool Fida 32, 231n7, 400, 582, Kant, Immanuel 582 Landi, Edoardo 687n1 Manifeste de la peinture nuclaire 144
Damisch, Hubert 217 Edward, Duke of Windsor 21, 39n6 Frankfurter Rundschau 63 Guggenheim, Peggy 444 635, 635, 636, 637 Kantor, Tadeusz 49, 755 LaRue Johnson, Daniel 494, 654 Manifesto neoconcreto 242
Damnjanovic-Damnjan, Radomir 687n12 Edwards, Melvin 655, 656, 657 Free Democratic Party (FDP) 62 Guha, Ranajit 56n5 Hussein, Saddam 565n11 Kaprow, Allan 228, 585, 701, 702 Lassnig, Maria 272, 404 Manzoni, Piero 227, 233, 270, 685, 687n1
Dangelo, Sergio 141, 143, 144 Efflatoun, Inji 49, 421, 431, 467, 669 French Revolution 627 Guilbaut, Serge 41n78, 586n11, 635 Karkutli, Burhan 432, 434, 435n16 Latham, John 227, 267, 313, 314 Mao, Zedong 49, 419, 437, 438, 439, 440,
Dari, Sand 493, 494, 495n2, 522, 524 Egonu, Uzo 582, 597, 719 Freud, Lucian 572 Gujral, Satish 231n7 Kassab-Bachi, Marwan 407 Laverdant, Gabriel Dsir 215, 218 441n1, 446
David, Jacques-Louis 443 Egyptian Surrealists 229, 231n8 Freud, Sigmund 351 Gullar, Ferreira 242, 482, 483, 484 I Kassk, Lajos 686 Lawrence, Jacob Marc, August 24
Davis, John A. 578 Eichmann, Adolf 630 Frohne, Ursula 165 Guo, Shaogang 441n10 Ibrahim, Muhammed al-Makki 223 Katzenstein, Ins 241 423n1, 575, 578, 582, 585, 621 Marc, Franz 23
De Barros, Geraldo 495n13 Ein Harod Museum 630 Frohner, Adolf 215 Guston, Philip 263, 385 Ibrahim, Salah Ahmad 224 Kawada, Kikuji 136 Le Parc, Julio 687n1 Marcks, Ney Gerhard 64
De Beauvoir, Simone 345, 347 Einstein, Albert 41n54 Fromm, Erich 348 Gutai 53, 213, 216, 228, 236, 241, 347, Ichiro, Haryu 56n18, 241 Kawara, On 32, 45, 49, 50, 52, 403, 707 League of Nations 69, 633 Mari, Enzo 685, 687n1
De Camargo, Sergio 583 Eiriz, Antonia 422 Fu, Baoshi 439 493, 585 Ideal Home Exhibition 695n7 Kazuo, Shiraga 216, 228, 274, 493 Lebrun, Rico 347, 423n1 Marika, Mawalan 674
De Campos, Augusto 479, 481, 482, 487 Eisenhower, General Dwight D. 39n4 Fuller, Hoyt 578 Guttuso, Renato 49, 53, 422, 444, 445 Ifriqi style 225n20 Keeler, Paul 230, 572, 583, 698 Lee, Christopher 79n12 Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso 218, 241
De Campos, Haroldo 482, 487 El Salahi, Ibrahim 30, 32, 221, 222, 223, Futurism 22, 133, 425 Iljenkov, Evald 429 Keitel, Field Marshal Wilhelm 40n29 Lee, Seung-taek 52, 228, 319 Marker, Chris 41n56
De Castro, Amlcar 242, 495n13 224, 360, 361, 571, 585, 586n15, 596, Futurist Manifesto 241 Ilse 155 Kelly, Ellsworth 233, 493, 518, 520, 521 Leeson, Lynn Hershman 730, 731 Marshall Plan 152, 345, 491, 492, 698
De Castro, Willys 495n13 604, 642 Ilya Repin Leningrad Institute for Painting, Kemble, Kenneth 242 Lger, Fernand 446 Martin, Agnes 488
De Kooning, Elaine 46, 67n15 Elangovan, Arvind 79 H Sculpture and Architecture 425 Khadda, Mohamed 43, 50 Lehmbruck, Wilhelm 24 Maruki, Iri 30, 184, 186
De Kooning, Willem 45, 49, 67n15, 141, Electric & Musical Industries (EMI) 693 Haacke, Hans 53, 493, 516 Imperial Institute 583 Khalwa style 224, 225n20 Lenin, Vladimir 422, 423n2, 427, 443 Maruki, Toshi 30, 184, 186
233, 251, 345, 372, 373, 445 Emokpae, Erhabor 493, 554 G Haar, Leopold 587n36 Impressionism 22, 642, 690 Khan, Aga 21, 39n6 Leninist 422, 427, 443 Marxism and Questions of Linguistics 427
De Ora, Pedro 540 Emperor Hirohito 139n6 Gabo, Naum 571 Hacker, Dieter 687n1 Independent Group 683, 690, 693, 694, Khanna, Krishen 582, 672 Lepman, Jella 65 Marxism; Marxist 78, 216, 229, 346, 422,
De Saint Phalle, Niki 228 Enayat, Heba 432 Gadamer, Hans-Georg 569 Hadashim, Ofakim 628 695, 695n7, 698, 701 Khartoum School 221, 222, 223, 224, 642 Les Temps Modernes 345 427, 428, 429, 437, 487, 494
De Stijl 485 Ensor, James 24 Gaitonde, V.S. 228 Haga, Toru 585 Indiana, Robert 648 Khrushchev, Nikita 445 Levi, Primo 40n30 Massironi, Manfredo 584, 685, 687n1
De Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri 689 Entartete Kunst 22, 23, 39n11, 39n13, 62 Galerie Franke 341 Hains, Raymond 302, 678, 689 Indica Gallery 573 Ki, Zao-Wou 348 Lewis, Norman 49, 195, 582, 651 Masson, Andr 56n19
De Vecchi, Gabriele 687n1 Entartete Kunst. Bildersturm vor 25 Jahren 23 Galerie Iris Clert 144 Hall, Stuart 572, 582 Institute of Contemporary Arts (ICA) 583, 693 Kibbutz Lohamei HaGhettaot 631 LeWitt, Sol 687n12 Mathieu, Georges 216
Denazification 23, 39n15, 40n46, 59, 60, Enwonwu, Ben 32, 33, 52, 243, 370, 571, Galerija suvremene umjetnotsi 685, 686, Hamilton, Richard Instituto di Tella 702 Kibbutz Yechiam 628 Li, Jun 441n10 Mathur, Saloni 56n16
65, 67n5 575, 576, 641, 642, 666 687 690, 691, 693, 695, 701, 734 Instituto Torcuato di Tella, Buenos Aires 492 Kiefer, Anselm 216 Li, Keran 439 Matiriste (matter painting) 215
Debord, Guy 694, 751 Epoca blu 144 Galleria Apollinaire 144 Hampton Institute 446 International Center for the Arts of the Kierkegaard, Sren 345 Li, Tianxiang 441n10 Matisse, Henri 23, 235, 571, 573n2
DeFeo, Jay 52 Equipo 57 687n1 Galleria del Cavallino 141 Hanta, Simon 233 Americas at the Museum of Fine Arts, Kinetic art 348, 573, 583, 683, 687, 689, Li, Yuan-Chia 573 Mavignier, Almir
Degas, Edgar 347, 347 Ernst, Max 489n7 Galleria del Naviglio 141 Harmon Foundation 575, 576 Houston 241 690, 698 Liang, Qichao 437 584, 685, 687, 687n1, 689, 737
Del Prete, Juan 485 Erol (Erol Akyavas) 607 Galleria San Fedele 143, 144 Hartung, Hans 46, 216 International Committee for Museums and Kirchner, Ernst Ludwig 24, 66 Library of Congress 40n27 Mbari Artists and Writers Club
Del Renzio, Toni 693, 695 Erste Allgemeine Deutsche Kunstaus Gallery 67 56n19 Haruo, Yamanaka 56n18 Collections of Modern Art 567 Kiroku shashin: genbaku no Nagasaki 136 Lichtenstein, Roy 30, 200, 690 585, 587n50
Delaney, Beauford 233, 273, 458 stellung 64 Gallery One 572, 583 Haubrich, Josef 65 International Conference on the Detection Kitaj, R.B. 572 Lifshitz, Mikhail 428 Mbembe, Achille 506
Delaunay, Robert 23 Escuela de Arquitectura y Diseo 485, Gandhi, Mahatma 75, 231n7 Haus der Deutschen Kunst of Atomic Explosions 144 Kitasono, Katue 479, 481, 482 Lijn, Liliane 573 Mc Hale, John
Deleuze, Gilles 235, 236 487, 488 Garcia-Miranda, Hctor 687n1 21, 22, 23, 39n17, 59, 65 International Klein Blue (IKB) 144 Klee, Paul 23, 49, 66, 141, 642 Lin, Fengmian 437 690, 693, 694, 695, 701, 743
Deng, Shu 441n10 Espinosa, Manuel 485 Gardner, Anthony 584 Haus der Kunst International Monetary Fund 24, 35 Klein, Yves 30, 144, 493 Lin, Gang 441n10 Mc Luhan, Marshall 701
Denis, Maurice 215 EXAT-51 686, 687 Garnier, Pierre 482 21, 23, 24, 40n19, 59, 65, 66, 67n2 International Olympic Committee 60 Kleine, Rasmus 687 Lippard, Lucy R. 479, 569 Mc Mahon, Colonel Bernard B. 63
828 829
McNish, Althea 571, 572 Museum of Fine Arts, Houston 241 Noigandres 481, 482 Prez, Matilde 487 Rauschenberg, Robert 53, 196, 216, 690, 712 of Applied Arts 225n1 428, 438, 443, 445 Torres-Garca, Joaqun 485, 492
Medalla, David Museum of Modern Art, New York 23, 24, Nolde, Emil 24 Pern, Juan Domingo 422, 487, 489n5 Raza, S. H. 231n7 School of Design in Gordon Memorial Stalinist 419, 421, 425, 428, 444, 584 Traba, Marta 244, 422
53, 230, 330, 571, 572, 583, 698 50, 56n11, 63, 135, 241, 345, 347, 445, Noll, Michael A. 686 Peter the Great 425 Red Army 151, 443 College, Khartoum 221 Stamos, Theodore 53 Trbuljak, Goran 687n12
Mel, Juan 485 482, 567, 569n5, 571, 575, 585, 685, Non-Aligned Movement 231n7, 572, 633, Petka 155 Regent Street Polytechnic 572, 573n6 School of London 572 Stanford University 79 Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security
Melehi, Mohammed 738 690, 698 636, 685 Pettoruti, Emilio 485 Reich, Annie 354 School of Paris 230, 568, 630 State Museum of Oriental Art, Moscow 434 136
Mencken, H.L. 77 Museum of the Child in the Ghetto Fighters North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Phelps-Stokes Fund 479n5 Reichskulturkammer 39n13, 62 Schwitters, Kurt 686 Staudt, Klaus 687n1 Triumph des Willens
Mendes, Murilo 485 Museum 631 14, 35 Photography 100 Years: A History of Pho- Reinhardt, Ad 46, 141, 514 Second World 36 Steichen, Edward 41n53 (Triumph of the Will) 60
Menschenbild (image of man) Museumsverein 62 Nouveau Ralisme 241 tographic Expression by the Japanese 138 Reinhartz, Karl 687n1 Sedlmayr, Hans 50 Stein, Jol 687n1 Tropiclia movement 229
50, 341, 342, 343 Musgrave, Victor 583 Nova tendencija 3 685 Physical Damage Division of the United Renaissance 141, 215 Segall, Lasar 489n7 Steinbeck, John 446 Trotsky, Leon 423n4
Mercader, Ramn 423n4 Muslim Brotherhood 225n17 Nove Tendencije 685 States Strategic Bombing Survey 136 Ren Drouin Gallery 215 Segi, Shinichi 144 Stella, Frank 29, 172 Truman Doctrine 345
Mercer, Kobena 583 Mussolini, Benito 13, 21, 39n6 Nove tendencije 2 685 Picard, Max 342 Repin Institute of Art, Leningrad 438, 446 Seissel, Josip 686 Still, Clyfford 423n1 Truman, Harry S. 63, 71
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice 235, 345, 487 Myrdal, Gunnar 75 Novedades 242 Picassian 141 Repin, Ilya 439, 444 Seitz, William 685 Stockhausen, Karlheinz 347 Tuckson, Tony 406
Merton Simpson Gallery 575, 576 Nwoko, Demas 52, 641, 642 Picasso, Pablo23, 36, 66, 341, 347, 358, Resnais, Alain 41n56 Sekoto, Gerard 32, 348, 412, 413, 575, 576 Stonard, John-Paul 691 Tumarkin, Igael 203, 630
Messiaen, Olivier 29 Nyerere, Julius 76, 77 444, 571, 576, 582 Restany, Pierre 241, 584 Selim, Jawad 413, 600 Storm Society 437 Turki, Tomader 432
Metrovic, Matko 587n37, 685, 686 Picelj, Ivan 530, 685, 686, 687n1 Reuben Gallery 701 Selz, Peter 347 Street Art (Zouxiang shizi jietou de yishu) Turnbull, William 693
Metzger, Gustav 227, 322, 572, 618 N Picture Post 144 Revueltas, Jos 421 Senghor, Lopold Sdar 33, 41n67, 53, 54, 437 Tutankhamun 348
Mexican Communist Party 421 NDiaye, Iba 49, 52, 348, 664 Piene, Otto 687n1 Rheinisches Muesum Kln-Deutz 40n22 77, 78, 79, 348, 351, 577, 587n50, 641 Studio Osman 225n1 Tzara, Tristan 487, 686
Mexican muralism 242, 421, 445 Nabaa, Nazir 431 O Pignatari, Dcio 481 Richier, Germaine 347 Serpa, Ivan 487 Subramanyan, Kalpathi Ganpathi 230
Meyer, E. W. 694 Naef, Sylvia 50 Oba, Hideo 41n56 Pinakothek der Moderne 65 Richter, Gerhard Seung-taek, Lee 52, 228, 319 Sddeutsche Zeitung 60, 63
Mezei, Leslie 686 Nagasaki (event) 21, 25, 30, 40n32, 41n53, Oehm, Herbert 687n1 Pinakothek, Alte 65 26, 27, 50, 64, 170, 171, 388, 690 Sevcenko, Nicolau 492 Sudjojono, Sindoedarsono 673
Miyakawa, Atsushi 241 43, 71, 135, 136, 138, 141, 143, 339, 345 Office of the Coordinator of Pinot-Gallizio, Giuseppe 300 Richter, Vjenceslav 686, 687n1 Shahn, Ben 45, 423n1, 445 Sukarno 33, 54, 77, 633 U
Micic, Ljubomir 686 Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum 136 Inter-American Affairs 40n27 Pintaric, Vera Horvat 686 Riefenstahl, Leni 60 Shamma, Abdul Manan 432 Summers, David 43 U.S. Seventh Army 59
Midas 54 Nagasaki International Culture Hall 136 Office of War Information 40n27 19 Pintores (19 Painters) 487 Riley, Bridget 237 Shammout, Ismail 446, 628, 663 Sun, Zixi 440 Uecker, Gnther 687n1
Mignolo, Walter 56n5 Naipaul, Vidiadhar Surajprasad 35 Oiticica, Hlio 53, 229, 326, 487, 494, Pirie, Norman 694 Riopelle, Jean-Paul 216 Shannon, Claude 697 Suprematists; suprematism 227, 493 Ufan, Lee 228, 295
Mikhnov-Voitenko, Evgeny 585, 602 Nake, Frieder 686 495n13, 513, 534, 573 Piskur, Bojana 56n16 Rivera, Diego 421, 423n2, 444 Shao, Da Zhen 441n10 Supreme Command of Allied Powers Uhlmann, Hans 64
Milan design triennial 138 Naskh tradition 225n20 Okamoto, Taro 50, 52 Pittura Nucleare 143 Rivers, Larry 649 Shapiro, J. S. 694 (SCAP) 41n53 Uli aesthetic 641
Miller, Dorothy C. 244 Nasser 56 79n12 Okara, Gabriel 77 Piyadasa, Redza 35 Robinow, Lieutenant Wolfgang F. 39n1 Shapiro, Jerome F. 41n53 utej, Miroslav 687n1 Uemae, Chiyu 216
Minimalism; minimalist 53, 427, 491, 493 Nasser, Gamal-Abdel 77, 231n8, 431, 432, Okeke-Agulu, Chika 578, 636 Platonic 375 Rockefeller, Nelson D. 242 Shemza, Anwar Jalal 50, 284, 285, 493, Suzuki, Masafumi 135 United Nations 24, 35, 69, 75, 76, 339,
Minujn, Marta 242, 304 434, 445, 583, 633, 636 Okeke, Uche 32, 52, 244, 590, 641, 668 Poblete, Gustavo 487 Rockwell, Norman 49, 446 494, 512, 571, 572, 582, 583, 609 Swaminathan, Jagdish 230 345, 698
Mir, Joan 215 National Gallery, Washington D.C. 575 Olea, Hctor 493, 495n13 Pohl, Uli 687n1 Rodchenko, Aleksandr 686 Shi, Lu 439 Swiss Allianz group 485 United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Misaki, Kiuchi 56n18 National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo Oluwabamise, Colette 415 Polke, Sigmar 690, 714 Rodin, Auguste 347 Shibrain, Ahmed Mohammed Szapocznikow, Alina 29, 167, 347, 405 Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 35, 345,
Mitchell, Joan 269, 347 482 Olympia-Film GmbH 60 Pollock, Jackson 45, 46, 64, 141, 144, Rodrigo, Joaquim 708 221, 222, 223, 224, 585, 606, 642 Szilard, Leo 71 346, 348, 698
Mitter, Partha 585 National Socialism (Nazi; Nazi Party; Olympia: Fest der Vlker/ 216, 219n8, 228, 233, 248, 250, 345, 347, Roosevelt, Franklin D. 69 Shimamoto, Shozo 216, 305 Szombathy, Blint 687n12 Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Mochalskii, Dmitrii 493 Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiter- Fest der Schnheit 60 423n1, 585, 635, 698 Rosenberg, Harold 241 Shindo, Kaneto 41n56 35, 339
Modern Art in the United States: partei [NSDAP]) 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, Omar, Madiha 564 Pomar, Jlio 422, 446, 464 Rotella, Mimmo 689 Shiraga, Kazuo 216, 218, 228, 274, 493 Universidad de Guadalajara Escuela de
A Selection from the Collections of the 29, 35, 40n46, 46n40, 59, 60, 62, 63, 64, Omogbai, Colette 30, 415 Ponge, Francis 217, 218 Roth, Dieter 550, 551, 689, 726, 727 Shoah (also see: Holocaust) 41n51 Arquitectura 488
Museum of Modern Art, New York 571 66, 67n3, 67n4, 69, 71, 147, 216, 217, 227, On The Beach 239 Pop; pop art 46, 241, 422, 572, 635, 690, Rothfuss, Rhod 485, 505 Shurpin, Fyodor 427, 443, 451 T University College, Ibadan 643n4
Moderne Franzsische Malerei 23 341, 342, 345, 347, 425, 431, 443, 487, Onabolu, Aina 242 691, 693, 695, 701 Rothko, Mark 49 Shute, Nevil 239 Tagore, Rabindranath 75, 230 University of Auckland 77
Moderne Kunst als Hoffnung 63 693, 697 Ono, Yoko 228 Popkov, Viktor 428, 446, 453 Royal College of Art and the Slade School Sichuan Academy of Fine Arts 440 Tahrir Monument 563 University of Heidelberg 40n46
Modernist; modernism 22, 23, 32, 33, 36, Nationalgalerie Berlin 62 Orientalist 642 Portinari, Candido 423n1 572 Sicre, Jos Gmez 242 Taizo, Yoshinaka 56n18 University of Ibadan 243
38, 43, 45, 46, 49, 50, 52, 53, 63, 64, 66, Natori, Yonosuke 139n11 Orozco, Jos Clemente 421, 423n2, 444, 641 Post-cubism; post-cubist 141, 223, 241, 641 Rubens, Peter Paul 425 Siegel, Katy 635 Talman, Paul 687n1 Utaibi, Ahmad Abdallah 224
73, 213, 215, 221, 222, 223, 224, 227, Natural Synthesis 33, 244, 641 Ossorio, Alfonso 52, 333, 347, 379, 585 Pound, Ezra 482 Rhm, Gerhard 698, 743 Signals Gallery 230, 572, 583 Tamayo, Rufino 384, 421, 422
228, 229, 230, 242, 341, 342, 345, 425, Nay, Ernst Wilhelm 49, 264, 265, 341 Otero, Alejandro 573 Poussin, Nicolas 347 Ruscha, Ed 742 Signals Group 698 Tambal, Hamza al-Malik 225n13
437, 439, 440, 477, 491, 561, 563, 564, Nedoshivin, German 445 Otra Figuracin 50 Prakash, Gyan 635 Rushdie, Salman 77 Simias of Rhodes 481 Tan, Yongtai 441n10
567, 568, 569, 571, 575, 576, 578, 581, Neel, Alice 444, 459 Ov, Horace 572 Prashad, Vijay 56n5 Russell-Einstein Manifesto 41n54 Simon, Yohanan 662 Tanaka, Atsuko V
582, 584, 585, 628, 630, 635, 636, 639, Nees, Georg 686 Owais, Hamed 432, 434, 445, 473 Prati, Lidy 485, 487 Russell, Bertrand 41n54, 71 Simone, Nina 578 493, 494, 546, 689, 744, 745 V-E Day 39n4
641, 642, 686, 687, 689, 691, 698 Ngritude 32, 41n67, 222, 339, 348, 351, Pre-Socratic 345 Russian Constructivism 491 Sintenis, Rene 64 Tanavoli, Pervez 222 Valry, Ambroise-Paul-Toussaint-Jules
Modernits plurielles collection 567 585, 639, 641, 642 Preda, Enzo 144 Russian Revolution 427, 628 Siporin, Mitchell 661 Tange, Kenzo 139n6 (Toussaint) 351
Mohamedi, Nasreen 488, 493 Negro Digest 578 Prsence Africaine 50, 578, 585 Ruwad (Pioneers) 563, 564 Siqueiros, David Alfaro 30, 49, 409, 421, 422, Tapi, Michel 241, 347, 585 Valoch, Jir 686
Moholy-Nagy, Lzl 30, 686 Nehru, Jawaharlal P Prestes Maia gallery 487 423n2, 423n10, 444, 445, 446, 466, 584 Tpies, Antoni 215, 227, 230, 296 Van Doesburg, Theo 485, 492, 493,
Moles, Abraham 686, 689 76, 77, 230, 231n7, 421, 633 P1 Club 59, 67n2 Progressive Artists Group, Bombay 582 Sirry, Gazbia 53, 598, 636, 637 Taslitzky, Boris 444, 462 495n13
Mondrian, Piet Neo-Concretist 229 Padmore, George 40n26 Prospero 77 Sithole, Lucas 368 Tate Gallery 67n15, 347, 571 Van Dongen, Kees 23
235, 445, 481, 485, 487, 488, 571 Neo-Dada 348 Paik, Nam June 691, 747 Pure Paints a Picture 46 S Sitte, Willy (Willi) 446, 456 Tate Modern 56n11, 569n5 Van Rijn, Rembrandt Harmenszoon 427
Monet, Claude 347 Neoconcrete Pan American Union 242 Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts 425 Sabogal, Jos 423n1 Slade School of Fine Art 221, 586n15, 641 Tatlin, Vladimir 227, 686 VanDerBeek, Stan 750
Monterrey and Monclova 492 53, 477, 479, 482, 483, 495n11, 573 Pan-African Festival 222 Putar, Radoslav 685, 686 Sacilotto, Lus 487, 495n13 Smith, Bernard 239 Tatsuo, Ikeda 56n18 Vanya 155
Montiel, Ramona 422 Nerlinger, Oskar 64 Pan-Africanism 43, 45, 222, 572, 585, 639 Putzel, Howard 56n19 Sadamasa, Motonaga 53, 493, 548 Smith, David 160, 161 Teige, Karel 686 Varisco, Grazia 687n1
Moody, Ronald 571, 572 Neruda, Pablo 423n4, 423n9 Pan-Arabism 43, 45, 222, 559, 564 Sadequain 50, 222, 612, 613 Smith, Terry 38 Tel Aviv Museum 628 Vassilakis, Panagiotis (Takis) 573
Moore, Henry 30, 201, 571 Neue Galerie 686 Pan, Tianshou 437 Said, Edward 79, 581 Smithson, Alison 693, 695, 701 Tlmaque, Herv 690, 716 Vedova, Emilio 306, 646
Morellet, Franois 687n1, 739 Neue Sachlichkeit 65 Paolini, Giulio 687n12 Salahi, El 30, 32, 221, 222, 223, 224, 360, Smithson, Peter 693, 695, 701 Tendencije 4 685 Velzquez, Diego 427
Morris, Robert 515 New Horizons 628, 630 Paolozzi, Eduardo 143, 192, 480, 481, 486, Q 361, 571, 585, 596, 604, 642 Sobrino, Francisco 687n1 Tendencije 5 685 Velepic, Ciril 584
Motonaga, Sadamasa 53, 493, 548 New Images of Man 50, 345, 347, 348 487, 488, 491, 492, 493, 494, 690, 693, Qi, Baishi 437 Salahov, Tahir 446 Socialist Modernism 686 The Effect of the Atomic Bomb on Veneuse, Jean 353
Movimento Arte Nucleare 198 New Vision Centre 583 695, 701, 720, 721, 732, 733 Qi, Muer 441n10 Salazar, Antnio 446 Socialist Realism 35, 73, 239, 242, 419, Hiroshima, Japan 136 Venice Biennale 46, 444, 583
Mller, Gotthart 687n1 New Vision Group 583 Papastergiadis, Nikos 582 Qian, Shaowu 441n10 Salim, Jawad 563 421, 422, 423n10, 425, 427, 437, 438, The Family of Man 41n53, 135 Ver y Estimar 487
Mumford, Lewis 41n55 New Year Painting Movement 438 Pape, Lygia 242, 487, 494, 553 Quan, Shanshi 441n10 Salim, Naziha 564 439, 440, 443, 444, 445, 686 The Great Depression 235, 241 Victoria and Albert Museum 571, 573n2
Munari, Bruno 685 New York Times 576, 578 Parallel of Life and Art 695 Quartet for the End of Time 29 Salkey, Andrew 572 Socit Africaine de Culture (SAC) 578 The New School for Social Research Villegl, Jacques (Mah de la)
Munch, Edvard 66 Newall, Albert 541, 543 Paris Salon dAutomne 444 Quin, Carmelo Arden 485 Salvadori, Marcello 572 Society for Islamic Thought 225n17 423n2 303, 679, 689, 724
Murakami, Saburo 216, 228 Newman, Barnett 50, 52, 194, 233, 235, 236 Pasmore, Victor 571 Quit India Movement 231n7 Samant, Mohan 229, 329, 582, 635 Soldevilla, Lol 495n4, 526, 527 Theatre Institute, Leningrad 585 Vinholes, L.C. 482
Murray, Gilbert 69 Newsbulletin 583 Pasvolsky, Leo 71 Quran 221, 222 Sartre, Jean-Paul 33, 50, 345, 346, 347, Sommerrock, Helge 687n1 Third Reich 59, 60, 487 Viswanathan, Gauri 77
Murray, Kenneth 242 Ngwenya, Valentin 670 Patel, Jeram 230, 280 348, 351, 352, 481 Sontag, Susan 241, 249 Third World 36, 43, 72, 221, 229, 230, Vittorini, Elio 487
Museo Experimental el Eco, Nicholson, Ben 571 Paulhan, Jean 217 Sattler, Dieter 66 okic, Ilija 687 231n7, 351, 421, 431, 432, 573n3 Vlaminck, Maurice 23
Mexico City 488 Nicks, Walter 488 Paz, Octavio 230, 231n9 Sauvy, Alfred 56n6 Soto, Jsus-Rafael 572, 736 Thorak, Josef 60 Voelcker, John 693, 695
Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Nietzsche, Friedrich 351 Pechstein, Max 64 R Schaeffer, Pierre 686 Soulages, Pierre 216 Tibol, Raquel 423 Volta Redonda and Voturantim 492
Sofia 569n5 Niikuni, Seiichi 482 Pedrosa, Mrio 241, 487, 492 Raad, Walid 56n11 Schanze, Helmut 691 Soutine, Chaim 630 Tillich, Paul 345, 347 Volwahsen, Herbert 65
Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, Nikonov, Pavel 427 Peeters, Henk 687n1 Rabin, Yitzhak 631 Schendel, Mira 209 Souza, Francis Newton 32, 52, 231n7, 398, Time magazine 141, 575 Von Gentz, Friedrich 71
Buenos Aires 489n5 Nippon 136 Peirce, Charles Sanders 235, 237 Rabindralaya, Lucknow 230 Schivelbusch, Wolfgang 216, 218 399, 571, 572, 582, 583, 585, 591 Tito, Josip Broz 633, 689 Von Graevenitz, Gerard 687n1
Museu de Arte Moderna de So Paulo Nitsch, Hermann 233, 297 Petliura, Symon 628 Radelet, Sergeant Richard S. 39n6 Schlemmer, Oskar 66 Soviet Socialist Realism 242, 421, 423n10, Tobey, Mark 45, 49, 585, 605 Von Jawlensky, Alexej 23
242, 487 Nixon, Richard 348 Penck, A.R. (Winkler, Ralf) 394, 410 Ragon, Michel 481 Schloss, Ruth 628, 630, 660 437, 438, 439, 443 Togliatti, Palmiro 487 Von Metternich, Klemens 71
Museu de Arte Moderna do Rio de Janeiro Nkrumah, Kwame 14, 55, 633 Penone, Giuseppe 687n12 Raindance Corporation 703n13 Schmidt-Rottluff, Karl 64, 489n7 Soyinka, Wole 643n9 Tolstoy, Leo 427 Vostell, Wolf
487 No, Luis Felipe 408, 422 Peoples Daily 438 Rama, Carol 308, 506 Schneemann, Carolee 228, 310, 311, 701 Spanudis, Theo 242 Tomasello, Luis 687n1 26, 26, 166, 689, 691, 748, 752
Museum Folkwang 62 Noguchi, Isamu Perceptismo 485 Rancire, Jacques 563 Schoenberg, Arnold 29 Srnec, Aleksandar 531, 686, 687n1 Tomatsu, Shomei 136 Vu, Tuong 56n5
Museum fr Konkrete Kunst 686 30, 139n6, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181 Perceval, John 239 rand Corporation 698, 703n10 School of Arabic Calligraphy and College Stalin, Joseph 49, 69, 419, 421, 425, 427, Tomii, Reiko 241
830 831
W Yusuke, Nakahara 241
Wa Thiongo, Ngugi 77 Yvaral, Jean-Pierre 687n1
Walker Art Center, Minneapolis 56n23
Wallerstein, Immanuel 56n15
Wallraf-Richartz-Museum 63, 65
Wang, Baokang 441n10 Z
Waqialla, Osman 221, 223, 224, 225n2 Zadkine, Ossip 348
Warhol, Andy 30, 635, 690, 691, 715 Zamriq, Hisham 432, 434
Warnke, Martin 587n32 Zaria Art Society 52
Warsaw Ghetto Uprising 631 Zaritsky, Yosef 628, 631, 658
Warsaw Pact 35, 423n9, 689 Zayyat, Elias 432
Watteau, Jean-Antoine 347 Zehringer, Walter 687n1
Weaver, Warren 697 Zeid, Princess Fahrelnissa 254, 583
Weissmann, Franz 242 Zein El Abdein, Ahmed El Tayib 223
Welles, Sumner 71 Zen 49 341
Wells, Herbert George 69 Zenderoudi, Charles Hossein 50, 348, 610
Wenger, Susanne 594 Zeno 582
West Indian Students Centre 572 Zentrum fr Kunst und Medientechnologie
Westad, Odd Arne 56n5 686
Westermann, Horace Clifford 348 Zero (group) 493
White, Charles 49, 423n1 Zhan, Jianjun 439
Whitechapel Art Gallery Zhang, Huaqing 441n10
582, 695, 695n7 Zhdanov, Andrei 443, 444
Whitney Museum of American Art Zhou, Benyi 441n10
49, 569n5 Zhou, Zheng 441n10
Whitten, Jack Zhukov, Marshal Georgy 425
30, 52, 390, 391, 392, 393, 636, 650 Ziegler, Adolf 22, 39n13, 62
Wiener, Norbert 697, 701, 702 iek, Slavoj 427
Wilding, Ludwig 687n1 Zlotnikov, Yuri 205, 740
Williams, Aubrey 571 Zurbarn, Francisco de 427
Wilson, Colin St John 693 Zyklus das schwarze Zimmer 26
Wilson, Ellis 575
Wilson, Sarah 26
Wilson, Woodrow 71
Winter, Fritz 341
Wladyslaw, Anatol 587n36
Woeller, Wilhelm 489n7
Wols (Alfred Otto Woldgang Schulze)
141, 262, 347, 585, 694
Woodcut Movement 437, 438
Woodruff, Hale 578
World Bank 24, 35
World Trade Organization 35
World War II 21, 24, 25, 26, 29, 30, 35, 43,
49, 52, 56n7, 59, 63, 66, 69, 71, 73, 135,
136, 138, 147, 148, 215, 222, 227, 231,
241, 345, 421, 423, 425, 437, 491, 559,
567, 571, 572, 573, 575, 582, 583, 585,
627, 633, 635, 636, 687, 693, 697, 701
Wright, Edward 693
Wright, Frank Lloyd 66
Wright, Richard 75, 577, 633
Wrblewski, Andrzej
29, 168, 169, 204, 443
Wu, Biduan 441n10
Wu, Zuoren 439
Wyeth, Andrew 45, 443, 465
Wyss, Marcel 687n1
X
Xi, Jingzhi 441n10
Xiao, Feng 441n10
Li Xiushi 470
Xiwen, Dong 52, 439, 440
Xu, Beihong 439
Xu, Minghua 441n10
Y
Yakovlev, Vasiliy 425, 443
Yamahata, Yosuke 30, 135, 136, 138, 188
Yanan Talk 438, 440
Yoshiaki, Tono 241
Yoshihara, Jiro 585
Yoshihara, Michio 216
Younan, Ramss 233, 278
Young Commonwealth Group 583
Yozo, Hamaguchi 584
832
The Africa Center, formerly the Galerie Lelong, New York Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Takamatsu Art Museum
Museum for African Art, New York Galerie Loevenbruck, Paris Sofia, Madrid TATE, London
Aicon Gallery, New York Galerie Thaddaeus Ropac, Paris Salzburg Museo Nacional de Arte, Mexico City Tel Aviv Museum of Art
Aishti Foundation, Beirut Galerie van de Loo, Munich Museu Coleo Berardo, Lisbon Tresart, Coral Gables, FL
Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo Gallery Hyundai, Seoul Museu de Lisboa, Lisbon University of Iowa Museum of Art
Andrea Rosen Gallery, New York GAM - Galleria Civica dArte Moderna e Museu Nacional de Arte Contempornea University of Lagos
Aomori Museum of Art Contemporanea, Turin Museu do Chiado, Lisbon Van Abbemuseum, Eindhoven
Archivio Carol Rama, Turin Generali Foundation Collection, Vienna Museum der bildenden Knste Leipzig Van Every/Smith Galleries, Davidson
Art Gallery of New South Wales, Sydney Glenstone, Potomac Museum der Moderne Salzburg College, Davidson, NC
The Art Institute of Chicago Daniel Goeritz Museum Folkwang, Essen Axel & May Vervoordt Foundation, Antwerp
Asele Institute, Nimo Gordon Family Collection, Los Angeles Museum Lippo, Jakarta Joel Wachs
Associao Cultural O Mundo de Lygia gordonschachatcollection, Johannesburg Museum Ludwig Cologne Walker Art Center, Minneapolis
Clark, Rio de Janeiro Alexander Gray Associates, New York Museum moderner Kunst Stiftung Ludwig Susanne Wenger Foundation, Krems
Barford Sculptures Ltd., London Grey Art Gallery. New York University Wien, Vienna Whitney Museum of American Art, New York
Barjeel Art Foundation, Sharjah Art Collection Museum of Art, Ein-Harod Jack Whitten
Bar Galera, Sao Paulo Barbara Gross Galerie, Mnchen Museum of Contemporary Art, Zagreb May and Adel Youssry
Bayerische Staatsgemldesammlungen Grosvenor Gallery, London Museum of Fine Arts, Boston Khedr Collection, Cairo
Pinakothek der Moderne, Munich Hales Gallery, London The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston Yumiko Chiba Associates, Tokyo
Berlinische Galerie Landesmuseum Hara Museum of Contemporary Art, Tokyo The Museum of Modern Art, New York Zamalek Art Gallery, Cairo
fr Moderne Kunst, Fotografie und Hartlepool Borough Council Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art Zeno X Gallery, Antwerp
Architektur, Berlin Taimur Hassan in Nusantara (Museum MACAN), Jakarta Yuri Zlotnikov
Isabella Bortolozzi, Berlin Hauser & Wirth, Zrich, London, Somerset, Museum Schloss Moyland, Bedburg-Hau
Frank Bowling Los Angeles Museum Wiesbaden And the lenders who wish
Udo und Anette Brandhorst Collection, HEART Herning Museum of Muzeum Narodowe we Wrocawiu to remain anonymous
Munich Contemporary Art (National Museum in Wroclaw)
Brooklyn Museum, New York Herbert F.Johnson Museumof Art, Cornell Muzeum Sztuki in dz
Buchhandlung Walther Knig, Cologne University. Ithaca, NY Nrodn galerie v Praze
Butcher Family Collection Carmen Herrera (National Gallery in Prague)
CAFA Art Museum, Beijing Lynn Hershman Leeson Nasher Sculpture Center, Dallas
Luis de Carvalho e Oliveira, Lisbon Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, National Film Center, Tokyo
Centre national des arts plastiques, Paris Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C National Gallery of Art, Washington D.C
Centre Pompidou, Paris Hyogo Prefectural Museum of Art National Gallery Singapore
Chiba City Museum of Art Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes y National Museum of African Art,
Rathika Chopra & Rajan Anandan, New Delhi Literatura, Mexico City Smithsonian Institution, Washington D.C
Saloua Raouda Choucair International Institute of Social History National Museum of Australia, Canberra
Collection Fundaci Antoni Tpies, (Amsterdam) National Museum of Modern and
Barcelona Istanbul Museum of Modern Art Contemporary Art, Gwacheon
The Conner Family Trust, Los Angeles Iwalewahaus, Universitt Bayreuth National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo
CRG Gallery, New York Amrita Jhaveri, New Delhi Ernst Wilhelm Nay Stiftung, Cologne
The Jewish Museum, New York Neue Galerie Graz
LIST OF LENDERS
Des Moines Art Center
Deutsche Bank Collection, Jasper Johns Neues Museum - Staatliches Museum fr
Frankfurt am Main Kim Kulim Kunst und Design in Nrnberg, Nuremberg
Didrichsen Art Museum, Helsinki Kiran Nadar Museum of Art, New Delhi Luis Felipe No
Bridget Donahue Gallery, New York Klewan Collection, Munich The Isamu Noguchi Foundation and
Ginette Dufrne Kohn Gallery, Los Angeles Garden Museum, New York
Eames Office, Los Angeles Kunstmuseum Bonn North Carolina Museum of Art, Raleigh, NC
Melvin Edwards Kunstmuseum Winterthur Uche Okeke
Electronic Arts Intermix (EAI), New York. Maria Lassnig Foundation, Vienna Yoko Ono
Estate of Uzo Egonu, London John Latham P.P.O.W., New York
Estate of Ellsworth Kelly Leicestershire County Council Pallant House Gallery, Chichester,
Estate of Alice Neel Lisson Gallery, London Projeto Lygia Pape, Rio de Janeiro
Estate of Anwar Jalal Shemza, London Loft Art Gallery, Casablanca Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, MA
Estate of David Smith, New York Louisiana Museum of Modern Art, Humlebaek Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts.
Estate of Alina Szapocznikow MAC USP Collection Museu de Arte Philadelphia
Estate of Jiro Takamatsu Contempornea da Universidade Philadelphia Museum of Art
Estate of Stan VanDerBeek de So Paulo Prt du Muse national Picasso-Paris
Estate of Wolf Vostell, Bad Nauheim MACBA. Museu dArt Contemporani Prada Collection, Milan
Hecilda & Sergio Fadel Collection, de Barcelona Robert Rauschenberg Foundation, New York
Rio de Janeiro Mart, Museo di arte contemporanea di Rpublique du Sngal
Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco Trento e Rovereto Michael Rosenfeld Gallery, New York
Fondation Beyeler, Riehen bei Basel Maruki Gallery for the Hiroshima Panels, Dieter Roth Foundation, Hamburg
Fondation Gandur pour lArt, Geneva Higashimatsuyama Safarkhan Art Gallery, Cairo
Fondation Giacometti, Paris Marwan Kassab-Bachi San Francisco Museum of Modern Art
Fondazione Emilio e Annabianca MATHAF: Arab Museum of Modern Art, Doha Aurel Scheibler, Berlin
Vedova, Venice Almir Mavignier Carolee Schneemann
Fondazione Lucio Fontana, Milan The Mayor Gallery, London Antoun Nabil Sehnaoui
Fondazione Musei Civici di Venezia, Fergus McCaffrey, New York Sharjah Art Foundation Collection
Galleria Internazionale dArte Moderna The Menil Collection, Houston Sharjah Art Museum
di CaPesaro, Venice The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Gazbia Sirry
Fondazione Palazzo Albizzini Collezione Gustav Metzger Laurie Slatter
Burri, Citt di Castello Miami University Art Museum, Oxford, OH Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York
The Ella Fontanals-Cisneros Marta Minujin The Nancy Spero and Leon Golub
Collection, Miami Joan Mitchell Foundation, New York Foundation for the Arts
Stephen Friedman Gallery, London MMK Museum fr Moderne Kunst Staatliche Museen zu Berlin,Nationalgalerie
Fundacin Augusto y Len Ferrari Arte Frankfurt am Main The State Russian Museum, St. Petersburg
y Acervo, Buenos Aires The Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth The State Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow
Larry Gagosian Moderna Museet, Stockholm Stdtische Galerie im Lenbachhaus, Munich
Gagosian Gallery, New York Muse dArt moderne de la Ville de Paris Stdtische Galerie Wolfsburg
Galera La Caja Negra, Madrid Muse national dart moderne/Centre de John-Paul Stonard
Galerie Georges-Phillipe & cration industrielle, Paris The Studio Museum in Harlem
Nathalie Vallois, Paris Museo de Arte Carrillo Gil, Mexico City Marinko Sudac Collection, Zagreb
835
Priscilla Abecasis Francesco Bonami Josef Deisbck Wolfram Friedrich
Jane Acheson Manolo Borja-Villel John Delk Ronja Friedrichs
Sarah Adamson Isabella Bortolozzi Laura Deluca Lena Fritsch
Marianne Ahrensberg Jan Bttger Liliana Dematteis Jess Fuenmayor
Yasmine Aidel Leila Bou Nasr Wolfgang Denk Takashi Fukumoto
Olufunke Akinsode Marisa Bourgoin Natasha M. Derrickson Daniel Gabrielli
Gozen Muftuoglu Aksan Capucine Boutte Annick Des Roches Carla Galfano
Amna Al Hemeiri Carol Braide Lucy Dew Meem Gallery
Furat al Jamil Michael Brand Ske Dinkla Vicki Gambill
Yuri Albert Jos Mrio Brando Andrew Dintenfass Juliana Ganuza
Sarah Allen Udo Brandhorst Ruti Direktor Gao Gao
Alya Mohamed Al Mulla Maria Brassel Amy Distler Felix Gaudlitz
Aldo Jimenez Altamirano Sabine Breitwieser Leanne Dmyterko Nelly Gawellek
Isabel Soares Alves Ilse Ordaz Briz Camille Doizelet Mara C. Gaztambide
Sivan Amar Elizabeth Broun Elna Dolino Fabrizio Gazzarri
Kyung An Courtney Brown D. Angie Lee Dollard Chlo Geary
Anasthasia Andika Rene Brown Bridget Donahue Susanne Geiger
Ekaterina Andreeva Kristyna Brozova Arielle Dorlester Isa von Gerlach
Melisa Angela Friedrich von Brhl Maurice Dorren Narimane Gharib
Michelle Antonisse Hilde de Bruijn Douglas Dreishpoon Larry Giacoletti
Maria Cristina de Almeida Araujo Susanne Brning Douglas Druick Marion Gillet Guigon
Kelsey Arrington-Ashford Adam Budak Thadeu Duarte Ren Gimpel
Sharon Matt Atkins Marion Buffaut Issa M. Benitez Dueas Adelaide Ginga
Swapnil Avdhesh Michael Buhrs Diane Dufour Ellen Ginton
Heidrun Bachmaier Charlotte Bullions Ginette Dufrne Massimiliano Gioni
Zdenka Badovinac Rico Burgmann Andrs G. Duprat Hadwig Goez
Roberta Cerini Baj Pablo Butcher Anita Duquette Thelma Golden
Catherine Scrivo Baker Cordelia Butler Melisa Durkee Barbara Gunz Goldschmidt
Dabashree Banerjee Kristy Caldwell Anne-Sophie Dusselier Sasha Gomeniuk
Matt Bangser Levent alkoglu Prajit K. Dutta Eliza Gonzalez
Joe Baptista Alice Calloway Ciarn Dyke Timothy Goodhue
Olatunde Barber Marusca Caltran Marta Dziewanska Frau Gtz
Geanna Barlaam Andrianna Campbell Yilmaz Dziewior Claudia Gould
Friedrich-Michael Barnick Andrew Cannon Barbara Economon James Gould
Stephanie Barron Kelly Carpenter Michael Edler Vivien Greene
Georg Baselitz Andrea Cashman Arne Ehmann Maggie Gregory
Joellen El Bashir Barbara Bertozzi Castelli Cornelia Eilers Margaret C. Gregory
Carlos Basualdo Edwin Castro Juliane Eisele Detlev Gretenkort
Tobias Bumer Francesca Cattoi Dietmar Elger Alexander Grnert
Dennis Cecchin Carol Eliel Barbara Gross
LIST OF ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Olivia Bax
Susana Maldonado Bayley Alban Chaine Naheda El-Khoury Nicole Gro
Rodrigo Bazaldua Dipesh Chakrabarty Jane England Gabriela de la Guardia
Anneliis Beadnell Sucheta Chakraborty Oliver Enwonwu Mr. de la Guardia
Rie van Beek Carla Chammas David Ertl Tatyana Gubanova
Attilio Begher Eleanor Chapman Charles Esche Gina Guddemi
Bavand Behpour Johnny Chen Nicole Espaillat Christophe Guglielmo
Sarah Bejerano Melissa Chiu Ursula Esposito Ferreira Gullar
Margherita Belaief Rowena Chiu Werner Esser Nkosinathi Gumede
Luca Belenghi Yol Cho Bruno Cezar Mesquita Esteves Jaqueline Gutirrez
Gabriella Belli Anna Chodorska Reem Fadda Fabio Carapezza Guttuso
Ramon Tio Bellido Emilie Choffel Olukemi Fadehan Charlotte Gutzwiller
Angela Bell-Morris Maciej Cholewinski Marta Fadel Gina Guy
Yasmine Benamara Angela Choon Elisabeth Fairman Sophie Haaser
Amanda Bender Radhika Chopra Will Faller Kathrin Haaengier
Eva Bendova Michael Bank Christoffersen Max Prez Fallik Fernand F. Haenggi
Antonia Bergamin Sara Chun Sonke Faltien Heinke Hagemann
Thomas Berghuis Tiffany Chung Victoria Fernndez-Layos Moro Kayla Hagen
Evelyn Bergner Vanessa Clark Annie Farrar Noura Haggag
Anders Bergstrom Sennen Codjo Guide Fabender Ken Hakuta
Ins Rodrguez Berni Jean Colombain Hannah Feldman Lubna Hammad
Jos Antonio Berni Heidi Colsman-Freyberger Anna Ferrari Toshio Hara
Mohamed Berrada Moira Connelly Marc Feustel Lesley Harding
Yasmine Berrada Matt Conway Bernd Ficker Hans-Jrgen Harras
Rita Cecilia Bertoni Harry Cooper Ariane Figueiredo Halley K. Harrisburg
Tobia Bezzola Analivia Cordeiro Csar Oiticica Filho Helen Harrison
Jyoti Bhatt Cathy Cordova Carly Fischer Dakin Hart
Avijna Bhattacharya Jerome Coup Dora Fisher Sergey Harutoonian
Marlene Bielefeld Eleanor Crabtree Mnica Montes Flores Yuko Hasegawa
Klaus Biesenbach Reggy Havekes-van Creij Claire Floyd Rainer Hauswirth
Stefanie Bihlmayer Elena Crippa Tiffany Floyd Lauren Haynes
Xu Bing Andrew Crompton Francine Flynn Allie Heath
Daniel Birnbaum Hope Cullinan Megan Fontanella Matt Heffernan
Janine Biunno Nicholas Cullinan Sandra Fort Fonthier Marien van der Heijden
Christa Blatchford Patrick Cunningham Clarissa Fostel Margareta Helleberg
Daniel Blau Elzbieta Cyganik Dorotea Fotivec Sandy Heller
Bernard Blistene Fereshteh Daftari Jonathan Fox Ann Henderson
Tamara Bloomberg Laetitia Dalet Mark Francis Amy Henry
Tim Blum Jrg Daur Alessio Fransoni Carra Henry
Diana Blumenroth Federico Deambrosis Eliza Frecon Ines Henzler
Marianne Boesky Kirsten Degel Francesca Frediani Fabrice Hergott
Laurent Le Bon Jrgen Dehm Denis French Michael Hering
837
Eva Hernndez Hideki Kikkawa Conor Macklin Selima Niggl Emmanuelle Rossignol Jeremy Strick Brent Willison
David Hertsgaard Hyunjin Kim Julie Maguire Harumi Nishizawa Claudia Rozzoni Sile Stuttard Andrew Wilson
Michaela Hetzel Seolhee Kim Charley Maher Corinna Nisse Nicole Ruppert Marinko Sudac Katherine Wilson
Wolfgang Heubisch Matt Kirsch Zain Mahjoub Lutz Nitsche Mickey Ryan Kathrin Sndermann Amelia Winata
Thomas Heyden Naveen Kishore Martin W. Mahoney Luis Felipe Noe Hanseug Ryu Chris Sutherns Mr. and Mrs. Winokur
Christina Hierl Udo Kittleman Olga Makhroff Sarah Norris Anna Saciuk-Gasowska Astrid Suzano Beate Witt
Christopher Higgins Michiko Kiyosawa Toms Maldonado Eveline Notter Mona Sad Katsuo Suzuki Agns Wolff
Joanna Hill Norman L. Kleeblatt Wael Mansour Ady Nugeraha Ibrahim El Salahi Yoshiko Suzuki Michle M. Wong
Jennie Hirsh Helmut Klewan Martin Mntele Cynthia Octavianty Katherine El Salahi Sandra Sykorova Karli Wurzelbacher
Erica E. Hirshler Eva Klimtova Emilie Le Mappian Sean O'Harrow Ludmilla Sala Christian Tagger Kelso Wyeth
Achim Hochdrfer Sanne Klinge Christine Marcel Vassilis Oikonomopoulos Tony G. Salame Marjan Tajeddini Deborah Wythe
Emily Hodes Claudia Klugmann Adele Marini Chukuma I. Okadigwe Armando Salas Suheyla Takesh Li Yaochen
Aliza Hoffman Simone Kobler Andreas Marks Marie Okamura Emily Salmon Philip Tan Thomas Yarker
Maja Hoffmann Eunnarae Koh Aimee L. Marshall Yukinori Okamura Jillian Samant Takako Tanabe Atsuo Yasuda
Pernille Hjmark Thomas Khler Karin Marti Nadezhda Okurenkova Julio Sarmento Stef Tanki Cho Jeong Yeol
Constanze Holler Nadine Koller Leila Martinusso Luisa Oliveira Chiara Sarteanesi Brbara Tavares Satoshi Yokota
Abigail Hoover Walther Knig Anne Massey Sarah Oliver Hidenori Sasaki Alex Taylor Sylvie Younan
Sigrid Horsch-Albert Markus Kormann Taro Masushio Duro Olowu Adriana Scalise Benjamin Teague Okamuru Yukinori
Meagan Kelly Horsman Karin Koschkar Almir Mavignier Duro Oni Carmen Schaefer Ann Temkin Luca Zaffarano
Cssia Hosni Alain Kouyoumdjian Shoair Mavlian Ayala Oppenheimer Tatjana Schfer Serkan Terzioglu Abdulaziz Mohammad Zaghmout
Johannes Hossfeld Danielle Kovacs Marie Mbow Patricia O'Regan Aurel Scheibler Helga Theodhori Adamova Zaneta
Christine Hourde Ute Krebs Fergus McCaffrey Sicar Vsquez Orozco Katharina Schendl Lukas Thiele Bruno Zanon
Laura Hovenac Johanne Kristensen Cale McCammon Johanna Ortner Amy Schichtel Amanda Thompson Lisa Zemann
Laura M. Hovenac Maren Krger Tara McDowell Andrea Pacheco Claudia Schicktanz David Thompson Isabella J. Zieritz
Jeannine Howse Christine Kron Maria McGreger Filipe Pacheco Lothar Schirmer Florence Thurmes Magdalena Ziolkowska
Claire Hsu Jolanta Krzywka Susan McGuire Filipe Pacheco Nikolaus Schneider Jennifer Tobias Magdalena Zikowska
Marge Huang Elke Kchle Franciska Meijers Hazelle Anne Page Henning Schroeder Valerio Trabandt Carolina Ziotti
Milan Hughston Alexandra Khnert J. Meissner Marina Panteleymon Shannon Schuler Flora Triebel Yuri Zlotnikov
Matthieu Humery Aya Kunii Mohammed Melehi Paula Pape Anna Schler ukasz Trzcinski Bonnie van Zoest
Michelle Humphrey Allison Kupietzky Sonia Menezes Taiyana Pimentel Paradoa Dirk Schulz Yassmeen Tukan
Laura Hunt Kerstin Kster Karla Merrifield Mihwa Park Patricia Schulze Alexandr Tulenev
Marie Christine Huyn Sung-oh Kwon Marianne Le Mtayer Shruti Parthasarathy Rachel Schumann Ijeoma Uche-Okeke
Donald Christopher Hyde Young Kwon Andrea Mihalovic-Lee Anne Pasternak Sabine Schumann Yoko Ono
Toru Ikeda Sarah Lagrevol Ann Milad Bettina Paust Hans-Jrgen Schwalm Frau Uecker
Patrycja de Bieberstein Ilgner Natasha Laing Adele Minardi Mirta Pavic Dieter Schwarz Gnther Uecker
Andrea Inselmann Eskil Lam Gao Minglu Marc Payot Heather Schweikhardt Joseph Underwood
Tomoko Ishida Luciano Lanfranchi Fabio Miniotti Gabriel Prez-Barreiro Otto Selen Xavier Guzmn Urbiola
Nataa Ivancevic Laura Lang Marta Minujn Luis Prez-Oramas David Senior Burkhard von Urff
Cecilia Ivanchevich Katie Langjahr Camille Misson Friedrich Petzel Luise Seppeler Michael D. Uva
Alison Jacques Elizabeth Largi Brent Mitchell Wilfried Petzi Pilar Garca Serrano Eugenio Valdes
Sebastian Jaehn Emily Larsen Gaby Mizes Chelsea Pierce Annemarie Seyda Georges-Philippe Vallois
Vineet Jain Emanuel Layr Hirokazu Mizunuma Joachim Pissarro Yazid Shammout Nathalie Vallois
Jasna Jakic Galerie Emanuel Layr Kate Monsted Jan Plack Gulam Mohammed Sheikh Leni Velasquez
Robert Jarosz Carol A. Leadenham Joana Sousa Monteiro Charles Pocock Samantha Sheiness Noelia Ordoez Velez
Alejandro Jassan Doreen Leberecht Charles Moore Jeff Poe Aphra Shemza Sander Vermeulen
Ivna Jelcic Jiyoon Lee Janet Moore Alexandre Pomar Mary Shemza Ulf Vierke
Marko Jenko Mary Anne Lee Stacy Moore Sabina Povic Oksana Shestaka Franck Vigneux
Amrita Jhaveri Seung K. Lee Pavlna Morganov Ida Rodriguez Prampolini Richard Shiff Maria Villa
ric Jimnez Katja Leeuw Gabriella Mori Franck Prazan Amir Sidharta Olga Viso
Maika Jirous Katja Lehmann Laura Morris Natalia Pribytok Warren Siebrits Marcia Vissers
Abraham Joel Erin Leland Lynda Morris Vivienne Prince Manjari Sihare-Sutin Wendy Vogel
Jasper Johns Erin Leland Robert Morris Leslie Prouty Michelle Silva David Vogt
Jennifer Johns Johanna Lemke Stuart Morrison Maureen Pskowski Mark Simmons Igor Volkov
Caren Jones Marc Leve Tanya Morrison Bernhard Purin Lorna Simpson Kristina von Knorring
Rose Jones Andreas Leventis Anne Mosseri-Marlio Sheikha Hoor Al Qasimi Janne Sirn Angelika von Schwedes
Henna Joo Dominique Levy Markus Mueller Derek Quezada Anat Danon Sivan Rafael Vostell
Julie Joseph Andrea Lewis Ramez Mufdi Wojciech Radlinski Laurie Slatter Joel Wachs
Jennifer Josten Jeremy Lewison Mathias Mhling, Lenbachhaus Amy Rahn Kim Sluijter Sheena Wagstaff
Miguel Juarez Marie Liard-Dexet Alya Mohamed Al Mulla Meheen Rangoonwala Daniela Smetanca Caroline V. Wallace
Amrica Jurez Jennifer Lim Jennifer Mundy Karola Rattner Elizabeth Smith Anthony Wallis
Franois Jupin Jung Eun Lim Estelle Mury Nada Raza Adam Sobota Cathleen Walter
Emilia Kabakov Amy Lin May Muzaffar Sangeeta Razu Jana Suhani Soin Eva Walters
Sonia Kadzioka Elaine Lin Noda Naotoshi Kasia Redzisz Dawn Somerville Katy Wan
Katerina Kalvarov Barbara Lindop Tommy Napier Sophie Reinhardt Patricia Sorroche Lisa Webb
Toby Kamps Nicolas Linnert Tanja Narr Jonathan Rendell Francisca Sousa Barbara Weber
R. Siva Kamur Joachim Lissmann Hammad Nasar Natalia Revale Heather South Stefan Wedepohl
Sojung Kang Charlie Littlewood Ginny Neel Liz Reynolds Allison Spangler Low Sze Wee
Geeta Kapur Philippe Litzka Hartley Neel Annika Riethmller Nancy Spector Anne Wehr
Evgenia Karlova Herve Loevenbruck Jos Alvarenga Neto Sofia Rinaldi Chelsea Spengemann Adam Weinberg
Roobina Karode Arshiya Lokhandwala Olga Neufeld Ryan Roa Julie Spielman Bernd Wei
Abdellah Karroum Marie-Jos van de Loo Elke Neumann Lauren Robbins Stefan Sthle Astrid Welter
Mizuho Kato Marlia Bovo Lopes Constantin Neumeister Soledad de Pablo Roberto Amy Staples Dr. Clemens Wendtner
Koichi Kawasaki Antonia Lotz Andrew Newall Andrea Robertson Galeria Starmach Julia Westner
Clive Kellner Cardiff Loy Lia Newman Sylvain Rochat Pari Stave Rachel Wetzler
Sara Kelly Kristen Lubben Rebekah Newman Anne Rodler Kevin Stayton David White
Julieta Kemble Kathleen Ludwig Clara Nguyen Daniel Goeritz Rodriguez Jane Steinhaeuser Jack Whitten
Chris Kendall Eva Lund Tuan Andrew Nguyen Shawn Roggenkamp Andrea Stengel Mary Whitten
Amalyah Keshet Amber R. Lynn Lara Nicholls James Rondeau Nadezhda Stepanova Mirsini Whitten
Vera Kessenich Lisa MacDougall Nick Nicholson Andrea Rosen Peter Stevens Ann Noel Williams
Sandra Khazam Diego Machado Georges Nicol Adriana Rosenberg Laura Stewart Maggie Williams
Ahmed Khedr Amy MacKinnon Alexandra Nicolaides Cora Rosevear John-Paul Stonard Margaret Williams
838 839
Table of Contents (left to right) Chronology of Social and Political Events Singapore; 44 Photographer: Kiyoji Otsuji, Alexander Calder, Calder Foundation, New
Leo Castelli Gallery records, circa 1880 1 Art Media/Print Collector/Getty Images; Seiko Otsuji, Courtesy of Musashino York/Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York.
2000, bulk 19571999. Archives of Ameri- 2 National Archives and Records Admi- Art University Museum & Library and Photographer, Paolo Gasparini. Courtesy
can Art, Smithsonian Institution; Photo: nistration; 4 U. S. Army Photo; 7 Henri Tokyo Publishing House. From theportfo- Calder Foundation, New York/Art Resource,
Kiyoji Otsuji, Seiko Otsuji; Courtesy Cartier-Bresson/Magnum Photos/Agentur lioGUTAI PHOTOGRAPH 1956-57; 46 NY; 12 Gnther Becker/ documenta
of Musashino Art University Museum Focus; 8 Marc Riboud/Magnum Photos/ Photo by Keystone/Hulton Archive/Getty Archiv; 13 Horace Mann Bond Papers (MS
& Library and Tokyo Publishing House. Agentur Focus; 9 UN Photo/MBH; 10 Images; 47 Photo by Fritz Goro/The LIFE 411). Special Collections and University
From theportfolioGUTAI PHOTOGRAPH Bruce Davidson/Magnum Photos/Agentur Picture Collection/Getty Images; 48 Archi- Archives, University of Massachusetts
195657; Photo: Latif Al Ani, Courtesy Focus; 11 Photo: Horst Faas, picture alliance/ ve of Pancho Guedes, Lisbon; 49 Samsung Amherst Libraries; 14 Photographer: Kiyoji
Ruya Foundation for Contemporary Cul- AP Images. Museum ofArt, LeeumLibrary:donated by Otsuji, Seiko Otsujii; Courtesy of Musas-
ture in Iraq; Photo: Hans Niederbacher Yi Ku-yol; 50 Niki Charitable Art Foun- hino Art University Museum & Library and
Atelier Hermann Nitsch; Photograph: Clay Visual Essay: Arts and Culture dation/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: Tokyo Publishing House. From theportfolio
Perry, Courtesy England & Co. 1 Courtesy of the Western Regional Archi- Shunk-Kender J. Paul Getty Trust. The GUTAI PHOTOGRAPH 1956-57; 15
ves, State Archives of North Carolina; 2 Getty Research Institute, Los Angeles Yves Klein, VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn, 2016
Visual Essay: Social and Political Events Pierre Jahan/Roger-Viollet; 3 Sidney (2014.R.20); 51 Courtesy of Projeto Hlio Photo Paul Sarisson; 16 VG Bild-Kunst,
1 Imperial War Museums (BU 1292); 2: Nolan Trust. Port Phillip City Collection; Oiticica; 52 Photo by Martha Holmes/ Bonn 2016. Hollis Frampton, untitled
Imperial War Museums (NYP 27322); 3, 4 The Willem de Kooning Foundation, The LIFE Images Collection/Getty Images; from The Secret World of Frank Stella,
4, 5, 6, 9, 12, 14, 18, 30 National Archives New York/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. 54 Photo: Shunk-Kender J. Paul Getty 19581962, black-and-white photograph,
and Records Administration; 7 Imperial Harry Bowden papers, 1922-1972. Archives Trust. The Getty Research Institute, Los 810, Collection Walker Art Center,
War Museums (BU 8573); 8 Imperial of American Art, Smithsonian Institution; Angeles (2014.R.20); 55 Photo: Kishor Minneapolis, Estate of Hollis Frampton;
War Museums (D 25636); 10 AFP/Getty 5 Archive Cobra Museum of Modern Art, Parekh, Courtesy Jyoti Bhatt Archive at 17 Artistic action by Yves Klein, Yves
Images; 11 Imperial War Museums (MH Amstelveen; 6 Photo: Charles Breijer Asia Art Archive; 56 AMSAC Papers at Klein, VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn, 2016, Photo
29427); 15 Bundesarchiv, Bild 146-1990- Charles Breijer/Nederlands Fotomuseum; the Moorland-Spingarn Archives, Howard Harry Shunk and Janos Kender J.Paul
032-29A; 16 U. S. Army Photo; 19 Central 7 2016 Mondrian/Holtzman Trust; 8 University; 57 Courtesy Allan Kaprow Getty Trust. The Getty Research Institute,
Press/Getty Images; 21, 44, 49, 67, 70 Unknown photographer, Establishment of Estate and Hauser & Wirth; 58, 74 Marta Los Angeles. (2014.R.20); 18 Succes-
picture alliance/AP Images; 22 Photo by the Monument at Mishmar HaEmek, 1945, Minujin Archives; 59 Courtesy Estate of sion Picasso/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016.
Dmitri Kessel/The LIFE Picture Collection/ Photograph, 11.517.2 cm, Information K.G.Subramanyan, Jyoti Bhatt, and Asia Inge Morath/Magnum Photos/Agentur
Getty Images; 23 Photo by Keystone-France/ Center for Israeli Art, Israel Museum, Jeru- Art Archive; 60 Jyoti Bhatt Archive at Asia Focus; 19 Courtesy Archivio Baj, Vergiate;
Gamma-Keystone via Getty Images; 24 salem; 9 Courtesy of The State Tretyakov Art Archive; 61 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 20 Photo Harry Shunk and Janos
Photo by Frank Shershel/GPO via Getty Gallery, Moscow; 10, 21 Archivi Farabola; 2016. Photo: Hiroko Kudo; 62 VG Bild- Kender - J.Paul Getty Trust. The Getty Re-
Images; 25 Henry Ries/NYT/laif; 26, 39 11 La Biennale di Venezia Archivio Kunst, Bonn. bpk/Staatsgalerie Stuttgart, search Institute, Los Angeles. (2014.R.20);
U.S. Defense Department; 27, 32 Henri Storico delle Arti Contemporanee, photo Archiv Sohm/Hartmut Rekort; 63 23 Courtesy Julieta Kemble; 25 Photo:
Cartier-Bresson/Magnum Photos/Agentur by Ferruzzi Venezia; 12 Courtesy Museu ullstein bild - Rudolf Dietrich; 64 Nam Sameer Makarius, Courtesy Luis Felipe
Focus; 28 Robert Capa International do Neo-Realismo, Vila Franca de Xira; June Paik Estate, Photo: Manfred Leve No papers, Buenos Aires; 26 Photograph:
Center of Photography/Magnum Photos/ 13 DAG Modern archives; 14, 25, 69 estate of Manfred Leve, Courtesy Museum Reiner Ruthenbeck/GERHARD RICHTER.
Agentur Focus; 29 New China Pictures/ Courtesy of Lubna Hammad; 15 VG Kunstpalast, AFORK, Dsseldorf; 65 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016; 27 Photo-
Magnum Photos/Agentur Focus; 33 UN- Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Courtesy Archivi Courtesy Antony Penrose; 66 Courtesy graph: Clay Perry, Courtesy England & Co.;
RWA photo by Hrant Nakashian, 1949; 34 Guttuso; 16 The Isamu Noguchi Founda- Atelier Cruz-Diez Paris; 67 DEVA/Iwale- 28 Courtesy Galerie Krinzinger Vienna.
Bundesarchiv, Bild 183-S88796/Fotograf: tion and Garden Museum/VG Bild-Kunst, wahaus, Universitt Bayreuth; 68 VG
Bonn 2016; 17 Famlia Cordeiro; 19 Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: Enrique Essays
IMAGE CREDITS
Erich Zhlsdorf; 35 Allsport/Getty Images;
36 Photo by J. R. Eyerman/The LIFE Pollock-Krasner Foundation/VG Bild- Bordes Mangel, reprouccin autorizada por Enwezor fig. 1 Photo by Margaret Bourke-
Picture Collection/Getty Images; 37 Presse- Kunst, Bonn 2016. 1991 Hans Namuth El Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes y Li- White/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty
und Informationsamt der Bundesregierung, Estate, Courtesy Center for Creative teratura, 2016; 70 Elisabeth Nay-Schei- Images; Enwezor fig. 2 Imperial War
Perlia-Archiv; 38 Photo by Earl Leaf/ Photography, Arizona; 20, 36 IVAA; 22 bler, Kln/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Museums (A 30427); Enwezor fig. 3 Baye-
Michael Ochs Archives/Getty Images; 40 Alexander Calder, Calder Foundation, Gnther Becker/ documenta Archiv; 71 rische Staatsbibliothek Mnchen; Enwezor
IVAA; 42 Bibliotheca Alexandrina; 43 Cold New York/Artists Rights Society (ARS), Minoru Hirata, Hi Red Centers Cleaning fig. 4 Stadtarchiv Mnchen; Enwezor fig. 5
Spring Harbor Laboratory Archives; 45 New York. Arquivo Histrico Wanda Svevo/ Event (officially known as Be Clean! and Haus der Kunst, Historisches Archiv;
Bentley Archive/Popperfoto/Getty Images; Fundao Bienal de So Paulo; 23 The Campaign to Promote Cleanliness and Enwezor fig. 6 Haus der Kunst, Histori-
46 akg-images/Erich Lessing; 47 Photo: Estate of Reg Butler; 24, 39 Courtesy Li Order in the Metropolitan Area), 1964, sches Archiv; Enwezor fig. 7 Photo by
Eli Weinberg; 48 Presse- und Informations- Yaochen; 26 Man Ray Trust, Paris/VG Gelatin silver print, Image size: 33.522.2 John Deakin/Picture Post/Getty Images;
amt der Bundesregierung; 50, 54, 62, 78 Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016; 28, 45 Estate cm, Paper size: 35.727.8 cm, Minoru Enwezor fig. 8 Yosuke Yamahata; Enwezor
Bettmann Archive/Getty Images; 51 of Anwar Jalal Shemza; 29 Succession Hirata, Courtesy of Taka Ishii Gallery fig. 9 Gerhard Richter 2016 (1175);
Marilyn Silverstone/Magnum Photos/ Alberto Giacometti (Fondation Alberto Photography/Film; 72 Photo Desdemone Enwezor fig. 10 Succession Picasso/
Agentur Focus; 52 Burt Glinn/Magnum et Annette Giacometti + ADAGP) Paris. Bardin, Courtesy of Projeto Hlio Oiticica; VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. 2016. Digital
Photos/Agentur Focus; 53 Prints & Photograph by Ernst Scheidegger 2016 73 Courtesy George Maciunas Founda- image, The Museum of Modern Art, New
Photographs Division, Library of Congress, Stiftung Ernst Scheidegger-Archiv, Zrich; tion Inc., New York; 75 Photo: Eustachy York/Scala, Florence; Enwezor fig. 11
LC-DIG-ppmsca-19729; 55 OFF/AFP/ 30 Succession Picasso/VG Bild-Kunst, Kossakowski, Anka Ptaszkowska. The Estate of Francis Bacon. All rights re-
Getty Images; 57 Courtesy FCA Group; 58 Bonn 2016; 31 From the archive of the Negative owned by Museum of Modern Art served/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Tate,
NASA; 59, 63 Rene Burri/Magnum Pho- photographer Israel Zafrir, The Information in Warsaw, Poland; 76 Photo by Fred W. London 2016; Enwezor fig. 12 VG Bild-
tos/Agentur Focus; 60 Everett Collection/ Center for Israeli Art, The Israel Museum, McDarrah/Getty Images. Kunst, Bonn 2016; Enwezor fig. 13 VG
action press; 61 STF/AFP/Getty Images; Jerusalem; 32 Courtesy of The Ben Enwonwu Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo Centre
64 Nicolas Tikhomiroff/Magnum Pho- Foundation; 33 Photographer: Kiyoji Otsuji, Chronology of Arts and Culture Pompidou, MNAM-CCI, Dist. RMN-Grand
tos/Agentur Focus; 65 Vasiliy Malyshev/ Seiko Otsuji, Musashino Art University 1 Succession Picasso/VG Bild-Kunst, Palais/Adam Rzepka; Enwezor fig. 14 Co-
Sputnik; 66 picture alliance/dpa; 68, 76 Museum & Library, Courtesy of Tokyo Bonn 2016. 2 Haus der Bayerischen urtesy Maruki Gallery for the Hiroshima
Marc Riboud/Magnum Photos/Agentur Publishing House. From theportfolioeye- Geschichte, Augsburg (Bayer. Pressebild); Panels; Enwezor fig. 15 VG Bild-Kunst,
Focus; 69 Micha Bar Am/Magnum witness; 34 Photo: Karel Koukal, Courtesy 4 Kosice Museum, Buenos Aires, Argen- Bonn 2016. Photography The Art
Photos/Agentur Focus; 71 Prints & Photo- Ztichl klika; 35 Courtesy of the Gallizio tina; 5 Courtesy of the Andrzej Wroblewski Institute of Chicago; Enwezor fig. 16 DEVA,
graphs Division, Library of Congress, LC- Archive, Turin; 37 Architectural Press Foundation; 6 Archive Cobra Museum of Universitt Bayreuth; Enwezor fig. 17
USZ62-128465; 72 AFP/Getty Images; 73 Archive/RIBA Collections; 38 Robert Modern Art, Amstelveen; 7 1998 Center Estate of F N Souza. All rights reserved/
Wayne Miller/Magnum Photos/Agentur Rauschenberg Foundation/VG Bild-Kunst, for Creative Photography, The University VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Image Cour-
Focus; 74 Photo: Latif Al Ani, Courtesy Bonn 2016. Photograph Collection. Robert of Arizona Foundation, Photo Courtesy tesy of Aicon Gallery; Siegel fig. 2 VG
Ruya Foundation for Contemporary Culture Rauschenberg Foundation Archives, New Ad Reinhardt Foundation, New York; 8 Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016; Siegel fig. 3 VG
in Iraq; 75 L HUMANITE/KEYSTO- York. Photo: Kay Harris; 40 Osaka City VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Collection Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo Centre
NE-FRANCE/Gamma-Rapho via Getty Museum of Modern Art GA12; 41 of the Library and Documentation Center Pompidou, MNAM-CCI, Dist. RMN-Grand
Images; 77 Cecil Stoughton, White House Helen Frankenthaler Foundation Inc./ of MASP; 9 Folhas, Image Courtesy Palais/Philippe Migeat; Siegel fig. 4
Press Office (WHPO); 79 Carl T. Gossett/ VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Burt Glinn/ Arquivo Histrico Wanda Svevo/Fundao, Taro Okamoto; Siegel fig. 6 Lee Seung-
NYT/Redux/laif; 80 Bruce Davidson/ Magnum Photos/Agentur Focus; 42 VG Bienal de So Paulo; 10 D.R. MATHIAS taek; Siegel fig. 7 Gazbia Sirry; Siegel
Magnum Photos/Agentur Focus; 81 Photo: Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: Siegfried GOERITZ (1953), BAJO LICENCIA DE fig. 8 2016. Digital image, The Museum
Horst Faas, picture alliance/AP Images. Khl, Courtesy K.O. Gtz und Rissa-Stif- L.M.DANIEL GOERITZ AND GALERA of Modern Art, New York/Scala, Florence;
tung; 43 YAYOI KUSAMA, Courtesy of LA CAJA NEGRA, MADRID and FONDO Siegel fig. 9 Image: Projeto Lygia Pape.
Ota Fine Arts, Tokyo/ MATHIAS GOERITZ. CENIDIAP/INBA.; 11 Photograph by Paula Pape, 1983; Wilmes
841
fig. 1 Scherl/Sddeutsche Zeitung ciao Cultural O Mundo de Lygia Clark; VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: Patty Image Courtesy of Sharjah Art Foundation; 139 Donation Jorn, Silkeborg/VG Bridgeman Images; 200 The Associao Estate of Eva Hesse. Galerie Hauser & British Art; 336 Generali Foundation
Photo; Wilmes fig. 2 Stadtarchiv Mnchen; Giunta fig. 3 Projeto Hlio Oiticica; Wallace; 18, 19, 20, 21 The Isamu 75, 76, 259 The Estate of Anwar Jalal Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016; 140 2016 Frank Cultural O Mundo de Lygia Clark. Mario Wirth, Zurich. Photo: Museum Wiesbaden/ CollectionPermanent Loan to the
Wilmes fig. 3 bpk Bildagentur fr Ramirez fig. 1 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Noguchi Foundation and Garden Museum/ Shemza; 78 Droits rservs/Cnap/ Auerbach; 142 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn Costa Grissolli; 201 The Associao Bernd Fickert; 268 Gustav Metzger/ Museum der Moderne Salzburg; 337
Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte; Wilmes fig. Collection: Museu de Arte Contempor- VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016; 22 The Photographe: Yves Chenot; 79 2016 2016 D.R. Museo Nacional de Arte/ Cultural O Mundo de Lygia Clark. Photo: Sonke Faltien. Photo: Sonke Faltien; 269 Eames Office LLC; 340 Estate of Nam
5 Picture alliance/AP Images; Wilmes fig. nea da Universidade de So Paulo, Brazil; Isamu Noguchi Foundation and Garden The Estate of Eva Hesse. Galerie Hauser & Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes y Marcelo Ribeiro Alvares Correa; 202 Leicestershire County Council Artworks June Paik 2016 bpk/Nationalgalerie im
7 Bundesarchiv, Bild 183-1992-0410- Ramirez fig. 2 Toms Maldonado. Photo: Museum/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Wirth, Zurich; 80, 81, 82, 156 Photo Literatura, 2016; 143 The Estate of Philip The Associao Cultural O Mundo de Lygia Collection The Estate of Avinash Hamburger Bahnhof, SMB/Jens Ziehe;
546/Fotograf: Dietrich, Hans; Wilmes Jos Cristelli; Ramirez fig. 3 The Estate Photo: PD Rearick; 23 The Isamu 2016 National Gallery in Prague; 83 VG Guston. Photo: Ben Blackwell; 144 Clark. Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Chandra; 271 Fondazione Emilio e 343 Tokuma Shoten Publishing Co., Ltd;
fig. 8 Photo: Maximilian Geuter Haus of Anwar Jalal Shemza; Ramirez fig. 4 Noguchi Foundation and Garden Museum/ Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016 Fondazione Georg Baselitz, 2016. Photo: Frank Oleski, Texas, USA/The Adolpho Leirner Annabianca Vedova, Venezia. 2016 344 Estate of Stan VanDerBeek; 345
der Kunst; Wilmes fig. 9 Sddeutsche Image: Projeto Lygia Pape. Photograph by VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: Soichi Palazzo Albizzini Collezione Burri, Citt di Kln; 145 Georg Baselitz, 2016. Photo: Collection of Brazilian Constructive Art, Photo Archive - Fondazione Musei Civici di Yoko Ono; 348 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn
Zeitung Photo; Wilmes fig. 10 Succes- Paula Pape, 1983; Grenier fig. 2 Licensed Sunami; 24 K. Appel Foundation/VG Castello by SIAE 2016; 84 Lucio David Ertl; 146 Gerhard Richter 2016 museum purchase funded by the Caroline Venezia; 273 Morgan Art Foundation/ 2016 Museum Folkwang Essen - ARTO-
sion Picasso/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. under Creative Commons Attribution-Non- Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Courtesy of the Fontana by SIAE/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn (1175); 147, 148, 149, 150 Jack Wiess Law Accessions Endowment Fund/ ARS, New York/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn THEK; 349 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016.
Stadtarchiv Mnchen; Mazower fig. 1 Commercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 Internatio- Foundation and Blum & Poe, Los Angeles/ 2016 Fondazione Lucio Fontana; 86 Whitten/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Bridgeman Images; 206 The Estate of 2016. Image Courtesy of Miami University Photo: Museum Wiesbaden/Bernd Fickert.
The Estate of John Vachon; Mazower fig. 2 nal license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). https:// New York/Tokyo; 25 K. Appel Fondation Antoni Tpies Barcelona/VG Photographer: John Berens. Courtesy of Anwar Jalal Shemza. Image Courtesy of Art Museum, photograph by Scott Kissell;
Picture alliance/AP Images; Mazower fig. creativecommons.org/licenses/ Foundation/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016; Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016; 87 VG the Artist and Hauser & Wirth, New York Jhaveri Contemporary and the Estate of 275 Jack Whitten/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn Selected Documents
3 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: by-nc-nd/4.0/; Martin fig. 1 VG Bild- 26, 27 Courtesy Maruki Gallery for the Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo Museum and Zeno X Gallery, Antwerp; 152 Anwar Jalal Shemza. Vipul Sangoi; 207 2016. Courtesy of the Artist and Hauser & 1, 7, 13, 46 Archivo Lafuente; 2 Courtesy
Dirk Pauwels; Chakrabarty fig. 2 Photo Kunst, Bonn 2016. Courtesy Frank Hiroshima Panels; 28 Yosuke Yamahata; moderner Kunst Stiftung Ludwig Wien; 88, Estate of Leon Golub/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn Projeto Hlio Oiticica; 209 Aluso Wirth, New York and Zeno X Gallery, of Heide Museum of Modern Art; 3 Fondo
by Keystone/Getty Images; Chakrabarty Bowling Archive; Martin fig. 2 VG Bild- 29 Estate of HF Weaver Hawkins. 89 Niki Charitable Art Foundation/VG 2016 The Nancy Spero and Leon Golub Carvo. Photo Courtesy of Edies Pinako- Antwerp; 276 Estate of Norman W. Leopoldo Mendez. CENIDIAP/INBA; 5,
fig. 3 Photo by Keystone-France/Gam- Kunst, Bonn 2016 Clay Perry, England & Photo: AGNSW; 30 The Jess Collins Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo : Andr Foundation for the Arts. Courtesy The theke and Almeida Braga Collection; 210 Lewis; 277 2016 The Andy Warhol 29 Courtesy of Museu do Neo-Realismo
ma-Keystone via Getty Images; Nakamori Co, London; Wofford fig. 2 Gerard Seko- Trust; 31, 325 Trustees of the Paolozzi Morin; 90 Estate of Pinot Gallizio; 91, Estate of Leon Golub and Hauser & Wirth. VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: Foundation for the Visual Arts bpk/ (Neo-Realism Museum) Vila Franca de
fig. 1 Yosuke Yamahata; Nakamori fig. to Foundation/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016; Foundation, Licensed by VG Bild-Kunst, 307 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016 bpk/ Photo: Alex Delfanne; 153, 154 Estate Elizabeth Mann; 211 VG Bild-Kunst, Bayerische Staatsgemldesammlungen; Xira; 8 Lucio Fontana by SIAE/VG
3 Shomei Tomatsu. Photo: Minneapolis Wofford fig. 3 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn Bonn 2016; 32 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn CNAC-MNAM/Philippe Migeat; 92, 299, of F. N. Souza, All Rights Reserved/VG Bonn. Photo: Hans Haacke; 212 VG 279, 280, 281 Melvin Edwards/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Courtesy Archivo
Insitute of Art; Nakamori fig. 4 2016 2016. Courtesy Michael Rosenfeld Gallery 2016. Stiftung Museum Schloss Moyland/ 317 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016; 155 Estate of Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016; 283 Museum of Lafuente; 10 Photo: Reinhard Truckenmller,
Arata Isozaki; Petersen fig. 1 Lucio Fon- LLC, New York; Wofford fig. 4 VG Bild- Joseph Beuys Archiv. Photo: Walter Klein; Andr Morin; 93 Marta Minujn; 95 M.F. Husain. Image 2011 Peabody Essex Rheinisches Bildarchiv Kln: rba_c024180; Art, Ein Harod, Israel . Photo: Ran Erda; Courtesy Archiv Baumeister im Kunst-
tana by SIAE/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Kunst, Bonn 2016. AMSAC Papers at the 33 Barnett Newman Foundation/VG Paolo Mussat Sartor Fondazione Emilio Museum, Salem, MA. Photography by 213 Ellsworth Kelly. Photo: Graydon 286, 287 Shammout Family; 288 VG museum Stuttgart; 16 Graphic design: S.
Courtesy Galleria del Naviglio Milano; Moorland-Spingarn Archives, Howard Uni- Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photography e Annabianca Vedova, Venezia; 96, 199 Walter Silver; 157 On Kawara; 158 Wood, Courtesy Philadelphia Museum of Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016 Anne Fours - Marzari. Printer: Omassini & Pascon. La
Braun fig. 1 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. versity; Wofford fig. 5 AMSAC Papers at The Art Institute of Chicago; 34 Estate Courtesy Archivio Carol Rama, Torino Maria Lassnig Foundation. Photo: Wilfried Art; 214, 215 Ellsworth Kelly. Photo: Agence Luce; 289 University of Lagos; Biennale di Venezia Archivio Storico delle
Fondation Gandur pour l'Art, Geneva, the Moorland-Spingarn Archives, Howard of Norman W. Lewis. Courtesy of Michael and Galerie Isabella Bortolozzi, Berlin; 97, Petzi; 161 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Courtesy Ellsworth Kelly Studio; 216, 218, 290 Estate of Uche Okeke, Courtesy Arti Contemporanee; 18 DAG Modern
Switzerland. Photo: Sandra Pointet; Braun University; Lentini fig. 1 Clay Perry, Eng- Rosenfeld Gallery LLC, New York, NY. 203, 204, 205 The Associao Cultural Photo: AGNSW; 162 Marwan 219, 220, 230, 232 Courtesy David Asele Institute, Nimo; 296 VG archives; 19 Image Courtesy Nada
fig. 2 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: land & Co, London; Lentini fig. 2 Courtesy Photograph 2016 Museum of Fine Arts, O Mundo de Lygia Clark; 100 2016 Lee Kassab-Bachi. Photo: Jrg von Bruchhau- Zwirner, New York/London; 217 Famlia Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016 Estate of the Shabout; 20 Archive Cobra Museum of
The Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, Denis of Moderna galerija (MG+MSUM), Museum Boston; 35 Robert Rauschenberg Bontecou. Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, sen; 163 Luis Felipe No; 164 VG Cordeiro. Collection: Museu de Arte Artist licensed by Aboriginal Artists Modern Art, Amstelveen; 24 Courtesy
Farley; Braun fig. 3 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn of Modern Art and Museum of Contempo- Foundation/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016; 38 Texas, USA/Museum purchase funded by Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: Javier Contempornea da Universidade de So Agency Ltd; 297 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn of Marjan Tajeddini; 26 Tomas Santa
2016; Hassan fig. 3 VG Bild-Kunst, rary Art Metelkova, Ljubljana; Lentini fig. VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: Kevin D. and J. de Menil/Bridgeman Images; 101 Hinojosa; 167, 169 Gerard Sekoto Paulo, Brazil; 221, 332 VG Bild-Kunst, 2016. Deutsche Bank Collection; 298 Rosa, image Courtesy of Arquivo Histrico
Bonn 2016; Kapur fig. 1 The John Latham 3 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016; Bar Or Todora; 39 The Henry Moore The John Latham Foundation, Courtesy Foundation/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016; Bonn 2016. Courtesy of Museum of VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: Wilfried Wanda Svevo/Fundao, Bienal de So
Foundation; Courtesy Lisson Gallery; fig. 1 Shlomo Bezem ; Bar Or fig. 2 Foundation. All Rights Reserved/VG Lisson Gallery Tate, London 2016; 103 168 Jewad Selim Estate. Image Courtesy Contemporary Art Zagreb; 222 Courtesy Petzi; 300 Gyula Kosice. Museum of Paulo; 27 Image Courtesy of Harumi
Kapur fig. 2 Murakami Makiko and the VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016; Bar Or fig. 3 Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016; 42, 282, 285 Tel The Estate of Marcos Grigorian; 104 of Barjeel Art Foundation, Sharjah; 170 of Museum of Contemporary Art Zagreb; Fine Arts, Houston, Texas, USA/Museum Nishizawa; 30 Courtesy of Marion Gillet
former members of Gutai Art Association. Roni Ben Dor; Gupta fig. 1 Estate of M.F. Aviv Museum of Art. Photo: Elad Sarig; 44 Estate of Jir Kolr. Photo: Neues Museum Courtesy City of Zagreb, Studio Koaric. 224 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: purchase funded by the Caroline Wiess Guigon; 31 Courtesy of Studio Bibliogra-
Courtesy of Fergus McCaffrey; Kapur fig. Husain; Gupta fig. 2 Gazbia Sirry; Gupta Yuri Zlotnikov. The State Tretyakov in Nrnberg/New Museum in Nuremberg; Courtesy of Museum of Contemporary Art Roberto Marossi; 226 Projeto Hlio Law Accessions Endowment Fund/ fico Marini; 33 Courtesy Famlia Cordeiro;
3 Photo: Ashish Dhir, KNMA Photogra- fig. 3 Jack Whitten/VG Bild-Kunst, Gallery, Moscow; 45, 46 Kim Kulim; 47 105 Lee Seung-taek; 106 Yayoi Zagreb; 171, 256, 293 DEVA, Universitt Oiticica. Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Bridgeman Images; 301 On Kawara . 35 Courtesy of The Marg Foundation; 36
phy; Kapur fig. 4 Courtesy Projeto Hlio Bonn 2016; Okeke-Agulu fig. 2 Estate Mira Schendel Estate; 48 Pol- Kusama. Photo: Rich Sanders, Des Moines, Bayreuth; 172 The State Tretyakov Gallery, Texas, USA. The Adolpho Leirner Photo: Peter Cox, Eindhoven, The Courtesy of Sylvie Younan; 37, 38, 42
Oiticica; Kapur fig. 5 Courtesy Estate of of Uche Okeke ; Okeke-Agulu fig. 3 VG lock-Krasner Foundation/VG Bild-Kunst, Iowa; 107 Yayoi Kusama; 108 Gustav Moscow; 173, 175 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn Collection of Brazilian Constructive Art, Netherlands; 302 Direo Geral do Courtesy of Osaka City Museum of Modern
K.G. Subramanyan, Jyoti Bhatt, and Asia Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016; Okeke-Agulu fig. Bonn 2016 2016. Digital image, The Metzger; 109 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. The State Tretyakov Gallery, museum purchase funded by the Caroline Patrimnio Cultural; 303 The Estate of Art GA12; 40 Courtesy ofMeem Gallery
Art Archive; Shiff fig. 1 Lucio Fontana by 4 Demas Nwoko; Denegri fig. 1 VG Museum of Modern Art, New York/Scala, 2016. Photo: Genevieve Hanson; 110 Moscow; 174, 253 The State Russian Wiess Law Endowment Fund/Bridgeman Jiro Takamatsu, Tokyo, Yumiko Chiba 41 documenta Archiv; 44 Modern Art
SIAE/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: Agostino Florence; 49 Pollock-Krasner Projeto Hlio Oiticica Tate, London Museum 2016; 176 VG Bild-Kunst, Images; 227, 228 Rasheed Araeen. Associates, Tokyo, Stephen. Photography: Iraq Archive, Item #9; 47 Image Courtesy
J & M Zweerts; Shiff fig. 2 Barnett Osio, Milano Fondazione Piero Manzoni, Foundation/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016 2016; 112, 257, 278 2016. Digital image, Bonn 2016 Estate of John T. Biggers. Image Courtesy of Aicon Gallery; 229 Maseru Yanagiba; 304 Robert Fereshteh Daftari and Leila Heller Gallery;
Newman Foundation/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn Milano; Grasskamp fig. 1 VG Bild-Kunst, Tate, London 2016; 50 The Willem de The Museum of Modern Art, New York/ Courtesy of Michael Rosenfeld Gallery Courtesy of Ida Rodrguez Prampolini and Rauschenberg Foundation/VG Bild-Kunst, 48 Donation Jorn, Silkeborg/VG
2016; Shiff fig. 3 Shiraga Fujiko and the Bonn 2016; Grasskamp fig. 2 John-Paul Kooning Foundation, New York/VG Scala, Florence; 113 David Medalla. LLC, New York, NY; 177 VG Bild-Kunst, Daniel Goeritz Rodrguez Armando Bonn 2016. Photo: Rheinisches Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Image Courtesy
former members of Gutai Art Association. Stonard; Lee Turner fig. 1 Photo by Alfred Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016 bpk/The Archivo Fotogrfico Museo Nacional Bonn 2016 bpk/Museum der bildenden Salas Portugal Foundation; 235 Courtesy Bildarchiv Kln: rba_c000182; 305 The Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library,
Courtesy of Fergus McCaffrey; Smith fig. 2 Eisenstaedt/Pix Inc./The LIFE Picture Metropolitan Museum of Art; 51, 52 Centro de Arte Reina Sofa; 115 The Knste, Leipzig/Ursula Gerstenberger; of the Artist and CRG gallery; 236, 338 Estate of Sigmar Polke, Cologne/VG Columbia University; 51 Courtesy Allan
Sidney Nolan Trust National Gallery of Collection/Getty Images; Lee Turner fig. 2 Courtesy of the Estate of Ernest Mancoba Ossorio Foundation. Courtesy of the 178 Courtesy Galeria Stefan Szydlowski; Kanayama Akira and Tanaka Atsuko Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: Wolfgang Kaprow Estate and Hauser & Wirth; 53, 54
Australia, Canberra; Heibel fig. 1 Photo by Alfred Eisenstaedt/Pix Inc./The and Galerie Mikael Andersen; 53 Philadelphia Museum of Art; 116 Archivio 179 Estate of Beauford Delaney. Association; 237 Motonaga Archive Morell; 306 2016 The Andy Warhol Samsung Museum of Art, Leeum Library:
Elisabeth Nay-Scheibler, Kln/VG Bild- LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images; Lee Pollock-Krasner Foundation/VG Antonio Berni; 117 Succession Picasso/ Courtesy of the Philadelphia Museum of Research Institution Ltd.; 238, 239 Foundation for the Visual Arts. Photo: Axel donated by Yi Ku-yol; 57 Courtesy MSU
Kunst, Bonn 2016; Heibel fig. 2 VG Bild- Turner fig. 3 Fundacin Augusto y Len Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Digital Image VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016 bpk/RMN Art; 180 Estate of Alice Neel. Photo: Dieter Roth Estate, Courtesy Hauser & Schneider, Frankfurt am Main; 308 VG Zagreb; 61 Courtesy Luis Felipe No pa-
Kunst, Bonn 2016. bpk Bildagentur fr Ferrari. Arte y Acervo, Buenos Aires. Whitney Museum, N.Y.; 55 2016 Leon - Grand Palais/Jean-Gilles Berizzi; 118 Ethan Palmer; 181 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn Wirth. Photo: Wilfried Petzi; 240 Courtesy Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: David Rato; pers, Buenos Aires; 62 Courtesy Alexandre
Kunst, Kultur und Geschichte; Wilson fig. 2 Kossoff; 56 2016 Frank Auerbach. VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photography 2016 Archivio Fotografico e Mediateca and copyright Projeto Lygia Pape. Photo 310, 311, 312, 313, 314 Trustees of the Pomar; 63 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016.
VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016; Wilson fig. 3 Plates Image reproduced with the permission of Courtesy of the Herbert F. Johnson Mart; 182 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016 Paula Pape; 241 Photo: Anthony Nsofor. Paolozzi Foundation, Licensed by VG Courtesy of Georg Baselitz; 64 The
VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016 Piotr 1, 73 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016 the Museum of Hartlepool, copyright Museum of Art, Cornell University; 119, Tate, London 2016; 183 VG Bild-Kunst, Courtesy Chika Okeke-Agulu; 242 Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016 Tate, London Estate of Emmett Williams; 65 Courtesy
Stanisawski; Bhabha fig. 1 Marc Riboud/ Muse d'Art Moderne/Roger-Viollet; 2 Hartlepool Borough Council; 57 Helen 244, 254 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Bonn 2016 Fundao Jlio Pomar; 184 Estate of Uche Okeke, Courtesy Asele 2016; 315 Romare Bearden Foundation/ Gulammohammed Sheikh and Asia Art
Magnum Photos/Agentur Focus; Anreus The Estate of Francis Bacon. All Rights Frankenthaler Foundation Inc./VG DEVA, Universitt Bayreuth; 120 The VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Antnio Institute, Nimo. Photo: Franko Khoury; 243 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016; 316 Romare Archive; 67 Gerhard Richter Archive; 69
fig. 1 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: Reserved/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016; 58 VG Estate of Francis Bacon. All Rights Jorge Silva/Atelier-Museu Jlio Pomar Estate of F. N. Souza, All Rights Bearden Foundation/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Courtesy
Agustin Estrada; Anreus fig. 2 Archivio Photo: Peter Cox, Eindhoven, The Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016 bpk/Nationalga- Reserved/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016; 121, 2016; 185 Andrew Wyeth/VG Reserved/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. 2016. Collection of Van Every/Smith George Maciunas Foundation Inc., New
Antonio Berni; Degot fig.1 The State Netherlands; 3 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn lerie, SMB/Jrg P. Anders; 59 Estate of 122, 123, 124 Succession Alberto Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Courtesy of the Image Courtesy of Aicon Gallery; 246 Galleries at Davidson College; 318, 319, York; 70 Care of Yirrkala elders; 72
Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow; Degot fig. 2 2016. Photo: David Heald; 4 VG Philip Guston, Courtesy Hauser & Wirth. Giacometti (Fondation Alberto et Annette Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Susanne Wenger Foundation, Krems an 320 Dieter Roth Foundation and Dieter VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Courtesy the
The State Russian Museum 2016. Photo: Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: Gary Gold; Photo: Genevieve Hanson; 60, 61 Giacometti + ADAGP) Paris; 125 The Philadelphia. Joseph E. Temple Fund; 186 der Donau; 247 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn Roth Estate, Courtesy Hauser & Wirth; 321 Artist and PPOW; 73 Courtesy Lubna
Mark Vasilevich Skoromorokh; Degot fig. 3 5, 6, 7, 13, 70, 77, 85, 98, 99, 133, 134, Elisabeth Nay-Sheibler, Kln/VG Haenggi Foundation Inc; 126, 127, 141, VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: 2016. The Africa Center, formerly the VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: Mario Hammad; 74 Courtesy Elke Neumann; 75
The State Russian Museum 2016. Photo: 151, 165, 208, 225, 260, 270, 272, 274, Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: Lothar 191 Courtesy Mathaf: Arab Museum of Gerardo Cordero; 190 Collection of Museum for African Art; 248, 309 Gastinger, Photographics, Munich; 322 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Courtesy
Mark Vasilevich Skoromorokh; Degot fig. 4 328, 331, 339, 341, 346, 351 VG Schnepf, Kln; 62, 102 The John Modern Art, Doha; 128, 187, 250 Image National Gallery Singapore; 192 Egonu Estate c/o Grosvenor Gallery, Fundacin Augusto y Len Ferrari. Arte y of Galerie Emanuel Layr, Vienna; 76 Cour-
The State Russian Museum 2016. Photo: Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016; 8, 160 VG Latham Foundation, Courtesy Lisson Courtesy of Barjeel Art Foundation, Fundacin Gego. Museum of Fine Arts, London; 249 Gazbia Sirry; 251 Jewad Acervo, Buenos Aires; 323 Lynn tesy England & Co.
Mark Vasilevich Skoromorokh; Lenssen fig. Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: Fabrice Gallery. Photography: Ken Adlard; 63 Sharjah; 129 Oliver Enwonwu/The Ben Houston, Texas, USA. Fundacion Gego Selim Estate. Courtesy Mathaf: Arab Hershman Leeson. Photo: Dejan Saric;
2 Courtesy Rafa Nasiri Studio; Lenssen Gousset; 9, 10, 43 By Courtesy of Andrzej Estate of Joan Mitchell. Photo: Jos Enwonwu Foundation; 130 The Willem Collection at the Museum of Fine Arts, Museum of Modern Art, Doha; 255 VG 324 Lynn Hershman Leeson. Photo: Despite thorough research, it was not
fig. 3 The State Museum of Oriental Art Wrblewski Foundation; 11 Gerhard Manuel Costa Alves; 64 Estate of Joan de Kooning Foundation, New York/VG Houston/Bridgeman Images; 193 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. By Courtesy of the Wilfried Petzi; 326 Trustees of the always possible to determine the identity of
(Moscow); Drosos & Golan Fig. 1 The Richter 2016 (1175). Stdtische Galerie Mitchell; 65, 114 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016; 131 The Willem Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016 Schweizerisches Fondazine Torino Musei. All Rights Paolozzi Foundation, Licensed by VG the copyright holders for all images. We
State Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow; Drosos & Wolfsburg; 12 Gerhard Richter 2016 2016. Photo: Axel Schneider, Frankfurt am de Kooning Foundation, New York/VG Institut fr Kunstwissenschaft Zrich, Lutz Reserved; 258 Siah Armajani/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: Jos ask copyright holders with justified claims
Golan Fig. 2 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. (1175) bpk/Bayerische Staatsgemldes- Main; 66 Siah Armajani/VG Bild-Kunst, Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: Tim Hartmann; 194 Carmen Herrera, Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016 bpk/The Manuel Costa Alves; 327 R. Hamilton. to contact Haus der Kunst.
Photo: Zdenek Sodoma; Drosos & Golan ammlungen, Galerie-Verein Mnchen e.V; Bonn 2016; 67, 159 Maria Lassnig Nighswander/Imaging4Art.com; 132 VG Courtesy Lisson Gallery. Photography: Metropolitan Museum of Art; 261 All Rights Reserved/VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn
Fig. 3 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. The 14, 15 All Rights Reserved. Maryland Foundation; 68 Estate of Beauford Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Fondation Beyeler, Adam Reich; 195 Gyula Kosice; 196 Archives Ramss Younan, Paris, France 2016; 329 VG Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016.
State Russian Museum 2016; Erber fig. Collage Institute of Art/VG Bild-Kunst, Delaney, Courtesy of Michael Rosenfeld Riehen/Basel, Beyeler Collection. Photo: Courtesy of Barford Sculptures Limited/ Nabil Boutros; 262 bpk/The Metropoli- Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Texas,
1 Image: Projeto Lygia Pape; Erber fig. Bonn 2016; 16 The Isamu Noguchi Gallery LLC, New York, NY; 69 Mr. Hisao Peter Schibli, Basel; 135 VG Bild-Kunst, Gagogian Gallery. Photo: Mike Bruce; 197 tan Museum of Art; 264, 265 VG USA. Funds provided by the Caroline
2 Reproduced with the permission of Ms. Foundation and Garden Museum/VG Shiraga; 71 Archives Ramss Younan, Bonn 2016. Photography by Fenessa Toms Maldonado; 198 Museum of Fine Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Photo: Charlie Wiess Law Endowment Fund/Bridgeman
Sumiko Hashimoto; Erber fig. 3 Ferreira Bild-Kunst, Bonn 2016. Digital Image Paris, France. Photo Museum moderner Adikoesoemo; 136 Estate of Magda Arts, Houston, Texas, USA/Museum Littlewood; 266 2016 The Estate of Eva Images; 330 Almir Mavignier; 333
Gullar; Giunta fig. 1 2016 Galera Jorge Whitney Museum, N.Y.; 17 The Isamu Kunst Stiftung Ludwig Wien; 72 Estate Cordell McHale; 137 Courtesy of Michael purchase funded by the Caroline Wiess Hesse. Galerie Hauser & Wirth, Zurich. Yuri Zlotnikov; 334 Edward Ruscha.
Mara-La Ruche; Giunta fig. 2 The Asso- Noguchi Foundation and Garden Museum/ of Jeram Patel; 74 Rasheed Araeen. Rosenfeld Gallery LLC, New York, NY; 138, Law Accessions Endowment Fund/ Photo: Wilfried Petzi; 267 2016 The Photo: Paul Hester; 335 Yale Center for
842 843
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